Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral
Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The
Bosna--Trout-fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen
Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the
Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--Culpa
River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to
Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian Troops--Probable
Policy--Water-Mills--Semlin--Belgrade.
The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches on
the mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessity
for making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople before
the Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and other
circumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at first
intended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea of
visiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and most
important towns in the province. The former of these places is
interesting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military point
of view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquently
of its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, having
become practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved upon
the simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz., that by Brod. In coming
to this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valley
of the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the whole
distance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that in
which Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows,
which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness which
characterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of the
Migliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the main
street at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in the
carriage of Mr. H., the British Consul, it was difficult to believe
oneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases built
of wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminine
apartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally be
seen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for the
first six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha's
handiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, the
sides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the end
of that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and the
Bosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting.
From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitary
journey, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. The
love of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces,
and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying their
inclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois,
hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country,
birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock,
ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; while
flights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but only
descend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, and
occasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever in
trapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or by
large traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps.
Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise from
the earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built over
them by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for the
benefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them.
Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for one
person, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. The
waters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneous
diseases, and were at one time in great request for every kind of
disorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the
'Custos,' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leaving
the Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, we
crossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank,
or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heat
and the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of various
pachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hours
farther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in the
khan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineral
water, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the year
very fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when fresh
drawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. It
is in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addicted
to its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year to
elapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there for
two or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallon
after gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived at
Boosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing up
to that point. The water of the Bosna is here beautifully transparent;
and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which is
considered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the way
to Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in the
village suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint in
Bosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult to
understand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, which
is at times much swollen by the melting snow.
10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenery
was very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old road
constructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which winds
sometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth green
plains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was rather
deep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when I
saw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without further
injury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna is
not so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers'
tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. have been killed in the latter
province. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh,
however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour of
trout and salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and are
very abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza,
a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in the
public room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to Bosna
Serai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, and
declared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorification
which I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time I
should have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of all
concerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day;
but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed it
prudent to push on.
Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch of
Zaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only by
sending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to the
Serdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is the
principal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twenty
pence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of their
services. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out of
their regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, which
fell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold was
intense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about three
hours apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. On
the morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm,
although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenery
must be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the early
autumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearance
of the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with either
of these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals into
large open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-white
burden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above all
the river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced an
effect characteristic and grand.
About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, and
swollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fine
appearance.
On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situated
in the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparently
dividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the houses
meet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of the
central mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command the
river, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means of
communication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction.
After leaving this town there still remained four hours of my journey
to be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intended
passing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I was
positively staggered at the total absence of even the commonest
necessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buy
potatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, nor
chickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Having
received the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could not
help asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told that
they lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of my
astonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friends
at Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I should
have felt the pangs of hunger that day.
At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it is
often translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square,
with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of the
entire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; the
whole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and you
have a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when one
is justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is when
inhabiting one of these abodes of bliss.
About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by means
of a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300
houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like that
place it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is also
surmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudir
told me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken by
the Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of the
previous day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, and
a few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were,
however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely to
be obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only when
superannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens are
consequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killing
them is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected for
this office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himself
with a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in the
beholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey,
Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is then
beheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses have
ceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of these
executions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome,
who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke out
in English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever;
'That one very good man, cut his head off.' The man had but one idea of
death, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upon
decapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life.
Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7
A.M., I reached Brod at 8.30 in the evening. The distance is
considerable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time,
had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progression
both difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired the
distance told me more than the one before, until I thought that a
Bosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German
'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch.' At length, however, the
lights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name.
On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all the
Slavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Late
as it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceeded
straight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men to
ferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we were
challenged by the Austrian sentry on the other side. As the garrisons
of all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, or
confinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussion
took place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of my
suite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. My
servant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talk
pretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; the
soldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with the
most unanswerable argument--that we were quite at liberty to cross if we
liked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into good
view. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, I
returned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At his
offices, close to the river, I found M.M., le Directeur de la
Quarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. He
accompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate,
appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I was
somewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not due
for two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it had
not yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return to
Belgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route.
It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it to Sissek, than to
await its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of the
towns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers.
Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer as
soon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a small
saloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stove
lighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females,
the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was so
oppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paid
for, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I was
told that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this I
demurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was the
tariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, and
received the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed to
break through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, he
would take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got my
cabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, with
its two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpeted
floor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. The
night was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part of
it, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danube
during the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touched
at Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing close
to the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new town
being about an hour's distance inland.
About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villages
on the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a German
town.
The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three round
and one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It is
interesting from its connection with the military history of the
country. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, waved
the flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces by
the old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels of
Austria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it has
received the name of "la lingua di tré regni."
At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River Cūlpa, at the mouth
of which is the town of Sissek.
It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fair
inns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of the
opulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke,
appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the indulgence in the
latter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions of
the steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, a
gentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk,
manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On the
ensuing morning, I crossed the Cūlpa, and inspected the works connected
with the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state of
completion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen are
employed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them;
every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, who
has the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is used
in preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to be
the greater of the two.
Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attila
put in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decaying
Roman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and many
curiosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modern
antiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for any
strange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrian
officers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian and
Croatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelings
to her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40,000 men,
dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within a
circumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4,000
baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment.
It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of these
troops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check the
free-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used as
a penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The whole
history of Austria points to the real object with which they have been
accumulated, viz. to be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, in
the event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importance
to justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would be
questionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled the
Austrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained a
substantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce them
to make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantages
derivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country,
Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in a
province in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has small
reason for fear, since no single bond of union exists between the
Slaves on either bank of the Save.
But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would be
to support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, since
their interests are identical, viz. the preservation of order among the
Slavish nations of the world.
After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat and
uninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent covered
with low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundary
between Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the only
objects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river is
studded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin,
but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by the
morning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in the
town, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commanded
the garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening I
crossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of the
principality of Servia.
SERVIA:
ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION.
CHAPTER I.
The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to the
internal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. The
first of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governments
to their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is the
indifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are less
successful, or which have not been brought into prominence by
contemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last of
these influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts which
have as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, as
is but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected at
Belgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few years
written upon the subject; and having been at some pains to obtain the
means of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of the
Servian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerning
them to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusal
of Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert and
Paton.
The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for serious
regret, not only to those who are politically interested in the
well-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advanced
state of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people who
pride themselves on the universality of Christianity within their
limits.
The present population is about one million, and is said to be
increasing at the rate of ten per cent., but so crudely compiled are the
statistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of this
statement. Of this million of souls, 200,000 at the lowest estimate are
foreigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and the
children of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated to
the northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return to
their ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or an
unlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives,
they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathy
inherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled at
Belgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they have
sunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots.
The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence of
a country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whose
name is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians of
Turkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and more
especially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, will
tell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with a
smaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than double
the revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test of
the prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by the
lamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in the
most abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturally
fertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to its
possession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There is
probably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania for
litigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. An
insurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise,
by the narrow-mindedness of the people.
The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce,
the very existence of which is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade the
common necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks of
the Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs than
the reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe has
familiarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Well
will it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience which
he has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he may
previously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and the
moral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all that
he witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior--miserable hovels,
uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were the
sights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions have
been placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth which
the country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the reckless
destruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns during
the past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export trade
of pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This is
immediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, a
process which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners,
and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon an
equality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize and sliegovich, a
kind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery.
The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisation
or the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by the
following circumstance:--Having, in company with the Princess, visited
the cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of three
daughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs of
approaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled the
question of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why,' said he, in reply
to a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of the
damsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth more
than three fat pigs to me.' Manners must have changed very much for the
worse since the days of Ami Boué, or it is difficult to conceive upon
what he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servian
women. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they are
subjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado,
from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey.
The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood which
distinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate a
certain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptoms
are not so encouraging. With contempt for its ministers, has come
disregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which are
but scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which is
spreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown for
adherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics are
compelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there are
not a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mob
are permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminated
on these occasions.
An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same law
is equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over the
Christians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice of
the most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame for
military exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from the
praise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. The
successes of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkish
levies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present population
in indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability to
drive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In a
word, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their own
prowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province would
probably have shared the fate of Bosnia, Albania, Epirus, and the
Pashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent as
themselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power having
extended to them the safeguard of a guarantee.
Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is for
my readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thus
conferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the present
miserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the European
guarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by the
advantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which was
the result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has given
place to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. A
principal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want of
responsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this the
Servian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many acts
of presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive to
the fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers,
added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exempt
them from any fear of chastisement.
The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming a
component geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, that
of weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown,
ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, of
the drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops from
time to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionary
propaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is much
weakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable,
the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely from
any species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; for
be it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. The
hattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, the
Sultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never been
strictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead to
complications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be made
against it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and were
only used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians now
complain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschanin
has but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on a
special mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured to
procure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villages
which they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand would
appear just in the letter of the law, but for the neglect on the part
of the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, that
before resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive an
equivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porte
consequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultan
hereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as he
would still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at the
confluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong and
well-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town,
its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine the
fate of the province.
The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in the
country. In addition to 2,000 Austrian subjects, the population is of a
very polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to the
importance, have deprived the town of its national appearance.
CHAPTER II.
Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be well
to pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which no
chronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tend
considerably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of a
south Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects of
aggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved by
Servia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievous
disappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneously
with the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, the
revolt might have become general, and would have been fraught with
consequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality may
be attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout that
struggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifested
by the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared,
than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feeling
more favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering to
her traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting petty
disturbances with the view of disorganising and impeding the
consolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her own
influence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritual
allegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor to
attain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and even
more unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signal
success than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifference
displayed by the people on these subjects.
One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution in
Servia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurred
in 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was ever
in the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed by
that Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him great
weight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russian
bias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had she
procured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth.
Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote actively
the cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survived
his return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged and
bloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they were
ineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy.
The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected to
many powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating a
diversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of the
Turkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandoned
is not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to the
display of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Be
this as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859,
when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of an
insurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have been
encouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculated
upon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wish
to precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff's
mission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at the
fruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover,
occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for the
moment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able and
willing to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, the
report of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to be
derived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in her
disinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latter
part of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were issued shortly
after his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it is
more than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquire
into and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that moment
had acquired a certain degree of importance.) The Bulgarian emissaries
told him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces,
unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, when
Baron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by the
promises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promises
were never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with great
barbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact is
tolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonic
insurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which so
much trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold as
deep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on the
Mussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of the
Christians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature of
those whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, and
who would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreign
intervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still is
the policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch played
admirably into their hands, not foreseeing that in the general
bouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Servia
might be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands of
Servian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of the
Mussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed to
the rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accrued
to Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands were
composed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together by
payment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show of
resistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all cases
led by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spirit
of military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could at
least lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worse
ensued.
On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party of
Mussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eight
were killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably to
avoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capital
of both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds for
suspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence of
Sleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among the
murderers, clearly shows where and with what views the crime was
devised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in a
vineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered by
Servians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects of
a country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder,
cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met with
the sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him off
in the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not the
least of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherously
murdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive a
retrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the living
prince who now holds the reins of government.
CHAPTER III.
The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was the
first step towards the substitution of hereditary for elective
succession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to induce
the Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future that
which had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years which
intervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when Prince
Milosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the various
capitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during that
period have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of his
semi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his father
deprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear to
be one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinary
amount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of a
people at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so little
desire for enlightenment.
At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, was
strong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were her
principal agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he would
adhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to his
great benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risen
to unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised.
This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, who
certainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father.
It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power the
disinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views,
who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with his
peculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may be
ascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devoted
to intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it is
of one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must be
acknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly.
No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in the
surrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those by
whom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sent
to all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christian
subjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and setting
forth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced by
Mussulman oppression. The sympathy which might have been felt for the
sufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threw
doubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrived
from the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they were
found to be almost identical in form and wording.
Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, to
which the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring to
promote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discourage
the efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the view
of settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally from
the Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals and
outlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of their
charter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were set
on foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died a
natural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The émigrés cannot have
been too well satisfied with the position in which they found
themselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, in
spite of Mussulman oppression.
Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all his
energies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavoured
to effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing in
this, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gained
his point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he has
succeeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditary
succession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by which
his power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may be
termed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the first
instance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removed
by him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. The
whole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given a
colouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original number
of members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, he
has virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness he
induced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions,
and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placing
absolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met with
some faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out his
wishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirely
independent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers,
but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his throne
in 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuing
it with far greater caution. The Servians, too, having sunk
immeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon their
rights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore.
Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in the
scale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michael
is a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probably
shared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notions
of the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment of
Turkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the other
Christians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard the
northern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. The
ambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect of
dominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. His
conversation, character, and previous history all point to one
conclusion--that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavish
provinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with an
Hungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of the
great Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to these
dreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of the
agitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crush
any insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest of
Great Britain, which are staked on the preservation of the Ottoman
empire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such day
dreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre must
be alive to all the opposing elements which will defer the
accomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding natural
prejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it is
probable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionary
are the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia.
Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunities
of forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his own
intellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is too
degraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom,
certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient.
Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity of
sentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of the
advantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the most
important of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order.
In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting.
A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources will
show how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeute
which circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of the
country has up to this time amounted to 200,000_l._ sterling. This has
been raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40,000 males. Nearly the
whole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in the
salary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, the
Prince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. An
impost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, but
having, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, the
system broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yielded
by the original method. Equally abortive, as might have been
anticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50,000 men.
Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to be
rife among the people, the financial condition of the country would
render the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1,800
soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Granting
even the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to pay
them, the population of the country would not, according to ordinary
statistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could be
calculated on in the event of war would be about 40,000 men, and these
only in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted.
How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend on
the amount of plunder to be obtained, and the nature of the resistance
which they might encounter.
The matérial of the existing force is about on an equality with that of
most continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles,
and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery forms
the aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at the
arsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service.
A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined offices
of War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole of
the recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the source
whence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressed
than as a _politique d'ostentation_, which is, if we may compare small
things with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French and
Russian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegates
relinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence of
a mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to a
wider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show.
Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavish
kingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while he
neglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are so
intimately blended. Let him apply himself to the developement of her
internal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation among
the people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolence
which has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to do
all this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading place
among the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, should
unforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must stand
or fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interest
renders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to her
regeneration.
With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up to
the conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'the
interests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey.' For, should the
disruption of the Ottoman empire take place--the probability of which is
at any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers--it will not
be effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; and
credulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of those
who would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partition
which would ensue, Servia might find even her former independence
overlooked.
Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition of
the people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Servia
should thus cast away the sympathy which, were she bent on
self-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, I
may appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon her
Prince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yet
evinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay no
longer, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should be
weighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, be
indeed found miserably wanting.
CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that the
preceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect which
they now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced against
Montenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loan
which has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country.
That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to be
regretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movements
weigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend.
It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded to
more than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then,
that if Cettigné be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of the
present year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap,
and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he is
already entitled.
APPENDIX.
The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince of
Montenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentiments
which it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroborate
his words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands.
Cettigné, le 30 juillet 1861.
Monsieur le Consul,
A l'occasion de la récente et grave mésure prise par la Turquie
envers le Montenégro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire
connaître succinctement à MM. les Consuls des Grandes Puissances
qu'elle a été tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-à-vis de
l'empire ottoman.
Depuis mon avènement j'ai employé tout mon pouvoir à maintenir la
tranquillité. Sur les frontières je n'ai rien négligé pour éloigner
tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosités séculaires qui
séparent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner à la Turquie les
preuves les plus irréfragables de meilleur voisinage.
Dans une occasion toute récente je me suis rendu avec empressement
au désir exprimé par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer
autant qu'il était dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux
enfermés dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai été heureux de pouvoir
en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de déference aux
Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir répondre, comme il convenait à un
souverain et un peuple chrétien, à l'appel fait à ses sentiments
d'humanité. Je ne me suis point arrêté devant la considération d'un
intérêt personnel.
LONDON
PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.
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[Illustration: THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY.]