188. Variations in the Process of Bread _Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value

so in chemical composition, and the yeast plant acts upon all the

compounds of flour, it naturally follows that bread making is not a

simple but a complex operation, resulting in a number of intricate

chemical reactions, which it is necessary to control and many of which

are only imperfectly understood. Bread of the best physical quality and

commercial value is made of flour from fully matured, hard wheats,

containing a low per cent of acid, no foreign ferment materials or their

products, and at least 12-1/2 per cent of proteids, of which the larger

portion is in the form of gliadin. It is believed that a better quality

of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or

modifications in the process of bread making. It cannot be expected that

the same process will give the best results alike with all types and

kinds of flour. The kind of fermentation process that will produce the

best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by

experimentation. Poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on

the part of the bread maker, and to poor yeast, as it is to poor quality

of flour. Frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to

other factors. Lack of control of the fermentation process, and the

consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the

activity of the alcoholic ferments, is a frequent cause of poor bread.

189. Digestibility of Bread.--Extensive experiments have been made by

the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of

Agriculture, at the Minnesota and Maine Experiment Stations, to

determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread. Different

kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three

flours: graham, entire wheat, and standard patent. The flours were made

into bread, and the bread fed to workingmen, and its digestibility

determined. The experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an

exceedingly digestible food, nearly 98 per cent of the starch or

carbohydrate nutrients and about 88 per cent of the gluten or proteid

constituents being assimilated by the body. In the case of the graham

and entire wheat flours, although they contained a larger total amount

of protein, the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed

by the body as were those of the white flour. The body secured a larger

amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour,

the digestibility of the three types being as follows: standard patent

flour, protein 88.6 per cent and carbohydrates 97.7 per cent; entire

wheat flour, protein 82 percent and carbohydrates 93.5 per cent; graham

flour, protein 74.9 per cent and carbohydrates 89.2 per cent. The low

digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is

supposed to be due to the coarser granulation; the proteins, being

embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue, escape the action of the

digestive fluids. Microscopic examination of the feces showed that often

entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and

consequently had failed to undergo digestion.[62], [64], [67], [86]

190. Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary.--Entire wheat and

graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons, as they

are often valuable because of their physiological action, the branny

particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging

peristaltic action. In the diet of the overfed, they are valuable for

the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain.

Also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise. For

the laboring man, where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of

available nutrients, bread from white flour should be supplied; in the

dietary of the sedentary, graham and entire wheat flours can, if found

beneficial, be made to form an essential part. The kind of bread that it

is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon

experience.

"When we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white

and whole-meal bread, we are on ground that has been the scene of

many a controversy. It is often contended that whole-meal is

preferable to white bread, because it is richer in proteid and

mineral matter, and so makes a better balanced diet. But our

examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has

shown that as regards proteid at least, this is not always true,

and even were it the case, the lesser absorption of whole-meal

bread, which we have seen to occur, would tend to annul the

advantage.... On the whole, we may fairly regard the vexed question

of whole-meal _versus_ white bread as finally settled and settled

in favor of the latter."[28]

"The higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has

frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more

nutritious than the finer. We have already seen that the more

branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage

of mineral matter. And, further, it is in the bran that the largest

proportion of fatty matter--the non-nitrogenous substance of higher

respiratory capacity which the wheat contains--is found. It is,

however, we think, very questionable whether upon such data alone

a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread

made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same

grain. Again, it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when

admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in

which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably

increase the peristaltic action, and hence the alimentary canal is

cleared much more rapidly of its contents. It is also well known

that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread,

and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently

soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality (navvies, for

example) it is distinctly stated that their preference for the

whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through

them too rapidly; consequently, before their systems have extracted

from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them.... In

fact, all experience tends to show that the state as well as the

chemical composition of our food must be considered; in other

words, that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not

less important qualities than its ultimate composition.

"But to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is, as

has generally been assumed, weight for weight more nutritious than

ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical

text-book dicta, not only entirely unsupported by experience, but

inconsistent with it. In fact, it is just the poorer fed and the

harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather

than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared, and it is the

overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread.

Lastly, if the whole grain were finely ground, it is by no means

certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters

would be higher than in ordinary bread flour, and it is quite a

question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be

injurious."--LAWES AND GILBERT.[68]

* * * * *

"According to the chemical analysis of graham, entire wheat, and

standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife

spring wheat, the graham flour contained the highest and the

patent flour the lowest percentage of total protein. But according

to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the

proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy

in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or

the graham flour. The lower digestibility of the protein of the

latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable

portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles

(bran), and so resists the action of the digestive juices and

escapes digestion. Thus while there actually may be more protein in

a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same

weight of patent flour from the same wheat, the body obtains less

of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from

the fine, because, although the including of the bran and germ

increases the percentage of protein, it decreases its

digestibility. By digestibility is meant the difference between the

amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted

in the feces.

"The digestibility of first and second patent flours was not

appreciably different from that of standard patent flour. The

degree of digestibility of all these flours is high, due largely to

their mechanical condition; that is, to the fact that they are

finely ground."--SNYDER.[62]

For a more extended discussion of the subject, the student is referred

to Bulletins 67, 101, and 126, Office of Experiment Stations, United

States Department of Agriculture.

191. Mineral Content of White Bread.--Average flour contains from 0.4

to 0.5 of 1 per cent of ash or mineral matter, the larger portion being

lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium. It is argued by some that

graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their

larger mineral content and their greater richness in phosphates. In a

mixed dietary, however, in which bread forms an essential part, there is

always an excess of phosphates, and there is nothing to be gained by

increasing the amount, as it only requires additional work of the

kidneys for its removal. Few experiments have been made to determine the

phosphorus requirements of the human body, but these indicate that it is

unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet. It is

estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to

meet all of the needs of the body, and in an average mixed ration there

are present from three to five grams and more. A large portion of the

phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations,

as lecithin and nucleated proteids, which are the most available forms,

and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates.

In the case of graham and entire wheat flours, a proportionally smaller

amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the

finer grades of flour.

192. Comparative Digestibility of New and Old Bread.--With healthy

persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of

digestibility of old and new bread; one appears to be as thoroughly

absorbed as the other. In the case of some individuals with impaired

digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which

the two kinds of bread are digested, but this is due mainly to

individuality and does not apply generally. The change which bread

undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture

and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the

continued ferment action.

193. Different Kinds of Bread.--According to variations in method of

preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the

"flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread,

salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no

essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the

residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits,

wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made principally from

flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but

little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its

various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive

value.

194. Toast.--When bread is toasted there is no change in the

percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in

solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of

the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.[5]

Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to

slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily

but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion

experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and

other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting brings about ease of

digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a

sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not

been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of

digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the

digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do

not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects

itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the

ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have

been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.

CHAPTER XII

BAKING POWDERS

195. General Composition.--All baking powders contain at least two

materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition,

the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas. The

material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium

bicarbonate, NaHCO_{3}, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus."

Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used

at the present time. The acid constituent may be one of several

materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium

phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The

various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent,

as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them

liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ

widely in nature and amount[69].

Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact

with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry

with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is

liberated expands the dough. The action is similar to that of yeast

except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly

and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there

is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the

powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important

and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--INGREDIENTS OF A BAKING POWDER.

1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.]

196. Cream of Tartar Powders.--The acid ingredient of the cream of

tartar powders is tartaric acid, H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Cream of tartar

is potassium acid tartrate, KHC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}; it contains one atom of

replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is

prepared from crude argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made.

The residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate,

NaKC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}, commonly known as Rochelle salt. This is the active

ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken

into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A

loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains

about 160 grains of Rochelle salt, which is 45 grains more than is found

in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is

small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a

cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place

according to the following equation:

188 84 210 44 18

HKH_{4}C_{4}O_{6} + NaHCO_{3} = KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O.

The crystallized Rochelle salt contains four molecules of water, so

that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much

weight of material (Rochelle salt) left in the food as there was of the

original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium

acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:

150 168 230 88

H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O{6} + 2NaHCO_{3} = Na_{2}C_{2}H_{4}O_{6}.2 H_{2}O + 2CO_{2}.

But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has

physiological properties very similar to Rochelle salt. Tartaric acid is

seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar.

It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required,

and it is more rapid in action.

197. Phosphate Baking Powders.--Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric

acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate,

CaH_{4}(PO-{4})_{2}. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on

ground bone (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 H_{2}SO_{4} = CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} +

2 CaSO_{4}), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate

formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this

inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as

follows:

234 168 136

CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 2 NaHCO_{3} = CaHPO_{4}

88 36 142

+ 2 CO_{2} + 2 H_{2}O + Na_{2}HPO_{4}.

Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is

"mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by

the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and

calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which

have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue

does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are

present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts--nearly

tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less

objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the

phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.

198. Alum Baking Powders.--Sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of

these powders. The alums are double sulphates of aluminium and an

alkali metal, and have the general formula _x_Al(SO_{4})_{2} in which

_x_ may be K, Na, or NH_{4}, producing respectively a potash, soda, or

ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums

to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:

475 504 157

2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + 6 NaHCO_{3} = Al_{2}(OH)_{6}

426 132 264

+ 3 Na_{2}SO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} + 6 CO_{2}.

If it is a potash or soda alum, simply substitute K or Na for NH_{4}

throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders

as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form,

since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect

on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and potassium are also

objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid

gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering

digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders

contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:

475 234 336

2 NH_{4}Al(SO_{4})_{2} + CaH_{4}(PO_{4})_{2} + 4 NaHCO_{3}

245 136 132

= Al_{2}(PO_{4})_{2} + CaSO_{4} + (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}

284 176 72

+ 2 Na_{2}SO_{4} + 4 CO_{2} + 4 H_{2}O.

These are probably less injurious than the straight alum powders,

although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.

199. Inspection of Baking Powders.--Many of the states have enacted

laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these

laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact

that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder

packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.

200. Fillers.--All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is

necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used.

The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found

in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The

amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should

give off at least 1/8 of its weight.

201. Home-made Baking Powders.--Baking powders can be made at home for

about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal

satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of

tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a

quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be

thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass

or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough

mixing is essential to good results. Cream of tartar is often

adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To

insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be

kept in glass or tin cans, never in paper.

CHAPTER XIII

VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS

202. Vinegar.--Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by

fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of

other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according

to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise

designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made

from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be

manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as molasses,

glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical

changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1)

inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into

alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical

changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments

change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic

ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and

finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the

alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these

different steps are:

sucrose dextrose levulose

(1) C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6};

dextrose alcohol

(2) C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} = 2 C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 CO_{2};

alcohol acid

(3) C_{2}H_{5}OH + 2 O = HC_{2}H_{3}O_{2} + H_{2}O.

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--ACETIC ACID FERMENTS. (After KÖNIG.)]

The acetic acid organism, _Mycoderma aceti_, can work only in the

presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in

what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When

vinegar is made in quantity, the process is hastened by allowing the

alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings

containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is

admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made

by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the

fermentation process is completed, a long time is required--the length

of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting

fermentation.

In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a

wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation,

without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of

spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general

use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes

spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation

takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains,

which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced

very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider

vinegar.

Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a

heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth,

commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar

from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and

stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is

excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of

vinegar cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the

fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced

prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar

becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the

acetic fermentation has not been completed.

The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less

than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of

apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics,

as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special

laws regarding the sale of vinegar.

203. Adulteration of Vinegar.--Vinegar is frequently adulterated by

the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to

resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by

the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic

acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost

entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of

solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by

evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the

weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials

are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a

vinegar contains only a trace of ash[18]. Attempts have also been made

to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give

the colored spirit vinegar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white

wine, glucose, and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and

unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to

resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the

pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is

highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless

possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as

vinegar.

Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving

flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the

preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as

it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking

operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid

solution is required for various cleaning purposes.

Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel,

because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the

ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs,

porcelain dishes, glassware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for

storing vinegar.

204. Characteristics of Spices.[70]--Spices are aromatic vegetable

substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or

volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They

are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter

and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all

plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used

for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food.

Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties.

Occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural

flavors of foods, and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor

quality. For the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to

Winton, "Microscopy of Vegetable Foods," and Leach, "Food Inspection and

Analysis."

205. Pepper.--Black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant

(_Piper nigrum_), a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the East and

West Indies, the greatest production being in Sumatra. For the black

pepper, the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe; for the white

pepper, it is allowed to mature. White pepper has the black pericarp or

hull removed. Pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid, piperine, and

to a volatile oil. In the black pepper berries there is present ash to

the extent of about 4.5 per cent, it ought not to be above 6.5 per cent;

ether extract, including piperine and resin, not less than 6.5 per cent;

crude fiber not more than 16 per cent; also some starch and nitrogenous

material. The white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the

black pepper. Ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated; common

adulterants being: cracker crumbs, roasted nut shells and fruit stones,

charcoal, corn meal, pepper hulls, mustard hulls, and buckwheat

middlings. The pepper berries wrinkle in drying, and this makes it

difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them. An

excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration.

Adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope.

The United States standard for pepper is: not more than 7 per cent total

ash, 15 per cent fiber, and not less than 25 per cent starch and 6 per

cent non-volatile ether extract.[71]

206. Cayenne.--Cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant,

_capsicum_, of which there are several varieties,--the small-fruited

kind, used to make cayenne or red pepper; and the tabasco sort, forming

the basis of tabasco sauce. It is grown mainly in the tropics, and was

used there as a condiment before the landing of Columbus, who took

specimens back to Europe. Cayenne pepper contains 25 per cent of oil,

about 7 per cent of ash, and a liberal amount of starch. The adulterants

are usually of a starchy nature, as rice or corn meal, and the product

is often colored with some red dye.

207. Mustard.--Mustard is the seed of the mustard plant, and is most

often found in commerce in the ground form. The black or brown mustard

has a very small seed and the most aroma. White mustard is much larger

and is frequently used unground. For the ground mustard, only the

interior of the seed is used, the husk being removed in the bolting.

Mustard contains a large amount of oil, part of which is usually

expressed before grinding, and this is the form in which spice grinders

buy it. In mustard flour there is: ash from 4 to 6 per cent, volatile

oil from 0.5 to 2 per cent, fixed oil from 15 to 25 per cent, crude

fiber from 2 to 5 per cent, albuminoids from 35 to 45 per cent, and a

little starch. The principal adulterants are wheat, corn, and rice

flour. When these are used, the product is frequently colored with

turmeric, a harmless vegetable coloring material.

208. Ginger.--Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant

(_Zingiber officinale_), native in tropical Asia, chiefly India. It is

cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. When unground it usually

occurs in two forms: dried with the epidermis, or with the epidermis

removed, when it is called scraped ginger. Very frequently a coating of

chalk is given, as a protection against the drug store beetle. Jamaica

ginger is the best and most expensive. Cochin, scraped, African, and

Calcutta ginger range in price in the order given. Ginger contains from

3.6 to 7.5 per cent of ash, from 1.5 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, and

from 3 to 5.5 per cent of fixed oil. There is a large amount of starch.

The chief adulterants are rice, wheat, and potato starch, mustard hulls,

exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories, sawdust and

ground peanut-shells, and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the

product. The United States standard for ginger is not more than 42 per

cent starch, 8 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent total ash.[71]

209. Cinnamon and Cassia.--The bark of several species of plants

growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices. True cinnamon is a

native of Ceylon, while the cassias are from Bengal and China. In this

country there is more cassia used than cinnamon--cinnamon being rarely

found except in drug stores. Cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon

bark. The ground spice contains about 1.5 per cent volatile oil and the

same amount of fixed oil, 4 per cent of ash, and some fiber, nitrogenous

matter, and starch. Cereals, cedar sawdust, ground nutshells, oil meal,

and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants.

210. Cloves.--Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that

grows in the tropics. These are picked by hand and dried in the sun. In

the order of value, Penang, Sumatra, Amboyna, and Zanzibar furnish the

chief varieties. Cloves rarely contain more than 8 per cent ash, or less

than 10 per cent volatile oil and 4 per cent fixed oil, and 16 to 20 per

cent of tannin-yielding bodies. No starch is present. The chief

adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves, allspice, and ground

nutshells. Clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a

microscopical examination, since they contain many thick-walled cells

and much fibrous tissue.

211. Allspice.--Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of an evergreen

tree common in the West Indies. It is a small, dry, globular berry,

two-celled, each cell having a single seed. Allspice contains about 2.5

per cent volatile oil, 4 per cent fixed oil, and 4.5 per cent ash.

Because of its cheapness, it is not generally adulterated, cereal

starches being the most common adulterants.

212. Nutmeg.--Nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree

growing in the East Indies. The fruit resembles a small pear. A fleshy

mantle of crimson color, which is mace, envelopes the seed. Nutmeg

contains about 2.2 per cent ash, 2.5 to 5 per cent volatile oil, and 25

to 35 per cent fixed oil. Mace has practically the same composition.

Extensive adulteration is seldom practiced. The white coating on the

surface of the nutmeg is lime, used to prevent sprouting of the germ.

CHAPTER XIV

TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEA LEAF. (After

WINTON.)]

213. Tea is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree

cultivated chiefly in China and Japan. There are two varieties of

plants. The Assamese, which requires a very moist, hot climate, yields

in India and Ceylon about 400 pounds per acre, and may produce as high

as 1000 pounds. From this plant a number of flushes or pickings are

secured in a year. The Chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a

smaller, tougher, and darker leaf, which is more delicate than that of

the Assamese and is usually made into green tea. The Chinese tea plant

yields only four or five flushes a year. About 40 per cent of the tea

used in this country comes from Japan and 50 per cent from China. The

tea industry of India and Ceylon has developed rapidly in late years,

and is now second only to that of China. Tea has been raised upon a

small scale in the United States. The quality or grade of the tea

depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing.

214. Composition of Tea.--Black and green teas are produced from the

same species of plant, but owe their difference in color as well as

flavor and odor to methods of preparation. The same plant may yield

several grades of both green and black tea. To produce black tea, the

leaves are bruised to liberate the juices, allowed to ferment a short

time, which develops the color, and then dried.[73] For green tea the

fresh leaves are roasted or steamed, then rolled and dried as quickly as

possible to prevent fermentation. The smaller leaves and the first

picking produce the finest quality of tea. The characteristic flavor and

odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil, although the odor is

sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange

flowers, jessamine, or the fragrant olive. There are also present in tea

an alkaloid, theine, which gives the peculiar physiological properties,

and tannin, upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion.

The composition of tea is as follows:

===========================================

|ORIGINAL| GREEN | BLACK

| TEA | TEA | TEA

-------------------------------------------

Tannin, per cent | 12.91 | 10.64 | 4.89

Theine, per cent | 3.30 | 3.20 | 3.30

Ash, per cent | 4.97 | 4.92 | 4.93

Fiber, per cent | 10.44 | 10.06 | 10.07

Protein, per cent | 37.33 | 37.43 | 38.90

(all insoluble) | | |

===========================================

It will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black

tea; during the fermentation which the black tea undergoes, some of the

tannin is decomposed. There is a large amount of protein in tea, but it

is of no food value, because of its insolubility. About half of the ash

is soluble. The tannin is readily soluble, and for this reason green tea

especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled.

Tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion

of the protein compounds, because it coagulates the albumin and peptones

after they have become soluble, and thus makes additional work for the

digestive organs.

215. Judging Teas.--Teas are judged according to: (1) the tea as it

appears prepared for market, (2) the infusion, and (3) the out-turn

after infusion. The color should be uniform; if a black tea, it should

be grayish black, not a dead black. The leaves should be uniform in size

or grade. The quality and grade are dependent upon flavor, and, with the

strength of the infusion, are determined by tasting. This work is

rapidly done by the trained tea taster. The out-turn should be of one

color; no bright green leaves should be present; evenness of make is

judged by the out-turn. The flavor of a tea is largely a matter of

personal judgment, but from a physiological point of view black teas are

given the preference.

216. Adulteration of Tea.--A few years ago tea was quite extensively

adulterated, but the strict regulation of the government regarding

imported tea has greatly lessened adulteration. The most common form

was the use of spent leaves, _i.e._ leaves which had been infused.

Leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used,

as well as large quantities of tea stems. Facing or coloring is also an

adulteration, since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter

appearance. "Facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture

or which from age are inferior, with a mixture containing Prussian blue,

turmeric, indigo, or plumbago to impart color or gloss, and with a

fraudulent intent. There is no evidence that the facing agents are

deleterious to health in the small quantities used, but as they are used

for purposes of deception, they should be discouraged."[73] Facing and

the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present.

217. Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea.--Tea infusion

does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a

food. It is with some persons a stimulant. The caffein or theine in tea

is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties. In

doses of from three to five grains, according to the United States

Dispensatory, "it produces peculiar wakefulness." Larger doses produce

intense physical restlessness, mental anxiety, and obstinate

sleeplessness. "It has no effect upon the motor nerves, but is believed

to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves." (United States

Dispensatory.) Experiments with animals show that it causes elevation

of the arterial pressure. It is used as a cardiac stimulant. The

quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about 4/5 of a grain, or

1/4 of a medicinal dose.

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--COFFEE BERRIES.

1, Mocha; 2, Java; 3, Rio.]

218. Composition of Coffee.--The coffee tree is an evergreen

cultivated in the tropics. It grows to a height of 30 feet, but when

cultivated is kept pruned to from 6 to 10 feet. The fruit, which

resembles a small cherry, with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in

the pulp, is dried and the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. Coffee

has an entirely different composition from tea; it is characterized by

a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates, and also contains an

essential oil and caffein, an alkaloid identical with theine. Tannic

acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate.

======================================

|RAW COFFEE|ROASTED COFFEE

--------------------------------------

| Per Cent | Per Cent

Water | 11.23 | 1.15

Ash | 3.92 | 4.75

Fat | 12.27 | 14.48

Sugar, etc. | 0.66 | 8.55

Protein | 12.07 | 13.98

Caffein | 1.21 | 1.24

======================================

The high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted

coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous

compounds. Coffee cannot be considered a food, because only a

comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available.

It is a mildly stimulating beverage. With some individuals it appears to

promote the digestive process, while with others its effect is not

beneficial. Coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea,

and is subject to greater adulteration. It is adulterated by facing and

glazing; _i.e._ coloring the berries to resemble different grades and

coating them with caramel and dextrine. Spent coffee grains and coffee

that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants.

Imitation berries made of rye, corn, or wheat paste, molded, colored

with caramel, and baked have been found mixed with genuine coffee

berries. Roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate

ground coffee. Chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant,

which belongs to the same family as the dandelion. It is claimed by some

that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee. However,

when chicory is added to coffee, it should be so stated on the label and

the amount used given. The dextrine and sugar used in glazing are

browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the

infusion, making it appear better than it really is. The glazing also

makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off

during roasting. Coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the

berries generally float when thrown on water, while the imitation

berries sink. Chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown,

while the coffee remains floating for some time.

There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Java, Mocha, and Rio or

Brazil. The Brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by

dealers as "low" or "low middlings." The Java coffee berries are smaller

and paler in color, the better grades being brown. Mocha usually

commands the highest price in commerce. The seeds are small and dark

yellow before roasting.

219. Cereal Coffee Substitutes.

"A few of these preparations contain a little true coffee, but for

the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley,

wheat, etc., or of grain mixed with pea hulls, ground corncobs, or

wheat middlings. It is said that barley or wheat parched, with a

little molasses, in an ordinary oven, makes something

indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the

market. If no coffee is used in the cereal preparations, the claim

that they are not stimulating is probably true. As for the

nutritive value, parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of

the carbohydrates soluble, and a part of this soluble matter passes

into the decoction, but the nutritive value of the infusion is

hardly worth considering in the dietary."[56]

220. Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations.--Cocoa and chocolate are

manufactured from the "cocoa bean," the seed of a tree native to

tropical America. The beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow, fleshy pod.

They are removed from the pulp, allowed to undergo fermentation, and

dried by exposure to the air and light, which hardens them and gives

them a red color. This method produces what is known as the "fermented

cocoa." For the "unfermented cocoa," the beans are dried without

undergoing fermentation. Fermentation removes much of the acidity and

bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean, and when properly

regulated develops flavor. The original bean contains about 50 per cent

fat, part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa. This fat is sold

as cocoa butter. In the preparation of some brands of cocoa, alkalies,

such as soda and potash, are used to form a combination with the fat to

prevent its separating in oily globules. This treatment improves the

appearance of the cocoa, but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat

less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a

food as the fat. Such preparations have a high per cent of ash. There

is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the

fat separates in oily globules.

221. Composition of Cocoa.--The cocoa bean, when dried or roasted and

freed from its husk and ground, is sold as cracked cocoa, or cocoa nibs.

From cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made.

Cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is

removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to

which other ingredients are added. An average cocoa contains about 20

per cent of proteids, and 30 per cent fat, also starch, sugar, gums,

fiber, and ash, as well as theobromine, a material very similar to

theine and caffein in tea and coffee, but not such an active stimulant.

Cocoa is not easily soluble, but it may be ground so fine that a long

time is required for its sedimentation; or sugar or other soluble

material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the

specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is

attained without such fine grinding. The first method is to be

preferred. Cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances

than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble

and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage. Owing to the small

amount used for a cup of cocoa, independent of the milk it does not add

much in the way of nutrients to the ration.

222. Chocolate.--Plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without

"removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ." It differs

in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less

protein; it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs.

It is officially defined as containing "not more than 3 per cent of ash

insoluble in water, 3-1/2 per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of

starch, and less than 45 per cent cocoa fat."[71]

By the addition of sugar, sweet chocolates are made. They vary widely in

composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during

their preparation. The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard

cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows:

==============================================================

| COCOA | COMPOSITION OF | COMPOSITION OF

| NIBS | STANDARD COCOA | PLAIN CHOCOLATE

|---------------------------------------------

|Per Cent| Per Cent | Per Cent

Water | 3.00 | -- | 3.09

Ash | 3.50 | 4.20 | 3.08

Theobromine | 1.00 | -- | --

Caffein | 0.50 | -- | --

Crude Protein | 12.00 | -- | --

Crude fiber | 2.50 | 5.02 | 2.63

Fat | 50.00 | 32.52 | 49.81

Starch and other| | |

non-nitrogenous| | |

matter | 27.50 | -- | --

============================================================

223. Adulteration of Chocolate and Cocoa.--The various chocolate and

cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication; they are

not, however, so extensively adulterated as before the enforcement of

national and state pure food laws. The most common adulterants are

starch, cocoa shells, and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to

give color, also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the

required plasticity for molding.

224. Comparative Composition of Beverages.--Tea and coffee as

beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the

cream and sugar used in them. The solid matter in tea and coffee

infusions amounts to less than 1.2 per cent. When cocoa is made with

milk, it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk.

COMPOSITION OF BEVERAGES[56]

=============================================================================

------------------------|----------|----------|----------|----------|--------

1 pint water) | 98.2 | 0.2 | -- | 1.4 | 30

1 pint water) | 99.5 | 0.2 | -- | 0.5 | 13

to 1 pint water) | 99.7 | 0.3 | -- | 0.3 | 11

1 pint water) | 98.9 | 0.2 | -- | 0.7 | 16

1 pint water) | 99.5 | 0.2 | -- | 0.6 | 15

1 pint milk) | 84.5 | 3.8 | 4.7 | 6.0 | 365

1 pint water) | 97.1 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 65

Skimmed milk | 90.5 | 3.4 | 0.3 | 5.1 | 170

=============================================================================

CHAPTER XV

THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS

225. Digestibility, How Determined.--The term "digestibility," as

applied to foods, is used in two ways: (1) meaning the thoroughness of

the process, or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food

are absorbed and used by the body, and (2) meaning the ease or comfort

with which digestion is accomplished. Cheese is popularly termed

indigestible, and rice digestible, when in reality the nutrients of

cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of

rice. In this work, unless otherwise stated, digestibility is applied to

the completeness of the digestion process.

The digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion

experiments, in which all of the food consumed for a certain period,

usually two to four days, is weighed and analyzed, and from the weight

and composition is determined the amount, in pounds or grams, of each

nutrient consumed.[72] In like manner the nutrients in the indigestible

portion, or feces, are determined from the weight and composition of the

feces. The indigestible nutrients in the feces are deducted from the

total nutrients of the food, the difference being the amount digested,

or oxidized in the body. When the food is digested, the various

nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation, with the formation of

carbon dioxid gas, water, urea (CH_{4}N_{2}O), and other compounds. The

feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion. The

various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same

digestibility; for example, the starch of potatoes is 92 per cent

digestible, while the protein is only 72 per cent. The percentage amount

of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient.

In the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and

milk was determined: 773.5 grams of bread and 2000 grams of milk were

consumed by the subject. The dried feces weighed 38.2 grams. The foods

and feces when analyzed were found to have the following

composition:[62]

=====================================================================

COMPOSITION | BREAD | MILK | FECES[A]

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Water | 44.13 | 86.52 | --

Crude protein | 7.75 | 3.15 | 25.88

Ether extract | 0.90 | 4.63 | 18.23

Ash | 0.32 | 0.70 | 26.35

Carbohydrates | 46.90 | 5.00 | 29.54

Calories per gram | 2.450 | 0.79 | 5.083

=====================================================================

[Footnote A: Results on dry-matter basis.]

STATEMENT OF RESULTS OF A DIGESTION EXPERIMENT

=============================================================================

| OF | N × 6.25 | EXTRACT | HY- | ASH | COMBUS-

------------------+----------+----------+---------+--------+-------+---------

Bread | 773.5 | 60.0 | 6.9 | 362.8 | 2.5 | 1895

Milk | 2000.0 | 63.0 | 92.6 | 100.0 | 14.0 | 1585

| | ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------

Total | 38.2 | 123.0 | 99.5 | 462.8 | 16.5 | 3480

Feces | | 9.9 | 7.0 | 11.3 | 10.1 | 194

| | ------- + ------- + -------+-------+---------

Total amount | | 113.1 | 92.5 | 451.5 | 6.4 | 3286

of digestibility| | 92.0 | 93.0 | 97.5 | 38.8 | 94.4

| | | | | |

Available energy | | -- | -- | -- | -- | 90.0

=============================================================================

In this experiment 92 per cent of the crude protein, 93 per cent of the

ether extract, and 97.5 per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and

milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body. In calculating the

available energy, correction is made for the unoxidized residue, as urea

and allied forms. It is estimated that for each gram of protein in the

ration there was an indigestible residue yielding 1.25 calories.

226. Available Nutrients.--A food may contain a comparatively large

amount of a compound, and yet, on account of its low digestibility, fail

to supply much of it to the body in an available form. Hence it is that

the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition, but also

on its digestibility. The digestible or available nutrients of a food

are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the

food contains by its digestion coefficient. For example, a sample of

wheat flour contains 12 per cent protein, 88 per cent of which is

digestible, making 10.56 per cent of available or digestible protein (12

× 0.88-10.56). Graham flour made from similar wheat contains 13 per cent

total protein, and only 75 per cent of the protein is digestible, making

9.75 per cent available (13 × 0.75 = 9.75). Thus one food may contain a

larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another.

227. Available Energy.--The available energy of a food or a ration is

expressed in calories. A ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work

should yield about 3200 calories. The calory is the unit of heat, and

represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of

water 1° C., or four pounds of water 1° F. The caloric value of foods is

determined by the calorimeter, an apparatus which measures heat with

great accuracy. A pound of starch, or allied carbohydrates, yields 1860

calories, and a pound of fat 4225 (see Section 13). While a gram of

protein completely burned produces 7.8 calories, digested it yields only

about 4.2 calories, because, as explained in the preceding section, not

all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized.[59] The caloric value or

available energy of a ration can be calculated from the digestible

nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and

carbohydrates by 1860, the digestible fat by 4225, and adding the

results. For determination of the available energy of foods under

different experimental conditions, and where great accuracy is desired,

a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised, which

is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter, except it

is large enough to admit a person, and is provided with appliances for

measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air.[74] The heat

produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water

surrounding the calorimeter chamber, and this increase in temperature is

determined by thermometers reading to 0.005 of a degree or less.

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CALORIMETER.]

228. Normal Digestion and Health.--While the process of digestion has

been extensively studied, it is not perfectly understood. Between the

initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large

number of intermediate substances are formed, and when digestion fails

to take place in a normal way, toxic or poisonous compounds are produced

and various diseases result. It is probable that more diseases are due

to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause. There is a very

close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food.

The cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids

containing substances known as soluble ferments, or enzymes, which act

upon the various compounds of foods, changing them chemically and

physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body. (See

Section 31.) Some of the more important ferments are: ptyolin of the

saliva, pepsin of the stomach, and pancreatin and diastase of the

intestines. In order that these ferments may carry on their work in a

normal way, the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the

digestive tract must be maintained. The gastric juice contains from 0.1

to 0.25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, imparting mildly antiseptic

properties; and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid

solution, the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution. To secrete

the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids, the organs must be

in a healthy condition. Many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of

foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering

from impaired digestion, and attempts are frequently made to apply to

normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions.

229. Digestibility of Animal Foods.--The proteids and fats in animal

foods, as meats, are more completely digested than the same class of

nutrients in vegetables. In general, about 95 per cent of the proteids

of meats is digestible, while those in vegetables are often less than 85

percent digestible. The amount of indigestible residue from animal foods

is small; while from vegetables it is large, for the cellulose prevents

complete absorption of the nutrients and, as a result, there is much

indigestible residue. Animal foods are concentrated, in that they

furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less

difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested

than in their ease of digestion; the proteins all have about the same

digestion coefficients, but vary with individuals as to ease of

digestion and time required. It is generally considered that the

digestible proteins, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are equally

valuable for food purposes. This is an assumption, however, that has not

been well established by experimental evidence. In a mixed ration, the

proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value,

but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into

dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion, they

would not necessarily all have the same food value.

There is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as

to completeness of digestion,--the slight difference being in favor of

the proteins. Some physiologists claim that the fat, which in some meats

surrounds the bundles of fiber (protein), forming a protecting coat,

prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid. Very fat

meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat. It is also

claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the

mechanical character, as toughness of the fiber.

230. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods.--Vegetable foods vary in

digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of

cellulose or fiber. In some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular

tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive

fluids, and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low.

The starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of

the nutrients of vegetables; in some instances they are from 95 to 98

per cent digestible. Some cellular tissue, but not an excess, is

desirable in a ration, as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon

the organs of digestion, encourages peristalsis, and is an absorbent and

dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion. For example, in

the feeding of swine, it has been found that corn and cob meal often

gives better results than corn fed alone. The cob contains but little in

the way of nutrients, but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon

digestion. Occasionally too many bulky foods are combined, containing

scant amounts of nutrients, so that the body receives insufficient

protein. This is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict

vegetarian. Many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value, due

to the organic acids and essential oils, as cited in the chapter on

fruits and vegetables. The value of such foods cannot always be

determined from their content of digestible protein, fat, and

carbohydrates. This is particularly evident when they are omitted from

the ration, as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of

animal foods. Many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of

their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which

they contain, which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount

of available nutrients. Because of their bulk and fermentable nature,

resulting in the formation of gases, a diet of coarse vegetables has a

tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs.

The carbohydrates, which are the chief constituents of vegetables, are

digested mainly in the intestines, and require special mechanical

preparation in the stomach, hence the nutrients of vegetables are not,

as a rule, as easily digested as those of animal foods.

231. Factors influencing Digestion.--There are a number of factors

which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion, as: (1)

combination of foods; (2) amount of food; (3) method of preparation; (4)

mechanical condition of the food; (5) palatability; (6) physiological

properties; (7) individuality of the consumer; and (8) psychological

influences.

232. Combination of Foods.--In a mixed ration the nutrients are

generally more completely digested than when only one food is used. For

example, milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a

ration, and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is

combined, but when used alone it is less digestible.[27] Bread alone and

milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined.

The same in a general way has been observed in the feeding of farm

animals,--better results are secured from combining two or more foods

than from the use of one alone. The extent to which one food influences

the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied.

In a mixed ration, consisting of several articles of food of different

mechanical structure, the work of digestion is more evenly distributed

among the various organs. A food often requires special preparation on

the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines, and

if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of

different structure, the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that

the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place. The

effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is

largely mechanical.

233. Amount of Food.--Completeness as well as ease of digestion is

influenced by the amount of food consumed. In general, excessive amounts

are not as completely digested as moderate amounts. In digestion

experiments with oatmeal and milk, it was found that when these foods

were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as

completely absorbed by the body as when less was used, the protein being

7 per cent and the fat 6 per cent more digestible in the medium ration.

Experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured

from an excess of food.[5] Some individuals consume too much food, and

with them a restricted diet would be beneficial, while others err in not

consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body. Quite frequently

it is those who need more food who practice dieting. When there is

trouble with digestion, it is not always the amount or kind of food

which is at fault, but other habits may be such as to affect digestion.

The active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food,

because there is greater demand for nutrients, and the food is more

completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous

waste products. The amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet

all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight.

234. Method of Preparation of Food.--The extent to which methods of

cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been

extensively investigated. As is well known, they have great influence

upon ease and comfort of digestion. During cooking, as discussed in

Chapter II, extensive physical and chemical changes occur, and these in

turn affect digestibility. When the cooking has not been sufficient to

mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue, the digestive fluids fail to

act favorably upon the food. Cooking is also beneficial because it

renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable microörganisms

which, if they remain in food, readily undergo incubation in the

digestive tract, interfering with normal digestion. Prolonged heat

causes some foods to become less digestible, as milk, which digestion

experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when

sterilized. Pasteurized milk, which is not subjected to so high a

temperature as sterilized milk, is more completely digested. See Chapter

VII for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk.[38] The

benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in

foods are, however, greater than the losses attendant on lessened

digestibility due to the action of heat. The method of preparation of a

food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical

structure, and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are

present.[5]

235. Mechanical Condition of Foods.--The mechanical condition of foods

as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which

they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences

digestibility to a great extent. The mechanics of digestion is a subject

that has not been extensively investigated, and it is one of great

importance, as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the

food is not in proper mechanical condition. In general, the finer the

food particles, the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the

digestive fluids and absorbed by the body. Nevertheless, the diet should

not consist entirely of finely granulated foods. Some foods are valuable

mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon

digestion, rather than for the nutrients they contain.[62] Coarsely

granulated breakfast foods, whole wheat flour, and many vegetables

contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a

mechanical rather than a chemical point of view. The extent to which

coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a

question largely for the individual to determine. Experiments with pigs

show that if large amounts of coarse, granular foods are consumed, the

tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to

exercise its normal functions. Coarsely granulated foods have a tendency

to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are

finely granulated, due largely to increased peristaltic action, and the

result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow

normal absorption to take place. In the feeding of farm animals, it has

been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great

influence upon its economic use. Rations that are either too bulky or

too concentrated fail to give the best results. In the human ration, the

mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical

composition.

236. Mastication is an important part of digestion, and when foods are

not thoroughly masticated, additional work is required of the stomach,

which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the

mouth as well. Although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of

foods is of necessity done in the stomach, some of it may advantageously

be done in the mouth. The stomach should not be required to perform the

function of the gizzard of a fowl.

237. Palatability of Foods.--Many foods naturally contain essential

oils and other substances which impart palatability. These have but

little in the way of nutritive value, but they assist in rendering the

nutrients with which they are associated more digestible. Palatability

of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other

digestive fluids, and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared

foods aid in digestion. In the feeding of farm animals it has been found

that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured

than when unpalatable foods are fed. To secure palatability the

excessive use of condiments is unnecessary. It is possible to a great

extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors.

Some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the

cooking, while in others pleasant flavors are developed. Palatability is

an important factor in the digestibility of foods.

238. Physiological Properties of Food.--Some food materials,

particularly fruits and vegetables, contain compounds which have

definite physiological properties, as tannin which is an astringent,

special oils which exert a cathartic action, and the alkaloids which

serve as irritants to nerve centers. Wheat germ oil is laxative, and it

is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat

breads are due in some degree to the oil which they contain.[67] The

use of fruits, herbs, and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based

upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal

properties. As a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of

such substances, and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by

the advice of a physician. The physiological properties of some foods

are due to bacterial products. See Chapter XX.

239. Individuality.--Material difference in digestive power is

noticeable among individuals. Digestion experiments show that one person

may digest 5 per cent more of a nutrient than another. This difference

appears to be due to a number of factors, as activity of the organs, as

affected by exercise and kind of labor performed; abnormal composition

of the digestive fluids; or failure of the different parts of the

digestive tract to act in harmony. Individuality is one of the most

important factors in digestion. Persons become accustomed to certain

foods through long usage, and the digestive tract adapts itself to those

foods, rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous.

Common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some

individuals, while with others they are consumed with benefit. What is

food to one may prove to be a poison to another, and while general

statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods,

individual differences must be recognized.

240. Psychological Factors.--Previously conceived ideas concerning

foods influence digestibility. Foods must be consumed with a relish in

order to secure the best results, as flow of the digestive fluids and

activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve

centers. If it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious, even

when the food is wholesome, normal digestion fails to take place. In

experiments by the author, in which the comparative digestibility of

butter and oleomargarine was being studied, it was found that when the

subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine, its digestibility was

depressed 5 per cent, and when they were not told the nature of the

material, but assumed that butter was oleomargarine, the digestibility

of the butter was lowered about 6 per cent.[13] Preconceived notions in

regard to foods, not founded upon well-established facts, but due to

prejudice resulting from ignorance, cause many valuable foods to be

excluded from the dietary. Many persons, like the foreign lady who,

visiting this country, said she ate only acquaintances, prefer foods

that have a familiar taste and appearance, and any unusual taste or

appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological

influence upon digestion.

CHAPTER XVI

COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS

241. Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods.--The market price and the

nutritive value of foods are often at variance, as those which cost the

most frequently contain the least nutrients.[75] It is difficult to make

absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different

prices, because they differ not only in the amounts, but also in the

kinds of nutrients. While it is not possible to express definitely the

value of one food in terms of another, approximate comparisons may be

made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum

of money when foods are at different prices, and tables have been

prepared making such comparisons.

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--COMPOSITION OF FOODS.

(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]

242. Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum.[7]--To ascertain the

nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in

pounds that can be obtained, say, for ten cents, and then multiply by

the percentages of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and calories in the

food. The results are the amounts, in pounds, of nutrients procurable

for that sum of money. For example: if milk is 5 cents per quart, two

quarts or approximately four pounds, can be procured for 10 cents. If

the milk contains fat, 4 per cent, protein, 3.3 per cent, carbohydrates,

5 per cent, and fuel value, 310 calories per pound, multiplying each of

these by 4 gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10

cents worth of milk, as follows:

Protein 0.13 lb.

Fat 0.16 lb.

Carbohydrates 0.2 lb.

Calories 1240

If it is desired to compare milk at 5 cents per quart with round steak

at 15 cents per pound, 10 cents will procure 0.66, or two thirds of a

pound of round steak containing on an average (edible portion) 19 per

cent protein, 12.8 per cent fat, and yielding 890 calories per pound. If

10 per cent is refuse, there is edible about 0.6 of a pound. The amounts

of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak, edible portion, or 0.66 lb.

as purchased would be:

Protein 0.11 lb.

Fat 0.08 lb.

Calories 534

It is to be observed that from the 10 cents' worth of milk a little more

protein, 0.08 of a pound more fat, and nearly two and one half times as

many calories can be secured as from the 10 cents' worth of meat. This

is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat which the milk

contains. At these prices, milk should be used liberally in the dietary,

as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat. It would not

be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration, but milk at 5

cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at 15 cents per pound. In

making comparisons, preference cannot always be given to one food

because of its containing more of any particular nutrient, for often

there are other factors that influence the value.

243. Comparing Foods as to Nutritive Value.--In general, preference

should be given to foods which supply the most protein, provided the

differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large. When the

protein content of two foods is nearly the same, but the fats and

carbohydrates differ materially, the preference may safely be given to

the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients. A pound of

protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or

carbohydrates, although it is not possible to establish an absolute

scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients, because they serve

different functional purposes in the body. It is sometimes necessary to

use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced

ration; excessive use of protein, however, is not economical, as that

which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and

energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates, and they

are less expensive nutrients.

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD.

(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]

TEN CENTS WILL PURCHASE: (From Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, U. S.

Dept. of Agr.)

=============================================================================

------------------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+---------+-------

Beef, sirloin | 25 | 0.40 | 0.06 | 0.06 | -- | 410

Do. | 20 | 0.50 | 0.08 | 0.08 | -- | 515

Do. | 15 | 0.67 | 0.10 | 0.11 | -- | 685

Beef, round | 16 | 0.63 | 0.11 | 0.08 | -- | 560

Do. | 14 | 0.71 | 0.13 | 0.09 | -- | 630

Do. | 12 | 0.83 | 0.15 | 0.10 | -- | 740

Beef, shoulder clod | 12 | 0.83 | 0.13 | 0.08 | -- | 595

Do. | 9 | 1.11 | 0.18 | 0.10 | -- | 795

Beef, stew meat | 5 | 2.00 | 0.29 | 0.23 | -- | 1530

Beef, dried, chipped | 25 | 0.40 | 0.10 | 0.03 | -- | 315

Mutton chops, loin | 16 | 0.63 | 0.08 | 0.17 | -- | 890

Mutton, leg | 20 | 0.50 | 0.07 | 0.07 | -- | 445

Do. | 16 | 0.63 | 0.09 | 0.09 | -- | 560

Roast pork, loin | 12 | 0.83 | 0.11 | 0.19 | -- | 1035

Pork, smoked ham | 22 | 0.45 | 0.06 | 0.14 | -- | 735

Do. | 18 | 0.56 | 0.08 | 0.18 | -- | 915

Pork, fat salt | 12 | 0.83 | 0.02 | 0.68 | -- | 2950

Codfish, dressed, fresh | 10 | 1.00 | 0.11 | -- | -- | 220

Halibut, fresh | 18 | 0.56 | 0.08 | 0.02 | -- | 265

Cod, salt | 7 | 1.43 | 0.22 | 0.01 | -- | 465

Mackerel, salt, dressed | 10 | 1.00 | 0.13 | 0.20 | -- | 1135

Salmon, canned | 12 | 0.83 | 0.18 | 0.10 | -- | 760

50 cents per quart | 25 | 0.40 | 0.02 | -- | 0.01 | 90

35 cents per quart | 18 | 0.56 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 125

Lobster, canned | 18 | 0.56 | 0.10 | 0.01 | -- | 225

Butter | 20 | 0.50 | 0.01 | 0.40 | -- | 1705

Do. | 25 | 0.40 | -- | 0.32 | -- | 1365

Do. | 30 | 0.33 | -- | 0.27 | -- | 1125

Eggs, 36 cents per dozen| 24 | 0.42 | 0.05 | 0.04 | -- | 260

Eggs, 24 cents per dozen| 16 | 0.63 | 0.07 | 0.06 | -- | 385

Eggs, 12 cents per dozen| 8 | 1.25 | 0.14 | 0.11 | -- | 770

Cheese | 16 | 0.63 | 0.16 | 0.20 | 0.02 | 1185

Milk, 7 cents per quart | 3-1/2 | 2.85 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 885

Milk, 6 cents per quart | 3 | 3.33 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 1030

Wheat flour | 3 | 3.33 | 0.32 | 0.03 | 2.45 | 5440

Do. | 2-1/2 | 4.00 | 0.39 | 0.04 | 2.94 | 6540

Corn meal, granular | 2-1/2 | 4.00 | 0.31 | 0.07 | 2.96 | 6540

Wheat breakfast food | 7-1/2 | 1.33 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.98 | 2235

Oat breakfast food | 7-1/2 | 1.33 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.86 | 2395

Oatmeal | 4 | 2.50 | 0.34 | 0.16 | 1.66 | 4500

Rice | 8 | 1.25 | 0.08 | -- | 0.97 | 2025

Wheat bread | 6 | 1.67 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.87 | 2000

Do. | 5 | 2.00 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 1.04 | 2400

Do. | 4 | 2.50 | 0.20 | 0.03 | 1.30 | 3000

Rye bread | 5 | 2.00 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 1.04 | 2340

Beans, white, dried | 5 | 2.00 | 0.35 | 0.03 | 1.16 | 3040

Cabbage | 2-1/2 | 4.00 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 460

Celery | 5 | 2.00 | 0.02 | -- | 0.05 | 130

Corn, canned | 10 | 1.00 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 430

90 cents per bushel | 1-1/2| 6.67 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.93 | 1970

60 cents per bushel | 1 | 10.00 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 1.40 | 2950

45 cents per bushel | 3/4 | 13.33 | 0.20 | 0.01 | 1.87 | 3935

Turnips | 1 | 10.00 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.54 | 1200

Apples | 1-1/2| 6.67 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.65 | 1270

Bananas | 7 | 1.43 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 370

Oranges | 6 | 1.67 | 0.01 | -- | 0.13 | 250

Strawberries | 7 | 1.43 | .01 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 215

Sugar | 6 | 1.67 | -- | -- | 1.67 | 2920

=============================================================================

It is to be noted in the table that, ordinarily, for the same amount of

money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk, cheese,

sugar, and beans, corn meal, wheat flour, oatmeal, and cereals in bulk.

While meats supply protein liberally, they fail to furnish carbohydrates

as the vegetables. As discussed in the chapter on Dietary Studies of

Families, unnecessarily expensive foods are often used, resulting either

in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations.

EXAMPLES

1. Compute the calories and the amounts of protein, fat, and

carbohydrates that can be procured for 25 cents in cheese selling for 18

cents per pound; how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at 20

cents per dozen?

2. Which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients, potatoes at 50

cents per bushel or flour at $6 per barrel?

3. How do beans at 10 cents per quart compare in nutritive value with

beef at 15 Cents per pound?

4. How does salt codfish at 10 cents per pound compare in nutritive

value with lamb chops at 15 cents per pound?

5. Compare in nutritive value cream at 25 cents per quart with butter at

30 cents per pound.

6. Calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of

sugar, 8 oz.; butter, 4 oz.; eggs, 8 oz.; flour, 8 oz.; and milk, 4 oz.;

the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMON AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS

(From Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)

=============================================================================

| | | | | | | F

| | | | | h | | u p

| R | | P | | C y | | e e

| e | W | r | | a d | | l r

| f | a | o | F | r r | A |

Food Material | u | t | t | a | b a | s | v P

(as purchased) | s | e | e | t | o t | h | a o

| e | r | i | | - e | | l u

| | | n | | s | | u n

| | | | | | | e d

------------------------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------

ANIMAL FOOD | % | % | % | % | % | % | ries

| | | | | | |

Chuck ribs | 16.3 | 52.6 | 15.5 | 15.0 | -- | 0.8 | 910

Flank | 10.2 | 54.0 | 17.0 | 19.0 | -- | 0.7 | 1105

Loin | 13.3 | 52.5 | 16.1 | 17.5 | -- | 0.9 | 1025

Porterhouse steak | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 | -- | 0.8 | 1100

Sirloin steak | 12.8 | 54.0 | 16.5 | 16.1 | -- | 0.9 | 975

Neck | 27.6 | 45.9 | 14.5 | 11.9 | -- | 0.7 | 1165

Ribs | 20.8 | 43.8 | 13.9 | 21.2 | -- | 0.7 | 1135

Rib rolls | -- | 63.9 | 19.3 | 16.7 | -- | 0.9 | 1055

Round | 7.2 | 60.7 | 19.0 | 12.8 | -- | 1.0 | 890

Rump | 20.7 | 45.0 | 13.8 | 20.2 | -- | 0.7 | 1090

Shank, fore | 36.9 | 42.9 | 12.8 | 7.3 | -- | 0.6 | 545

Shoulder and clod | 16.4 | 56.8 | 16.4 | 9.8 | -- | 0.9 | 715

Fore quarter | 18.7 | 49.1 | 14.5 | 17.5 | -- | 0.7 | 995

Hind quarter | 15.7 | 50.4 | 15.4 | 18.3 | -- | 0.7 | 1045

Corned beef | 8.4 | 49.2 | 14.3 | 23.8 | -- | 4.6 | 1245

Tongue, pickled | 6.0 | 58.9 | 11.9 | 19.2 | -- | 4.3 | 1010

Dried, salted, and smoked | 4.7 | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9 | -- | 8.9 | 790

Canned boiled beef | -- | 51.8 | 25.5 | 22.5 | -- | 1.3 | 1410

Canned corned beef | -- | 51.8 | 26.3 | 18.7 | -- | 4.0 | 1270

Breast | 21.3 | 52.0 | 15.4 | 11.0 | -- | 0.8 | 745

Leg | 14.2 | 60.1 | 15.5 | 7.9 | -- | 0.9 | 625

Leg cutlets | 3.4 | 68.3 | 20.1 | 7.5 | -- | 1.0 | 695

Fore quarter | 24.5 | 54.2 | 15.1 | 6.0 | -- | 0.7 | 535

Hind quarter | 20.7 | 56.2 | 16.2 | 6.6 | -- | 0.8 | 580

Flank | 9.9 | 39.0 | 13.8 | 36.9 | -- | 0.6 | 1770

Leg, hind | 18.4 | 51.2 | 15.1 | 14.7 | -- | 0.8 | 890

Loin chops | 16.0 | 42.0 | 13.5 | 28.3 | -- | 0.7 | 1415

Fore quarter | 21.2 | 41.6 | 12.3 | 24.5 | -- | 0.7 | 1235

Hind quarter, without | 17.2 | 45.4 | 13.8 | 23.2 | -- | 0.7 | 1210

Breast | 10.1 | 45.5 | 15.4 | 19.1 | -- | 0.8 | 1075

Leg, hind | 17.4 | 52.9 | 15.9 | 13.6 | -- | 0.9 | 860

Ham | 10.7 | 48.0 | 13.5 | 25.9 | -- | 0.8 | 1320

Loin chops | 19.7 | 41.8 | 13.4 | 24.2 | -- | 0.8 | 1245

Shoulder | 12.4 | 44.9 | 12.0 | 29.8 | -- | 0.7 | 1450

Tenderloin | -- | 66.5 | 18.9 | 13.0 | -- | 1.0 | 895

Ham, smoked | 13.6 | 34.8 | 14.2 | 33.4 | -- | 4.2 | 1635

Shoulder, smoked | 18.2 | 36.8 | 13.0 | 26.6 | -- | 5.5 | 1335

Salt pork | -- | 7.9 | 1.9 | 86.2 | -- | 3.9 | 3555

Bacon, smoked | 7.7 | 17.4 | 9.1 | 62.2 | -- | 4.1 | 2715

Bologna | 3.3 | 55.2 | 18.2 | 19.7 | -- | 3.8 | 1155

Pork | -- | 39.8 | 13.0 | 44.2 | 1.1| 2.2 | 2075

Frankfort | -- | 57.2 | 19.6 | 18.6 | 1.1| 3.4 | 1155

Celery, cream of | -- | 88.6 | 2.1 | 2.8 | 5.0| 1.5 | 235

Beef | -- | 92.9 | 4.4 | 0.4 | 1.1| 1.2 | 120

Meat stew | -- | 84.5 | 4.6 | 4.3 | 5.5| 1.1 | 365

Tomato | -- | 90.0 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 5.6| 1.5 | 185

Chicken, broilers | 41.6 | 43.7 | 12.8 | 1.4 | -- | 0.7 | 305

Fowls | 25.9 | 47.1 | 13.7 | 12.3 | -- | 0.7 | 765

Goose | 17.6 | 38.5 | 13.4 | 29.8 | -- | 0.7 | 1475

Turkey | 22.7 | 42.4 | 16.1 | 18.4 | -- | 0.8 | 1060

Cod, dressed | 29.9 | 58.5 | 11.1 | 0.2 | -- | 0.8 | 220

Halibut, steaks or sections | 17.7 | 61.9 | 15.3 | 4.4 | -- | 0.9 | 475

Mackerel, whole | 44.7 | 40.4 | 10.2 | 4.2 | -- | 0.7 | 370

Perch, yellow dressed | 35.1 | 50.7 | 12.8 | 0.7 | -- | 0.9 | 275

Shad, whole | 50.1 | 35.2 | 9.4 | 4.8 | -- | 0.7 | 380

Shad, roe | -- | 71.2 | 20.9 | 3.8 | 2.6| 1.5 | 600

Cod, salt | 24.9 | 40.2 | 16.0 | 0.4 | -- |18.5 | 325

Herring, smoked | 44.4 | 19.2 | 20.5 | 8.8 | -- | 7.4 | 755

Salmon | -- | 63.5 | 21.8 | 12.1 | -- | 2.6 | 915

Sardines |[A]5.0| 53.6 | 23.7 | 12.1 | -- | 5.3 | 950

Clams | -- | 80.8 | 10.6 | 1.1 | 5.2 | 2.3| 340

Crabs | 52.4 | 36.7 | 7.9 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 1.5| 200

Lobsters | 61.7 | 30.7 | 5.9 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.8| 145

Eggs: Hen's eggs [B]|11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3 | -- | 0.9| 635

Butter | -- | 11.0 | 1.0 |85.0 | -- | 3.0| 3410

Whole milk | -- | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 0.7| 310

Skim milk | -- | 90.5 | 3.4 | 0.3 | 5.1 | 0.7| 165

Buttermilk | -- | 91.0 | 3.0 | 0.5 | 4.8 | 0.7| 160

Condensed milk | -- | 26.9 | 8.8 | 8.3 |54.1 | 1.9| 1430

Cream | -- | 74.0 | 2.5 |18.5 | 4.5 | 0.5| 865

Cheese, Cheddar | -- | 27.4 | 27.7 |36.8 | 4.1 | 4.0| 2075

Cheese, full cream | -- | 34.2 | 25.9 |33.7 | 2.4 | 3.8| 1885

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

Entire wheat flour | -- | 11.4 | 13.8 | 1.9 |71.9 | 1.0| 1650

Graham flour | -- | 11.3 | 13.3 | 2.2 |71.4 | 1.8| 1645

High-grade and medium | -- | 12.0 | 11.4 | 1.0 |75.1 | 0.5| 1635

Low grade | -- | 12.0 | 14.0 | 1.9 |71.2 | 0.9| 1640

Macaroni, vermicelli, etc | -- | 10.3 | 13.4 | 0.9 |74.1 | 1.3| 1645

Wheat breakfast food | -- | 9.6 | 12.1 | 1.8 |75.2 | 1.3| 1680

Buckwheat flour | -- | 13.6 | 6.4 | 1.2 |77.9 | 0.9| 1605

Rye flour | -- | 12.9 | 6.8 | 0.9 |78.7 | 0.7| 1620

Corn meal | -- | 12.5 | 9.2 | 1.9 |75.4 | 1.0| 1635

Oat breakfast food | -- | 7.7 | 16.7 | 7.3 |66.2 | 2.1| 1800

Rice | -- | 12.3 | 8.0 | 0.3 |79.0 | 0.4| 1620

Tapioca | -- | 11.4 | 0.4 | 0.1 |88.0 | 0.1| 1650

Starch | -- | -- | -- | -- |90.0 | -- | 1675

White bread | -- | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3 |53.1 | 1.1| 1200

Brown bread | -- | 43.6 | 5.4 | 1.8 |47.1 | 2.1| 1040

Graham bread | -- | 35.7 | 8.9 | 1.8| 52.1| 1.5 | 1195

Whole wheat bread | -- | 38.4 | 9.7.| 0.9| 49.7| 1.3 | 1130

Rye bread | -- | 35.7 | 9.0.| 0.6| 53.2| 1.5 | 1170

Cake | -- | 19.9 | 6.3.| 9.0| 63.3| 1.5 | 1630

Cream crackers | -- | 6.8 | 9.7.| 12.1| 69.7| 1.7 | 1925

Oyster crackers | -- | 4.8 | 11.3.| 10.5| 70.5| 2.9 | 1910

Soda crackers | -- | 5.9 | 9.8.| 9.1| 73.1| 2.1 | 1875

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

Molasses | -- | -- | -- | -- | 70.0| -- | 1225

Candy[C] | -- | -- | -- | -- | 96.0| -- | 1680

Honey | -- | -- | -- | -- | 81.0| -- | 1420

Sugar, granulated | -- | -- | -- | -- |100.0| -- | 1750

Maple sirup | -- | -- | -- | -- | 71.4| -- | 1250

| | | | | | |

Beans, dried | -- | 12.6 | 22.5.| 1.8| 59.6| 3.5 | 1520

Beans, Lima, shelled | -- | 68.5 | 7.1.| 0.7| 22.0| 1.7 | 540

Beans, string | 7.0 | 83.0 | 2.1.| 0.3| 6.9| 0.7 | 170

Beets | 20.0 | 70.0 | 1.3.| 0.1| 7.7| 0.9 | 160

Cabbage | 15.0 | 77.7 | 1.4.| 0.2| 4.8| 0.9 | 115

Celery | 20.0 | 75.6 | 0.9.| 0.1| 2.6| 0.8 | 65

edible portion | -- | 75.4 | 3.1 | 1.1| 19.7| 0.7 | 440

Cucumbers | 15.0 | 81.1 | 0.7.| 0.2| 2.6| 0.4 | 65

Lettuce | 15.0 | 80.5 | 1.0.| 0.2| 2.5| 0.8 | 65

Mushrooms | -- | 88.1 | 3.5 | 0.4| 6.8| 1.2 | 185

Onions | 10.0 | 78.9 | 1.4.| 0.3| 8.9| 0.5 | 190

Parsnips | 20.0 | 66.4 | 1.3.| 0.4| 10.8| 1.1 | 230

dried. | -- | 9.5 | 24.6 | 1.0| 62.0| 2.9 | 1565

shelled | -- | 74.6 | 7.0 | 0.5| 16.9| 1.0 | 440

Cowpeas, dried | -- | 13.0 | 21.4.| 1.4| 60.8| 3.4 | 1505

Potatoes | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8.| 0.1| 14.7| 0.8 | 295

Rhubarb | 40.0 | 56.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 2.2| 0.4 | 60

Sweet potatoes | 20.0 | 55.2 | 1.4 | 0.6 | 21.9| 0.9 | 440

Spinach | -- | 92.3 | 2.1 | 0.3 | 3.2| 2.1 | 95

Squash | 50.0 | 44.2 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 4.5| 0.4 | 100

Tomatoes | -- | 94.3 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 3.9| 0.5 | 100

Turnips | 30.0 | 62.7 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 5.7| 0.6 | 120

Baked beans | -- | 68.9 | 6.9 | 2.5 | 19.6| 2.1 | 555

green | -- | 85.3 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 9.8| 1.1 | 235

Corn, green | -- | 76.1 | 2.8 | 1.2 | 19.0| 0.9 | 430

Succotash | -- | 75.9 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 18.6| 0.9 | 425

Tomatoes | -- | 94.0 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 4.0| 0.6 | 95

Apples | 25.0 | 63.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 10.8| 0.3 | 190

Bananas | 35.0 | 48.9 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 14.3| 0.6 | 260

Grapes | 25.0 | 58.0 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 14.4| 0.4 | 295

Lemons | 30.0 | 62.5 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 5.9| 0.4 | 125

Muskmelons | 50.0 | 44.8 | 0.3 | -- | 4.6| 0.3 | 80

Oranges | 27.0 | 63.4 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 8.5| 0.4 | 150

Pears | 10.0 | 76.0 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 12.7| 0.4 | 230

Persimmons, edible portion | -- | 66.1 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 31.5| 0.9 | 550

Raspberries | -- | 85.8 | 1.0 | -- | 12.6| 0.6 | 220

Strawberries | 5.0 | 85.9 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 7.0| 0.6 | 150

Watermelons | 59.4 | 37.5 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 2.7| 0.1 | 50

Apples | -- | 28.1 | 1.6 | 2.2 | 66.1| 2.0 | 1185

Apricots | -- | 29.4 | 4.7 | 1.0 | 62.5| 2.4 | 1125

Dates | 10.0 | 13.8 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 70.6| 1.2 | 1275

Rhubarb | 40.0 | 56.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 2.2| 0.4 | 60

| | | | | | |

Figs | -- | 18.8 | 4.3 | 0.3 | 74.2| 2.4 | 1280

Raisins | 10.0 | 13.1 | 2.3 | 3.0 | 68.5| 3.1 | 1265

Almonds | 45.0 | 2.7 | 11.5 | 30.2 | 9.5| 1.1 | 1515

Brazil nuts | 49.6 | 2.6 | 8.6 | 33.7 | 3.5| 2.0 | 1485

Butternuts | 86.4 | 0.6 | 3.8 | 8.3 | 0.5| 0.4 | 385

Chestnuts, fresh | 16.0 | 37.8 | 5.2 | 4.5 | 35.4| 1.1 | 915

Chestnuts, dried | 24.0 | 4.5 | 8.1 | 5.3 | 56.4| 1.7 | 1385

Cocoanuts [F]| 48.8 | 7.2 | 2.9 | 25.9 | 14.3| 0.9 | 1295

Cocoanut, prepared | -- | 3.5 | 6.3 | 57.4 | 31.5| 1.3 | 2865

Filberts | 52.1 | 1.8 | 7.5 | 31.3 | 6.2| 1.1 | 1430

Hickory nuts | 62.2 | 1.4 | 5.8 | 25.5 | 4.3| 0.8 | 1145

Pecans, polished | 53.2 | 1.4 | 5.2 | 33.3 | 6.2| 0.7 | 1465

Peanuts | 24.5 | 6.9 | 19.5 | 29.1 | 18.5| 1.5 | 1775

Piñon _(Pinus edulis)_ | 40.6 | 2.0 | 8.7 | 36.8 | 10.2| 1.7 | 1730

Walnuts, black | 74.1 | 0.6 | 7.2 | 14.6 | 3.0| 0.5 | 730

Walnuts, English | 58.1 | 1.0 | 6.9 | 26.6 | 6.8| 0.6 | 1250

Chocolate | -- | 5.9 | 12.9 | 48.7 | 30.3| 2.2 | 5625

Cocoa, powdered | -- | 4.6 | 21.6 | 28.9 | 37.7| 7.2 | 2160

20 parts water)[G] | -- | 98.2 | 0.2 | -- | 1.4| 0.2 | 30

=============================================================================

[Footnote A: Refuse, oil.]

[Footnote B: Refuse, shell.]

[Footnote C: Plain confectionery not containing nuts, fruit, or

chocolate.]

[Footnote D: Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a

certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc The amount varies

with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately

estimated The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are

assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods

as ordinarily prepared.]

[Footnote E: Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials,

as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some

fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is

practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or

less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and

seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus

thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here

classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as

nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected.]

[Footnote F: Milk and shell.]

[Footnote G: The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is:

Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per

cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion.

The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the

beverage. Infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain

practically no nutrients.]

CHAPTER XVII

DIETARY STUDIES

244. Object of Dietary Studies.--The quantity of food which different

families purchase varies between wide limits; a portion being lost

mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount

in the refuse and non-edible parts. If a record is made of all foods

purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted, the

nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the

weight of each food by the average composition. If such calculations be

made, it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day

of both protein and fat is consumed by adults, while in other families

less than half of this amount is used. The object of dietary studies is

to determine the source, cost, composition, and nutritive value of the

foods consumed by different families; they also enable comparisons to be

made of the amounts of nutrients purchased. Extensive dietary studies

have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the

results have been published in various bulletins.[76]

245. Wide and Narrow Rations.--When the amount of carbohydrates in a

ration is small in comparison with the protein, it is called a narrow

ration, while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much

in excess of the protein. When a ration contains 0.40 of a pound of

protein, 0.40 of a pound of fat, and 1 pound of carbohydrates, it has a

nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 and is a narrow ration. To calculate the

nutritive ratio, the fat is multiplied by 2-1/4, the product added to

the carbohydrates, and this sum divided by the protein. It is not

possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other

nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons, because the

needs of the body vary so with different individuals. Hard and fast

rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be

formulated, as our knowledge of the subject is too limited. It is known

that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious. While the

appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety, it alone cannot always

be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of

food to consume, although the demands of appetite should not be

disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not

voicing the needs of nature. There has been a tendency which perhaps was

a survival of the Puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as

hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant; as examples might be

cited the craving for water by fever patients, and for sugar by growing

children, which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature.

246. Dietary Standards.--As a result of a large number of dietary

studies and digestion experiments, dietary standards have been

prepared. Atwater in this country and Voit in Germany have proposed such

standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows:

==========================================================================

---------------------------------|-------|----|-----------------|---------

| lb. | lb.| lb. |Calories| Ratio

Man with little physical exercise| 0.20 |0.20| 0.66 | 2450 | 5.5

Man with light muscular work | 0.22 |0.22| 0.77 | 2800 | 5.7

Man with moderate muscular work | 0.28 |0.28| 0.99 | 3520 | 5.8

Man with active muscular work | 0.33 |0.33| 1.10 | 4060 | 5.6

Man with hard muscular work | 0.39 |0.55| 1.43 | 5700 | 6.9

==========================================================================

In the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases

with the labor to be performed. In order to secure the necessary heat

and energy, rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more

fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work. All dietary

standards, however, should be regarded as tentative only. Opinions

differ greatly on different points; for example, as to the amount of

protein a ration should contain. This is a matter that can be determined

only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions, and as

yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards.

Chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less

protein than is called for in the standard ration.[77] The amount of

protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and

maintain a nitrogen equilibrium; that is, the income and outgo of

nitrogen from the body should be practically equal.

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--DIETARIES AND DIETARY

STANDARDS.

(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)]

"While one freely admits that health and a large measure of

muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of

protein, yet I think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will

show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what, for

want of a better word, one can only describe as energy." [28]

On the other hand, excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein

are sometimes consumed, adding greatly to the cost of the ration and

necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its

elimination.

247. Number of Meals per Day.--Some persons advocate two meals per day

rather than three, but dietary studies show that the best results are

secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals, and

with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount

of food than when three meals are eaten. It is not essential that the

food be equally divided among the three meals. Any one of them may be

lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the

individual dictate. If it is found necessary to reduce the total

quantity of food consumed, this may be done by a proportional reduction

of each of the meals, or of any one of them instead of decreasing the

number of meals per day. The occasional missing of a meal is sometimes

beneficial, in cases of digestion disorders, but the ordinary

requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or

physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are

consumed, as this insures an even supply of nutrients. For persons of

sedentary habits, the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be

regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal

experience.

"In the matter of diet every man must, in the last resort, be a law

unto himself; but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently

and apply it honestly, giving due heed to the warnings which nature

is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress."[28]

If there is trouble in digesting the food, it is well to study the other

habits of life along with the food question, for it may be the

difficulty arises from some other cause, and would be remedied by more

exercise and fresh air, avoiding rush immediately after meals, more

thorough mastication, or less worry. It is a serious matter to shut off

the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who

is working; as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then

expect a full amount of energy and heat. But unlike the furnace, when

the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and

uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness

or extreme nervous strain. Some persons live in such a way as to never

have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day

all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they

should be in their prime. Food is required for the production of nerve

energy as well as physical energy.[78]

248. Mixed Dietary Desirable.--Experiments in the feeding of farm

animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number

of foods to form a mixed ration, rather than from the use of one food

alone,[79] for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly

distributed, and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods

consumed. The same is true in human feeding; the best results are

secured from a mixed diet. Ordinarily, about two fifths of the nutrients

of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable

sources.

249. Animal and Vegetable Foods; Economy of Production.--Animal foods

can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and

vegetables, as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal,

together with forage crops, to make a pound of meat. Hence the returns

in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as

human food, than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of

the meat. As the population of a country increases, and foods

necessarily become more expensive, cereals are destined to replace

animal foods to a great extent, solely as a matter of economy.

250. Food Habits.--Long-established dietary habits and customs are not

easily changed, and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods,

substitution of others, although equally valuable, may fail to give

satisfactory results. For example, immigrants from southern Europe

demand foods with which they are familiar, as macaroni, olive oil, and

certain kinds of cheese, foods which are generally imported and more

expensive than the staples produced in this country,[80] and when they

are compelled to live on other foods, even though they have as many

nutrients, they complain of being underfed. Previously acquired food

habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and

assimilation. Sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm

animals is attended with unsatisfactory results, and whenever changes

are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual

rather than radical.

251. Underfed Families.--As the purchasing of food is often done by

inexperienced persons, palatability rather than nutritive value is made

the basis of choice. Dietary studies show that because of lack of

knowledge of the nutritive value of foods, whole families are often

underfed. Particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods

are limited. In dietary studies among poor families in New York

City,[81] the United States Department of Agriculture notes: "It is

quite evident that what is needed among these families more than

anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go

the farthest." Some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be

underfed, as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge

them. Among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished

as among the poor.

252. Cheap and Expensive Foods.--Among the more expensive items of a

ration are meats, butter, and canned fruits. The difference in

composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small,

being largely physical, and affecting taste and flavor rather than

nutritive value. Expensive cuts of meat, high-priced breakfast cereals,

tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors, add little in

the way of nutritive value to the ration, but greatly enhance the cost

of living. Ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal, wheat flour and

bread, milk, beans, cheese, sugar, and potatoes.[7] The amount of animal

and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may

be governed largely by personal preference or cost, as there is little

difference in nutritive value. The selection of foods on the basis of

cost and nutritive value is discussed in Chapter XVI.

253. Food Notions.--Many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive

value of foods, and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated

against because of prejudice. Skim milk is usually regarded as

containing little if any nourishing material, when in reality it has a

high protein content, and can be added to other foods to increase their

nutritive value. The less expensive cuts of meat contain more total

nutrients than many of the more expensive ones. Beef extracts have been

erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef,[51] and mushrooms

to be equal in value of beefsteak; chemical analyses fail to confirm

either statement. The banana also has been overestimated as to food

value, and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits, it is not

the equal of cereals, as has been claimed.[82] Cocoa, although a

valuable beverage, adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration

unless it is made with milk. The value of a food should be based upon

its composition as determined by chemical analysis, its digestibility as

founded upon digestion experiments, and its palatability and mechanical

structure. Food notions have, in many instances, been the cause of

banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods, of greatly

increasing the cost of living, as well as of promulgating incorrect

ideas in regard to foods, so that individuals and in some cases entire

families have suffered from improper or insufficient food.

254. Dietary of Two Families Compared.--A dietary study often reveals

ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts

of food, and sometimes at less expense. The following dietaries of two

families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as

much in the purchase of foods as the other family, and yet the one whose

food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive

material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended

for food.[13]

FOOD CONSUMED, ONE WEEK

FAMILY No. 1

20 loaves of bread $1.00

10 to 12 lb. loin steak, or meat of similar cost 2.00

20 to 25 lb. rib roast, or similar meat 4.40

4 lb. high-priced cereal breakfast food, 20 ct. 0.80

Cake and pastry purchased 3.00

8 lb. butter, 30 ct. 2.40

Tea, coffee, spices, etc 0.75

Mushrooms 0.75

Celery 1.00

Oranges 2.00

Potatoes 0.25

Miscellaneous canned goods 2.00

Milk 0.50

Miscellaneous foods 2.00

3 doz. eggs 0.60

------

$23.45

FAMILY No. 2

15 lb. flour, bread home-made (skim milk used) $0.45

Yeast, shortening and skim milk 0.10

10 lb. steak (round. Hamburger and some loin) 1.50

10 lb. other meats, boiling pieces, rump roast, etc. 1.00

5 lb. cheese, 16 cents 0.80

5 lb. oatmeal (bulk) 0.15

5 lb. beans 0.25

Home-made cake and pastry 1.00

6 lb. butter, 30 ct. 1.80

3 lb. home-made shortening 0.25

Tea, coffee, and spices 0.40

Apples 0.50

Prunes 0.25

Potatoes 0.25

Milk 1.00

Miscellaneous foods 1.00

3 doz. eggs 0.60

------

$11.30

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--COST AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF RATIONS.]

188. Variations in the Process of Bread Making.--Since flours differ