Locality.
Widespread in Europe, as Scotland, Germany, and Russia; also Asia.
Naturalized in United States.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to one hundred feet in height, two to five feet in diameter;
sometimes larger.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish white to yellowish white, sapwood similar. Even
straight grain (varies with locality).
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Moderately light, hard, tough, and elastic, easily worked (varies
with locality).
Representative Uses of Wood.
Carpentry, construction, planks, beams, masts, heavy timber.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
34 (Lazlett[81]) (varies with locality).
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,680,000 (Lazlett) (varies with locality).
1,800,000 (Thurston).
Modulus of Rupture.
7000 (Thurston) (varies with locality).
Remarks.
Principal soft wood of Europe. Widely distributed; local
peculiarities once thought to denote different species. Fields
tributary to Dantzic and Rigi afford best wood. Wood "equal to
Dantzic Fir" sometimes specified. [p146]
FOOTNOTE
[Footnote 81: Table CLXVII, p. 418.]
KAURI PINE.
(_Dammara_.)
This New Zealand tree affords one of the best substitutes for
northern pine. Although not true pine, it belongs to the same family
as the pine and other conifers. The light, strong, durable, elastic
wood is obtainable in large-sized pieces suitable for masts.
The species is universally noted for its resin, which possesses the
quality of uniting more perfectly than others with linseed oil.[82]
Kauri gum is thus one of the most valuable constituents of good
varnish.[83] The best gum occurs as a fossil, and is collected by
digging over areas known to be fruitful but from which trees have
long since disappeared. The pieces, varying in size from small
pebbles to lumps as large as eggs, are scraped and otherwise cleansed
by natives in the fields.[84] [p147]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 82: It unites with linseed oil at lower temperatures than
other gums of its kind.]
[Footnote 83: Fossil Kauri gum has sold for one thousand to fifteen
hundred dollars per ton.]
[Footnote 84: One mass of two hundred and twenty pounds has been
reported (R. Ingham Clark, F.R.G.S.: "Notes on Fossil Resins,"
published by C. Letts & Co., London).]
Correspondence Professor Alvah H. Sabin, New York City; Messrs.
Pratt & Lambert, New York City.
[Illustration: PLATE 28. KAURI PINE (_Dammara australis_).
_From R. Ingham Clark, by courtesy of Messrs. Pratt & Lambert._
Fragments of Gum one-quarter natural size. "Fossil gum" at right and
centre.]
KAURI PINE.
_Dammara australis._
Nomenclature.
Kauri Pine (local and general).
Cowdie Pine (New Zealand and many localities).
Locality.
New Zealand.
Features of Tree.
Ninety to one hundred feet in height, three to four feet in
diameter, occasional specimens much larger. Small leaves resembling
those of box. A tall handsome tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood straw-colored, fine, close, straight grain.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Moderately hard, light, elastic, strong, seasons well, works
readily, receives high polish.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Carpentry, masts.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
33 (Lazlett[85]) (varies with locality).
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,810,000 (Lazlett).
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
The species is widely known by reason of its gum. [p148]
FOOTNOTE
[Footnote 85: Table CLXXI, p. 426.]
SPRUCE.
(_Picea_.)
The spruces form forests in Europe and North America. The black
spruce (_P. nigra_) and the white spruce (_P. alba_) predominate
in eastern United States, while the white spruce (_P. engelmanni_)
is important in the West. The Norway spruce, or white fir (_P.
excelsa_), is the chief European species. American trees prefer
Northern ranges characterized by short summers and long winters.
The soft, light, clean woods resemble and are probably the best
substitute for soft pine. They are apt to warp and twist in seasoning
and so are not good for posts and trusses. Spruce is the principal
wood in New England for studding and floor-joists. The product is
divided commercially and according to appearance, but irrespective of
species, into white and black spruce. These terms depend sometimes,
at least, on the wide and narrow rings of the black spruce (_P.
nigra_). It should be remembered that spruce and fir woods are often
confused with one another, and that there are trees, as the Douglas
spruce and Kauri pine or spruce, that are called, but are not, true
spruces. European spruce is often locally known as white deal.
Spruce trees have single, sharp-pointed, short leaves, pointing
everywhere, and keeled above and below so as to appear four-sided;
the cones hang down. Spruce may be distinguished from the pines,
firs, and hemlocks by the fact that pine leaves are longer and in
clusters, that hemlock leaves are flat, blunt, and two-ranked, and
that fir cones point upward. The genus picea has twelve species, five
of which are North American. The resins of the black and red spruce
are used as confections. [p149]
[Illustration: PLATE 29. BLACK SPRUCE (_Picea nigra_).]
The following table sets forth the primary distinctions between the
spruces and the pines, firs, and hemlocks:
Pines (_Pinus_)
Arrangement of Leaves. In tufts or clusters.
Shape of Leaves. Comparatively long.
Cones.
Spruce (_Picea_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, point in all directions.
Shape of Leaves. Short, sharp ends, keeled above and below.
Somewhat four-sided.
Cones. Hang down, 1 to 6 inches long.
Fir (_Abies_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, appear somewhat as in
two ranks.
Shape of Leaves. Short, blunt ends, flat.
Cones. Stand erect, 2 to 4 inches long.
Hemlock (_Tsuga_)
Arrangement of Leaves. Single, scattered, appear as in two ranks.
Shape of Leaves. Short, blunt ends, flat.
Cones. Hang down, 3/4 to 1 inch long.
[p150]
BLACK SPRUCE.
_Picea nigra Link._
_Picea mariana Mill._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Spruce (Vt.), Yew Pine, Spruce Pine (W. Va.).
Double Spruce (Me., Vt., Minn.).
Blue Spruce (Wis.).
White Spruce (W. Va.).
He Balsam (Del., N. C.).
Water Spruce (Me.).
Locality.
Pennsylvania to Minnesota, Alleghany Mountains to North Carolina.
Best in Canada.
Features of Tree.
Forty to eighty feet in height, one to two feet in diameter. Conical
shape with straight trunk. Dark foliage. Cones remain for several
years, being thus distinct from white spruce.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish, nearly white; sapwood lighter. Straight grain,
compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, flooring, carpentry, ship-building, piles, posts, railway
ties, paddles, oars, "sounding-boards," paper-pulp.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
28.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,560,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,600.
Remarks.
A substitute for soft pine. Resin is used as a confection. [p151]
FOOTNOTE
It is often difficult to distinguish between black and white spruce
trees. The foliage of the former is darker as a whole, and there
are differences in shape and persistence of cones. The names double
spruce and single spruce are without evident foundation. Woods
exhibit similar qualities and are classed together by lumbermen. Red
Spruce (_Picea rubens_) resembles, and is sometimes considered a
variety of, black spruce.
WHITE SPRUCE.
_Picea alba Link._
_Picea canadensis Mill._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Single Spruce (Me., Vt., Minn.).
Bog Spruce, Cat Spruce (N. Eng.).
Skunk Spruce (Wis., New Eng.).
Spruce, Double Spruce (Vt.).
Pine (Hudson Bay).
Locality.
Northern United States, Canada to Labrador and Alaska.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to one hundred feet in height, one to two feet in diameter,
occasionally larger. Compact, symmetrical, conical shape. Foliage
lighter than black spruce. Cones fall sooner than those of black
spruce. Whitish resin.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light yellow, sapwood similar. Straight-grained, numerous
prominent medullary rays. Compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong (similar to Black Spruce).
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, flooring, carpentry, etc. (similar to Black Spruce).
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
25.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,450,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,600.
Remarks.
Notable as resident of high latitudes. Chief tree of arctic forests.
Wood, used similarly to black spruce, is substituted for white pine.
[p152]
WHITE SPRUCE.
_Picea engelmanni Engelm._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Spruce (Ore., Col., Utah, Idaho).
Balsam, Engelmann's Spruce (Utah).
White Pine (Idaho), Mountain Spruce (Mont.).
Locality.
Rocky Mountain region, Montana to Mexico, Washington, Oregon, and
British Columbia (high elevations).
Features of Tree.
Frequently seventy-five to one hundred feet in height and sometimes
higher, two to three feet in diameter, sometimes low shrub.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood pale reddish yellow, sapwood similar. Close, straight
grain, compact structure, conspicuous medullary rays.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, charcoal, fuel. Bark rich in tannin, sometimes used for
tanning.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
21.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,140,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
8100.
Remarks.
Notable as resident of high altitudes, extensive forests occurring
at eight to ten thousand feet above sea-level. A valuable tree of
the central and southern Rocky Mountain region. [p153]
SITKA SPRUCE.
_Picea sitchensis Trautv. and Mayer._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Sitka Spruce (local and common name).
Tideland Spruce (Cal., Oreg., Wash.).
Menzies Spruce.
Western Spruce.
Great Tideland Spruce.
Locality.
Pacific coast region, Alaska to central California. Extends inland
about fifty miles; prefers low elevations.
Features of Tree.
One hundred and fifty feet or more in height, three feet or more in
diameter. Flat-pointed pyramidal needles, oval cylindrical cones,
thick scaly reddish-brown bark.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse-grained,
satiny.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Construction, interior finish, fencing, boat-building, cooperage.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
2626.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,400.
Remarks.
A giant among spruces. Forms an extensive coast-belt forest. [p154]
DOUGLAS SPRUCE.
(_Pseudotsuga_.)
The Douglas or Red Pine, Spruce, or Fir, of the Pacific coast is
neither true pine, spruce, nor fir, but a sort of bastard hemlock.
The name "pseudotsuga" is from _pseudo_, or false, and _tsuga_, or
hemlock. The trees are among the greatest known. The wood resembles
larch or hard pine in properties, appearance, and applications. Trees
have been successfully planted in the Adirondacks. The species was
earlier classed as Pinus taxifolia and as Abies taxifolia. [p155]
[Illustration: PLATE 30. DOUGLAS SPRUCE (_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_).]
DOUGLAS SPRUCE, DOUGLAS FIR.
_Pseudotsuga taxifolia Lam._
_Pseudotsuga Douglasii Carr._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Oregon Pine (Cal., Wash., Oreg.).
Red Fir, Yellow Fir (Oreg., Wash., Idaho, Utah, Mont., Col.).
Douglas Tree, Cork-barked Douglas Spruce.
Spruce, Fir (Mont.).
Red Pine (Utah, Idaho, Col.).
Puget Sound Pine (Wash.).
Locality.
Pacific coast region, Mexico to British Columbia. Best in western
Oregon and Washington.
Features of Tree.
One hundred and seventy-five to sometimes three hundred feet in
height, three to five and sometimes ten feet in diameter. Older bark
rough-gray, often looking as though braided.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light red to yellow, sapwood nearly white.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Variable, usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Heavy construction, dimension timbers, railway ties, piles, fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
32 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]
36 (average of 20 specimens by Soulé).[87]
32.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,680,000 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]
1,862,000 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]
1,824,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7,900 (average of 41 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[86]
9,334 (average of 21 specimens by Soulé).[87]
12,500.
Remarks.
Used similarly to hard pine. Lumbermen divide into red and yellow
woods, the former dark and coarse, the latter fine, lighter, and
more desirable. These distinctions probably due to age. One of the
world's greatest trees. [p156]
FOOTNOTE
[Footnote 86: See page 6.]
[Footnote 87: Professor Frank Soulé, University of California.
Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., p. 552, Vol. XXIX.]
FIR.
(_Abies_.)
Several of the fir-trees of the western United States attain to
very great size. The silver fir (_Abies grandis_) and the white fir
(_Abies concolor_) supply much wood in the section in which they
grow. The balsam fir (_Abies balsamea_) of the Eastern States is of
some commercial importance.
Fir wood resembles spruce in appearance and in structural qualities.
It may be told from spruce as well as from pine and larch by the fact
that fir has no resin-ducts. The balsam fir is distinguishable by
clear liquid resin which appears in blisters in the bark. The coarse,
weak wood is cleaner than the bark would indicate. Spruce and fir
woods are often confused in the United States, while pine, spruce,
and fir are similarly confounded in Europe.
[Illustration: BALSAM FIR (_Abies balsamea_).]
Fir trees have flat, scattered, evergreen leaves, and cones that
stand erect (see footnote under spruce). [p157]
BALSAM FIR, COMMON BALSAM FIR.
_Abies balsamea Mill._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Balsam (Vt., N. H., N. Y.).
Fir Tree (Vt.).
Balm of Gilead (Del.).
Canada Balsam (N. C.).
Balm of Gilead Fir (N. Y., Pa.).
Blister Pine, Fir Pine (W. Va.).
Single Spruce, Silver Pine (Hudson Bay).
Locality.
Minnesota to Virginia, northward intermittently into Canada.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to seventy feet in height, one to two feet in diameter.
Sometimes low shrub. Blisters in smooth bark contain thick balsam.
Erect cones.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood white to brownish, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained,
compact structure, satiny.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Occasionally used as inferior lumber.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
23.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,160,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7300.
Remarks.
Scattered throughout Northern pineries. Cut when of sufficient size
and sold with pine or spruce. Cultivated in gardens. Exudations
known as Canada Balsam used in medicine. The poplar (P. balsamifera)
is also called Balm of Gilead. [p158]
GREAT SILVER FIR, WHITE FIR.
_Abies grandis Lindl._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Silver Fir (Mont., Idaho).
Oregon White Fir, Western White Fir (Cal.).
Yellow Fir (Mont., Idaho).
Lowland Fir.
Locality.
Vancouver region, northwestern United States. Best in west
Washington and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
Two hundred to sometimes three hundred feet in height, two to five
feet in diameter. Leaves deep green above, silvery below, usually
curved. A handsome tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact
structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, interior finish, packing-cases, cooperage.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
22.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,360,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7000.
Remarks.
Forms important part of local mountain forests and furnishes much
lumber locally. [p159]
WHITE FIR, BALSAM FIR.
_Abies concolor Parry._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth).
Silver Fir, Balsam (Cal.).
California White Fir (Cal.).
Black Gum, Bastard Pine (Utah).
White Balsam (Utah).
Balsam Tree (Idaho).
Colorado White Fir, Concolor White Fir.
Locality.
Rocky Mountains and coast ranges, high elevations.
Features of Tree.
Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, three to five feet
in diameter. Pale green or silvery foliage. Bark blisters filled
with clear pitch.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown to nearly white, sapwood same or darker.
Coarse-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, without odor.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Butter-tubs, packing-boxes, lumber.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
22.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,290,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
9900.
Remarks.
Not always distinguished from the species Abies grandis. [p160]
RED FIR.
_Abies magnifica Murr._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
California Red Fir, California Red-bark Fir (Cal.).
Magnificent Fir, Golden Fir (Cal.).
Shasta Fir (Cal.).
Locality.
California, vicinity of Mount Shasta.
Features of Tree.
One hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in height, six to ten feet
in diameter. Large erect cones. Beautiful form.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish, sapwood distinguishable. Rather close-grained,
compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, durable when exposed, liable to injury in
seasoning.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Construction, sills, lumber, fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
29.
Modulus of Elasticity.
940,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
9900.
Remarks.
Magnifica or magnificent refers to appearance and size of tree.
[p161]
RED FIR, NOBLE FIR.
_Abies nobilis Lindl._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Noble Silver Fir, Noble Red Fir.
Larch (Oreg.).
Bigtree, Feather-cone, Red Fir (Cal.).
Locality.
Northwestern United States. Cultivated in East.
Features of Tree.
One to two hundred feet in height, six to nine feet in diameter.
Leaves curved. Large, beautiful tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood darker. Rather close-grained,
compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, hard, strong, elastic.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Fitted for house-trimmings.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
28.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,800,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
22,200.
Remarks.
Grows at high elevations (3000 and 4000 feet). With other fir forms
extensive forests. Sold as larch. [p162]
FOOTNOTE
Peters, "Forestry and Irrigation," Vol. VIII, No. 9 (Sept. 1902),
pp. 362, 366.
HEMLOCK.
(_Tsuga_.)
The hemlocks are distributed over northern United States from Maine
to Michigan, in the Rocky Mountains, and on the Pacific coast. They
generally mingle with broad-leaved and other needle-leaved species,
but occasionally form pure forests by themselves.
The wood is coarse, often crossed-grained, perishable, brittle,
liable to wind-shakes, hard to work, and apt to warp and splinter. It
holds nails firmly and is used for coarse lumber, dimension pieces,
paper-pulp, and latterly for cheap finish. It should not be relied
upon to receive shocks. The bark is used in tanning.
Hemlock trees may be known by their blunt, flat, evergreen leaves,
appearing two-ranked and whitened beneath (see foot-note under
Spruce). Red inner bark. [p163]
[Illustration: PLATE 31. HEMLOCK (_Tsuga_).
Hemlock Tree (_Tsuga canadensis_).
Western Hemlock Tree (_T. heterophylla_).
(6500 feet above sea-level.)
Hemlock Foliage (_Tsuga canadensis_).
Hemlock Wood (_Tsuga canadensis_).]
HEMLOCK.
_Tsuga canadensis._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Hemlock (local and common name).
Spruce (Pa., W. Va.).
Hemlock Spruce (Vt., R. I., N. Y., Pa., N. J., W. Va., N. C., S. C.).
Spruce Pine (Pa., Del., Va., N. C., Ga.).
Locality.
Eastern and central Canada, southward to North Carolina and
Tennessee.
Features of Tree.
Sixty to eighty or more feet in height, two or three feet in
diameter. Short leaves, green above and white beneath. Straight
trunk, beautiful appearance.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish brown, sapwood distinguishable. Coarse,
pronounced, usually crooked grain.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong or durable, brittle, difficult to work,
retains nails firmly, splintery.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Coarse lumber, joists, rafters, plank walks, laths, railway ties.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
26.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,270,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,400.
Remarks.
Canadensis refers to Canada, the locality where tree excels. [p164]
FOOTNOTES
The Southern or Carolina Hemlock (_T. caroliniana_) resembles
Hemlock. The Western Hemlock (_T. heterophylla_, Alaska to
California) attains height of 180 feet, diameter of 9 feet, and is
said to afford heavier and better wood. This tree is known by the
following names (Sudworth):
Western Hemlock, Hemlock Spruce (Cal.).
Hemlock (Oreg., Idaho, Wash.).
Alaska Pine (Northwestern Lumberman).
Prince Albert's Fir, Western Hemlock Fir, California Hemlock Spruce
(England).
"The Western Hemlock." Allen, U. S. Forestry Bureau Bulletin No. 33.
LARCH. TAMARACK.
(_Larix_.)
Larch was well known in the older time, and was prized in Europe
and the Orient. The two principal American species are also called
tamarack and hackmatack. The Eastern larch or tamarack (_L.
americana_) prefers peculiar low, wet areas known as tamarack swamps.
The Western tree (_L. occidentalis_) resembles the European species
and prefers dry places.
Larch wood has always been regarded as very durable. It is noted by
Pliny and other ancient authors.[88] Vitruvius mentions a bridge
that, having burned, was replaced by one of larch, because that wood
would not burn as readily.[89] The foundation-piles of Venice are
said to be of larch.[90] It should be remembered that the identities
of ancient woods are not always beyond question. American larch
resembles, if it does not equal, true foreign wood. The trees are
tall and straight, but so slender as to be seldom cut into lumber,
almost the entire supply being demanded for posts, ties, and poles.
The exceedingly durable wood resembles spruce in structure, and hard
pine in weight and appearance.
Larch trees are marked by the fact that their foliage is deciduous.
The little leaves, gathered in tufts or bundles, are of a bright
pea-green when fresh in the springtime. The appearance of tamarack
trees when divested of foliage in the winter is very gloomy.
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 88: Pliny, XVI, 43-49 and XVI, 30.]
[Footnote 89: Vitruvius, II, 9.]
[Footnote 90: Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 310.]
[Illustration: PLATE 32. LARCH (_Larix_).
Larch Trees in Winter.]
TAMARACK, LARCH.
_Larix americana Michx._
_Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Tamarack, Larch, American Larch (local and common names).
Hackmatack (Me., N. H., Mass., R. I., Del., Ill., Mich.).
Black Larch, Red Larch (Minn., Mich.).
Juniper (Me., Canada).
Locality.
Northern United States and southern Canada, east from Great Lakes.
Features of Tree.
Seventy to ninety feet high, one to three feet in diameter. Short
pea-green deciduous leaves in tufts. A slender tree, winter aspect
gloomy.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. Coarse conspicuous
grain, compact structure, annual layers pronounced.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Heavy, hard, very strong, durable, resembles spruce.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Railway ties, fence-posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles,
flagstaffs, etc.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
38.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,790,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
12,800.
Remarks.
Practically all (tall thin) trunks required for railway ties, posts,
masts, etc. Seldom cut into lumber in consequence. Grows in light
swamps often extensive and known as tamarack swamp. (Trans. Am.
Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, page 157). [p166]
TAMARACK LARCH.
_Larix occidentalis._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Tamarack, Larch (local and common names).
Hackmatack (Idaho, Wash.).
Western Larch, Great Western Larch, Red American Larch.
Western Tamarack (Cal.).
Locality.
Washington and Oregon, intermittently to Montana.
Features of Tree.
Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet high, two and one-half to
four feet in diameter. A large tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light red, thin sapwood lighter. Coarse-grained, compact
structure, annual rings pronounced.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Hard, heavy, strong, durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Posts, railway ties, fuel, limited quantity of lumber, similar to L.
americana.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
46.
Modulus of Elasticity.
2,300,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
17,400.
Remarks.
A valuable tree of the Columbian basin. Differs from L. americana in
that it grows on dry ground, often at high elevations. [p167]
[Illustration: PLATE 33. CEDAR (_Cedrus_, _Thuya_, etc.).
Cedar of Lebanon (_Cedrus libani_).
Foliage of White Cedar (_T. occidentalis_).
Red Cedar Bark (_Juniperus virginiana_).
Foliage of Red Cedar (_J. virginiana_).
White Cedar Wood (_Thuya occidentalis_).
Tree of Red Cedar (_J. virginiana_).]
CEDAR.
(_Cedrus, Thuya, Chamæcyparis, Libocedrus, Juniperus_.)
Cedar was a name first applied to the true or Lebanon cedars
(_Cedrus_) of the Eastern continent, but later to certain Arborvitæs
(_Thuya_), Junipers (_Juniperus_), and Cypresses (_Chamæcyparis_),
and other trees (see "Spanish Cedar," page 122) from which durable,
fine-grained, more or less fragrant woods, known as cedar, are
obtained. Cedar was highly prized by the ancients, who employed it in
costly constructions, such as the temples of Solomon and of Diana at
Ephesus.[91][92] Woods known as cedar are divided into so-called Red
and White Cedars.
Red Cedar is very fine-grained, soft, light, durable, fragrant, and
of a pinkish-red color. Much wood is derived from the Red Cedars,
_Juniperus virginiana_, _Juniperus scopulorum_, and _Juniperus
barbadensis_, of the Eastern, Western, and Southern States
respectively. Although seen in construction, red cedar is chiefly
used in chests, closets, lead-pencils, and cigar-boxes. One hundred
and twenty-five thousand trees (125,000)[93] are annually required
for lead-pencils alone. The waste is often converted into shavings
and used instead of camphor to protect woolens. The demand is greater
than the supply. Trees are easily grown on almost any soil. Trees
and wood are subject to fungus diseases which apparently cease after
trees have been felled; the wood is then durable.[94]
White Cedar is best defined as all cedar that is not "red cedar,"
[p168] and is obtained from several valuable trees.[95] The
arborvitæs (_T. occidentalis_) vary in size from large bushes used
in hedging and ornamentation to small-sized trees gathered for wood.
They are most vigorous on cold, wet areas known as cedar swamps.[96]
The giant arborvitæ (_T. gigantea_), noted for its great girth, and
the yellow and Lawson Cypresses, are important Pacific coast species.
The incense cedar, while much subject to fungus trouble, is also
prized.[97] White cedar wood is durable, plentiful, and employed in
exposed positions as ties and shingles.
Arborvitæs (_Thuya_) have very small overlapping leaves that form
flat rods or fan-like sprays. The cones are oblong, less than
one-half inch in length, and all of their six or eight scales
separate or open when ripe. The cypresses (_Chamæcyparis_) exhibit
similar foliage, but their tiny cones are simple, roughened, close,
or solid globules. The Junipers (_Juniperus_) often, but not always,
bear bluish-black berries powdered with a whitish-blue bloom. The
true cedars (_Cedrus_) differ from the others in that they have
simple needle leaves, an inch, more or less, in length, together with
cones erect and several inches in length. The Deodar or cedar of
India is of this genus. The principal American red and white cedars
are as follows:
Red Cedar.
Red Cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_).
Red Cedar (_Juniperus scopulorum_).
Red Cedar (_Juniperus barbadensis_).
Spanish Cedar. (See page 99.)
White Cedar.
Arborvitæ (_Thuya occidentalis_).
Canoe Cedar (_Thuya gigantea_).
White Cedar (_Chamæcyparis thyoides_).
Port Orford Cedar (_Chamæcyparis lawsoniana_).
Yellow Cedar (_Chamæcyparis nutkaensis_).
Incense Cedar (_Libodecrus decurrens_).
[p169]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 91: It is probable that the ancients also used the word
Cedar somewhat generally.]
[Footnote 92: Pliny, 16, 213 and 16, 216.]
[Footnote 93: Notes on Red Cedar, Mohr. Bul. 31, U. S. Division
Forestry (Gifford Pinchot, Forester).]
[Footnote 94: Several of the fungoid parasites cause swellings
known as "cedar apples." The branches usually die. Professor von
Schrenk recognizes two diseases of the wood, white rot (_Polyporus
juniperus_ Schrenk) and red rot (_Polyporus carneus_). (Bulletin
No. 21, Division Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept.
Agriculture.)]
[Footnote 95: Heartwood often light grayish brown.]
[Footnote 96: Trunks of considerable size often grow surrounding,
but apart from, such swamps. Vigorous lower branches impede progress
through swamps, which are often as thick as to resemble immense
cultivated hedges. (Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol XXIX, p. 157.)]
[Footnote 97: Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School of
Botany, St. Louis.]
RED CEDAR.
_Juniperus virginiana Linn._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Red Cedar (local and common name).
Cedar (Conn., Pa., N. J., S. C., Ky., Ill., Ia., Ohio).
Pencil Cedar, Cendre (La.).
Savin (Mass., R. I., N. Y., Pa., Minn.).
Juniper, Red Juniper, Juniper Bush (local).
Locality.
Atlantic coast, Canada to Florida, westward intermittently to
Mississippi River in the North, and Colorado River in the South.
Features of Tree.
Fifty to eighty feet in height, two to three feet in diameter.
Sometimes low shrubs. Dark-green foliage, loose ragged outer bark.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood dull red, thin sapwood nearly white. Close, even grain,
compact structure, annual layers easily distinguishable.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable, fragrant.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Ties, sills, posts, interior finish, pencil-cases, chests,
cigar-boxes.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
30
Modulus of Elasticity.
950,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,500.
Remarks.
Fragrance of wood utilized as insecticide. The Western Red Cedar
(_J. scopulorum_) and the Southern Red Cedar (_J. barbadensis_)
afford similar wood. [p170]
JUNIPER.
_Juniperus occidentalis Hook._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Juniper (Oreg., Cal., Col., Utah, Nev., Mont., Idaho, N. M.).
Cedar, Yellow Cedar, Western Cedar (Idaho, Col., Mont.).
Western Red Cedar, Western Juniper (local).
Locality.
California, Washington, and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
Twenty-five to fifty feet in height, two to four feet in diameter,
often smaller. Long straight trunk in West.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood nearly white. Very close-grained,
compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, durable, receives high polish.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Fencing, railway ties, posts, and fuel.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
35.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
Rarely found below an altitude of 6000 feet. Fruit said to be eaten
by Indians. [p171]
WHITE CEDAR, ARBORVITÆ.
_Thuya occidentalis Linn._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Cedar, Arborvitæ (local and common names).
Cedar (Me., Vt., N. Y.).
Atlantic Red Cedar (Cal.).
Vitæ (Del.).
Locality.
Northern States eastward from Manitoba and Michigan. Northward, also
occasionally southward, as in mountain region of North Carolina and
eastern Tennessee.
Features of Tree.
Thirty to sixty feet high, one to three feet or more in diameter,
often smaller. Bruised leaves emit characteristic pungent odor,
rapidly tapering trunk.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood light brown, darkening with exposure, thin sapwood, nearly
white. Even, rather fine grain, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, light, weak, brittle, durable, inflammable. Permits spikes to
work loose.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, shingles, and boats.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
19.
Modulus of Elasticity.
750,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7200.
Remarks.
Trunks so shaped as to be seldom sawn for lumber. Often used for
telegraph or other poles, or else thin upper ends are used for
posts, and lower section flattened into ties. [p172]
CANOE CEDAR, ARBORVITÆ. GIANT ARBORVITÆ.
_Thuya plicata Don._
_Thuya gigantea Nutt._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Canoe Cedar, Giant Arborvitæ (local and common names).
Red Cedar, Giant Red Cedar, Pacific Red Cedar (Wash., Oreg., Cal.,
Idaho).
Cedar, Giant Cedar, Western Cedar (Oreg., Cal.).
Shinglewood (Idaho).
Locality.
Coast region, California to Alaska, Idaho to Montana.
Features of Tree.
One hundred to two hundred feet in height, two to eleven feet in
diameter. Four-sided leaves closely overlapping in sprays.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood dull reddish brown, thin sapwood nearly white.
Coarse-grained, compact structure, annual layers distinct.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, weak, light, brittle, easily worked, very durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Shingles, fencing, cooperage, interior finish, canoes (coast
Indians).
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
23.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,460,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
10,600.
Remarks.
Large trees are often hollow at the bottom. [p173]
WHITE CEDAR.
_Chamæcyparis thyoides L._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Cedar (local and common name).
Post Cedar, Swamp Cedar (Del.).
Juniper (Ala., N. C., Va.).
Locality.
Maine to Florida, Gulf coast to Mississippi, best in Virginia and
North Carolina.
Features of Tree.
Sixty to eighty feet in height, three to four feet in diameter.
Shaggy rugged bark. A graceful tree.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood pinkish to darker brown, sapwood lighter. Close-grained,
compact structure, conspicuous layers.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Very light, soft, not strong, extremely durable in exposed
positions, fragrant, easily worked.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Boats, railway ties, fencing, poles, posts, shingles.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
23 (U. S. Forestry Div.).
20.
Modulus of Elasticity.
910,000 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).
570,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
6310 (average of 87 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).
6400.
Remarks.
Grows chiefly in swamps. "White cedar posts" last many years.
Thyoides is from Thuya meaning arborvitæ and eidos, the Greek for
"resemblance." [p174]
PORT ORFORD CEDAR, LAWSON CYPRESS.
_Chamæcyparis lawsoniana Murr._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Cedar, Oregon Cedar (Oreg., Cal.).
Ginger Pine (Cal.).
Locality.
Pacific coast, California and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
One hundred to sometimes two hundred feet in height, four to twelve
(?) feet in diameter. Leaves overlapping in sprays, very small cones
one-fourth inch in diameter.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood yellowish white, sapwood similar. Very close-grained.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, hard, strong, durable, easily worked, fragrant, resinous.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Lumber, flooring, interior finish, ties, posts, matches,
ship-building.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
28.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,730,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
12,600.
Remarks.
Resin employed as insecticide. [p175]
YELLOW CEDAR, YELLOW CYPRESS, SITKA CYPRESS.
_Chamæcyparis nootkatensis (Lamb) Spach._
_Chamæcyparis nutkaënsis Spach._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Nootka Cypress, Nootka Sound Cypress (local).
Alaska Cypress, Alaska Ground Cypress (local).
Locality.
Oregon to Alaska.
Features of Tree.
One hundred feet or more in height, three to five feet or more in
diameter. Sharp-pointed, overlapping leaves, small globular cones.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood clear light yellow, thin sapwood nearly white.
Close-grained, compact structure.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, not strong, brittle, hard, durable in contact with soil,
easily worked, receives high polish, fragrant.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Ship-building, furniture, interior finish.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
29.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,460,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
11,000.
Remarks.
Valuable Alaska timber tree. Commercially not distinguished from
Pacific Arborvitæ. [p176]
INCENSE CEDAR, WHITE CEDAR.
_Libocedrus decurrens Torr._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Post Cedar, California Post Cedar (local).
Bastard Cedar, Red Cedar, California White Cedar (local).
Juniper (Nevada).
Locality.
California and Oregon.
Features of Tree.
Ninety to one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, occasionally
higher, three to six feet in diameter.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter. Close-grained, compact
structure. Heartwood often pitted. Fragrant.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, brittle, soft, durable.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Flumes, shingles, interior finish.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
25.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,200,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
960,000.
Remarks.
Subject to attack by fungus, causing the large oval pits in the
heartwood. Disease ceases upon the felling of trees. (von Schrenk
Contribution No. 14 Shaw School Botany, St. Louis.) [p177]
[Illustration: PLATE 34. CYPRESS (_Cupressus_, _Taxodium_).
Monterey Cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_).
(_Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co._)
Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_).
(_Photograph by Edward J. Davison_.)
"Peggy" Cypress Wood.]
CYPRESS.
(_Cupressus and Taxodium_.)
The name cypress has been chiefly applied to trees of the genera
Chamæcyparis, Cupressus, and Taxodium. Most species of the genus
Chamæcyparis are now called cedars (see page 167). The Cupressus,
while true cypresses and important in Europe, have no significance in
America. The single species of the genus Taxodium is not a cypress,
but supplies the "cypress" wood of American commerce. It is perhaps
best to confine the name cypress to the true cypress (_Cupressus_)
and to the commercial cypress (_Taxodium_).
The true cypress (_Cupressus_) was once important in the East, and
is thought by some to have given the gopher wood of which the Ark
was built.[98] Pliny mentions cypress doors good after four hundred
years, and a statue good after six hundred years. Herodotus and
other ancient authors[99] speak of it. Authorities in the middle
ages thought that it would never decay. The cypress gates of the
early St. Peter's, removed after one thousand years of service,
were found to be in perfect condition.[100] Cypress was much prized
for mummy-cases. Living trees long figured as funeral emblems, and
are yet planted over graves in Italy and Turkey.[101] The common
or evergreen cypress is the chief European species. The eight or
nine American representatives are of little note save as they are
sometimes used for hedges and ornamentation. The Monterey and Gowan
cypresses (_Cupressus macrocarpa_ and _Cupressus goveniana_) are thus
employed. There are small evergreen scale-like leaves. [p178]
[Illustration: BALD CYPRESS (_Taxodium distichum_).]
The American or Bald Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) is a tree of
considerable importance. It grows in the South Atlantic and Gulf
States, on submerged lands or in deep swamps where unusual logging
methods are necessitated. The seasoned wood resembles white cedar in
that it is soft, light, and very durable. It has been called by many
names. Pieces were once called black or white cypress according as
they sank or floated. All dark pieces are now called black cypress.
The tinted woods of some localities are called red or yellow cypress.
The name bald cypress was caused by the leafless appearance of the
trees in winter. The living trees are subject to a peculiar fungous
disease, causing numerous cavities in the wood. These so resemble
perforations made by small pegs that the wood is termed "peggy." The
trouble ceases as the trees are cut, and the wood is then as durable
as that from perfect trees. About one third of the standing supply
is thus affected.[102] The roots frequently project upward above
the surface in what are known as cypress knees. The single species
of this genus may easily be recognized by its deciduous foliage;
the little leaves are separated and are not in tufts as with the
tamaracks. [p179]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 98: Funk & Wagnalls' Standard Dictionary, quoting Horace
Smith, "Gayeties and Gravities," Chapter VII, p. 57.]
[Footnote 99: Pliny 16, 214 and 16, 215; Herodotus 4, 16; Virgil,
Georgics, 2, 443.]
[Footnote 100: Encyclopædia Britannica, B. 6, p. 745.]
[Footnote 101: Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon, B. 4, p. 654.]
[Footnote 102: U. S. Forestry Circular No. 19 (Dr. B. E. Fernow,
Chief).]
CYPRESS, BALD CYPRESS.
_Taxodium distichum Rich._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
White Cypress (N. C., S. C., Fla., Miss.).
Black Cypress (N. C., S. C., Ala., Tex.).
Red Cypress (Ga., Miss., La., Tex.).
Swamp Cypress (La.).
Deciduous Cypress (Del., Ill., Tex.).
Southern Cypress (Ala.).
Locality.
South Atlantic and Gulf States, Maryland through Florida to Texas,
Mississippi Valley from southern Illinois to the Gulf. Occasional in
North, as New York. Forms forests in swamps and barrens.[103]
Features of Tree.
Seventy to one hundred and fifty feet in height, four to ten feet
in diameter. Knees on roots often hollow in old age. Flat deciduous
leaves.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Heartwood brownish, sapwood nearly white. Close, straight grain.
Frequently pitted by disease.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, not strong, durable. Green wood often very heavy.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Carpentry, construction, cooperage, railway ties.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
29 (U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]
28.
Modulus of Elasticity.
1,290,000 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]
1,460,000.
Modulus of Rupture.
7900 (average of 655 tests by U. S. Forestry Div.).[104]
9600.
Remarks.
Wood commercially divided into "white" and "black" cypress because
of differences in age and environment. Fungus disease pits much
wood, but stops with felling of trees.[105] [p180]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 103: See Trans. Am. Inst. M. E., Vol. XXIX, page 157.]
[Footnote 104: See page 6.]
[Footnote 105: Von Schrenk, Contribution No. 14, Shaw School Botany,
St. Louis; also U. S. Forestry Circular No. 19.]
REDWOOD.
(_Sequoia_.)
These trees grow only in California. There are two species: the
common redwood (_S. sempervirens_), noted for its lumber, and the
big or mammoth tree (_S. washingtoniana_), so remarkable for its
great size. Geological evidence indicates that the genus was once
represented by many species on both hemispheres, but that all
disappeared during the glacial period save the two here noted.
The common redwood is a large and perfect tree and supplies a wood
suggesting good red cedar. This soft, light, clean, reddish-brown,
durable wood works and stands well, is not easily inflamed, and is
obtainable in large-sized pieces for use in large constructions.
Coffins and shingles are made of it, also large quantities of wooden
water-pipe employed for irrigation purposes. The average wood is seen
in cheaper forms of indoor finish, while occasional pieces, in which
the grain is distorted, are classed as curly redwood and used for
costlier decorations.
Big or Mammoth trees have been measured up to three hundred and
twenty feet in height and thirty-five feet in diameter (Sargent).
They are thus the largest of American trees and the most massive,
although not the tallest, of all trees. Specimens twenty-five feet
in diameter have been estimated as thirty-six hundred years old,
and it is thought that under favorable conditions trees can survive
for five thousand years, or even longer. The oldest trees are sound
throughout. The almost incombustible bark is nearly two feet in
thickness; the wood is brittle, but otherwise resembles ordinary
redwood. It should be noted that large exceptional trees are all
known, and that most of them have names such as the "Pride of the
Forest," the "Grizzly Giant," and the "U. S. Grant." These, with
younger trees, are grouped in [p181] the Mariposa, Calavaras, and
other groves. Many sawmills are unfortunately engaged on the trees of
this species.
[Illustration: PLATE 35. REDWOOD (_Sequoia_).
Redwood Foliage (_Sequoia sempervirens_).
Giant Redwood Tree (_S. washingtoniana_).
(_Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co._)
"Curly" Redwood Wood (dissection).]
Redwood trees may be known by their size, locality, and fine, dull,
evergreen foliage. The name Sequoia is that of an Indian chief. [p182]
FOOTNOTE
References: "The Big Trees of California," U. S. Forestry Division
Bulletin No. 28. Also Mr. Jas. Horsburgh, Jr., Southern Pacific
Railway.
REDWOOD.
_Sequoia sempervirens Endl._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Redwood (local and common name).
Sequoia, California Redwood, Coast Redwood (local).
Locality.
Central and North Pacific coast region.
Features of Tree.
Two hundred to three hundred feet in height, sometimes higher,
six to eight and sometimes twenty feet in diameter. Straight,
symmetrical trunk. Low branches rare.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Thick heartwood red, changing to reddish brown when seasoned; Thin
sapwood nearly white. Coarse, straight grain, compact structure,
very thick bark.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, not strong, soft, very durable, not resinous, easily worked.
Does not burn easily, receives polish.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Timber, shingles, flumes, fence-posts, coffins, railway ties,
water-pipes, interior decoration. Bark made into souvenirs.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
26 (census figure, see page 6).
Modulus of Elasticity.
790,000 (average of 8 Humboldt specimens).[106]
1,140,000 (average of 7 Humboldt specimens).[106]
960,000 (census figure, see page 6).
Modulus of Rupture.
4920 (average of 9 Humboldt specimens).[106]
7138 (average of 7 Mendocino specimens).[106]
8400 (census figure, see page 6).
Remarks.
Pacific coast chief construction wood. Curled or distorted grain
adds value for cabinet purposes. [p183]
* * * * *
The Big or Mammoth Tree or Giant Redwood (_S. washingtoniana_
Sudworth and _S. gigantea_) is the largest tree known. The wood
resembling that of _S. sempervirens_ is used locally, see U. S.
Forestry Bul. No. 28.
FOOTNOTE
[Footnote 106: Professor Frank Soulé, Trans. Am. Inst. M. E.,
California Meeting, 1899. There are several trees of this species
near New York City.]
[Illustration: PLATE 36. ENDOGENOUS STRUCTURE IN WOOD.
A section through a Palm Tree.
A cross-section of Palm wood. (Natural size.)]
ENDOGENOUS TREES.
(_Monocotyledons_.)
Endogenous trees are those that increase from within. Their elemental
parts are similar to those of exogenous trees but the arrangement
of such parts differs in that the newer fibres of the Endogen
intermingle with the old, pass through a pith-like tissue, and cause
cross-surfaces to appear as dotted, whereas the new material of the
Exogen is deposited altogether and upon the outside of the old, their
sections exhibiting rings or layers. The Palms, Yuccas, Cornstalks,
and Bamboos are of the endogens. Bark is unusual on trees of the
series.
Endogenous woods are hardest and most compact at circumferences. The
stems of palm trees are solid, but those of some of the grasses,
particularly those that grow quickly, are hollow.[107] The tube or
canal, when existing, is due to sluggishness on the part of the
central pith, which, developing more slowly than the outer tissues,
finally ruptures and disappears at the center. There are also more or
less permanent joints or knots,[108] such as are made familiar by the
canes and bamboos. The stems of Endogenous plants are seldom cut up
into lumber, but are used in segments, or else entire, as for troughs
or piles.[109] The use of Palm wood must be more or less [p184]
limited to the neighborhoods in which such trees flourish, but it is
probable that the Bamboo can be much more generally employed.
The Endogens include numerous families and many thousand
species.[110] The grasses, including wheat, rye, and Indian corn at
the North and sugar-cane and bamboo at the South, belong to this
group. Most Endogens are herbs; comparatively few furnish material
for structural purposes. The Palms, including the palmetto, rattans,
cane palms, and others, the Yucca, including the Joshua tree, Spanish
bayonet, and others, and the Bamboos, representatives of the grasses,
are thus useful. Endogens are also known as Monocotyledons. [p185]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 107: The Bamboo, which is a grass, is hollow, while the
cornstalk, which is also a grass, is not.]
[Footnote 108: The knots of endogens correspond to the nodes of
exogens. Spaces between the nodes, known as internodes, mark the
annual lengthening. Knots are places whence leaves have emerged.]
[Footnote 109: Palm in marine work appears to repel the teredoe.
This is probably because of the porous character of the wood. See
"Marine Wood Borers," Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL, pages 195 and
204.]
[Footnote 110: Bastin ("College Botany," p. 379) divides into about
fifty natural orders distributed among seven divisions. Warming
("Systematic Botany," pp. 277, 278) divides into seven families
corresponding with Bastin's seven divisions. A. Gray divides into
twenty-one orders or families. Coulter ("Plants," p. 237) divides
into forty families, including twenty thousand species.]
[Illustration: PLATE 37. PALM (_Palmaceæ_)
Cabbage Palmetto.
(_Courtesy N. C. Geological Survey_.)
Washington Palm (untrimmed).
(_Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co._).
Washington Palm (trimmed).
(_Los Angeles Chamber Commerce_.)]
PALM.
PALMACEÆ.
This is one of the largest and most important orders of plants known
to man. The one thousand[111] or more known species are distributed
over the tropical and semitropical regions of the entire world. Only
a few species, including the palmettos of the Gulf States and the fan
palms of California are native in the United States.
Palms have tall, columnar trunks without branches, but with crowns of
large leaves at their summits. Their forms and proportions are often
magnificent. The wood is soft, light, more or less porous, difficult
to work, and not strong. The shapes of trunks sometimes cause them
to be locally prized for piles, while the porous qualities of the
wood are such as to repel teredo.[112] There are many by-products,
as fruit, nuts, oil, etc. The rattan or cane palms of India and the
Malayan Islands sometimes grow to a height of two hundred feet and
are imported into Europe and America for chair-bottoms and the like.
Sudworth[113] enumerates the following as attaining to the dignity of
trees in the United States:
Cabbage Palmetto (_Sabal palmetto_).
Silvertop Palmetto (_Thrinax microcarpa_).
Silktop Palmetto (_Thrinax parviflora_).
Mexican palmetto (_Sabal mexicana_).
Sargent Palm (_Pseudoph[oe]nix sargentii_).
Fanleaf Palm (_Washingtonia filifera_).
Royal Palm (_Oredoya regia_).
[p186]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 111: Coulter, "Plants," p. 241.]
[Footnote 112: "Marine Wood Borers," Snow Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.,
Vol. XL, pp. 195 and 204.]
[Footnote 113: "Check List," U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 17.]
A. L. Wallace, "Palm Trees of Amazon and their Uses," London, 1853.
CABBAGE PALMETTO.
_Sabal palmetto Walt._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Cabbage Palmetto, Palmetto (N. C., S. C.).
Cabbage Tree (Miss., Fla.).
Tree Palmetto (La.).
Locality.
Southern Atlantic and Gulf coast, United States (intermittently).
Features of Tree.
Medium size, thirty to forty feet in height, one to two and one-half
feet in diameter.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Light-brown tint. Characteristic coarse fibre arrangement.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, difficult to work; durable in marine work; repels
teredo.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Piles, wharf work, etc.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
27.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
Scrubbing-brush "bristles" are made in considerable quantities in
Florida from the sheath of young leaves. The inner part of young
plants is edible. It is said (N. Y. _Evening Post_, April 20, 1901)
that paper is being manufactured from the leaves of the Palmetto.
[p187]
WASHINGTON PALM. FANLEAF PALM.
_Washingtonia filifera Wendl._
_Neowashingtonia filamentosa Wendl._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Fanleaf Palm, Washington Palm, Desert Palm (Cal.).
California Fan Palm, Arizona Palm, Wild Date (Cal.).
Locality.
California.
Features of Tree.
Thirty to sixty feet in height, one and one-half to three feet in
diameter. Fan-shaped leaves rising yet farther in tuft from summit;
edible fruit.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Light greenish yellow to dark red, conspicuous grain.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Soft, light, shrinks in seasoning, difficult to work.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Ornamental purposes.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
32.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
The largest of the United States Palms. Much used for landscape
effects in California. [p188]
YUCCA.
(_Yucca_.)
The eighteen species constituting this genus are all American. Twelve
of them are found in the southern and western United States, and
eight of these are mentioned by Sudworth[114] as arborescent. Several
of the Yuccas are cultivated because of their beautiful lily-like
flowers. The Tree Yucca or Joshua-tree affords wood.
This last named species produces a short stout trunk, peculiar in
that it is covered by thick bark. The soft, spongy wood is sometimes
sawn into lumber, made into souvenirs and lately into artificial
limbs. An attempt to manufacture it into paper-pulp[115] is said
to have failed because of high cost made necessary by the remote
position of the industry. Hough notes[116] that trees are sometimes
attacked by borers that impregnate the walls of their tunnels with
hardening antiseptic solutions, causing such parts to remain after
the disappearance of the others. And that these parts are described
as "petrified wood," and are prized for fuel since they burn with
"little smoke and great heat."
The eight species noted by Sudworth are as follows:
Yucca arborescens (Joshua tree).
Yucca treculeana (Spanish Bayonet).
Yucca gloriosa (Spanish Dagger).
Yucca mohavensis (Mohave Yucca).
Yucca aloifolia (Aloë-leaf Yucca).
Yucca macrocarpa (Broadfruit Yucca).
Yucca brevifolia (Schott Yucca).
Yucca constricta.
[p189]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 114: "Check List," U. S. Forestry Bul. No. 17.]
[Footnote 115: South of Mohave Desert in California about twenty
years ago.]
[Footnote 116: American Woods, Part VII, p. 57.]
[Illustration: PLATE 38. YUCCA (_Yucca arborescens_).
_By courtesy of Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co. Photograph by Conaway._
Wood of Yucca.]
JOSHUA-TREE, YUCCA.
_Yucca brevifolia Engel._
_Yucca arborescens Torr._
Nomenclature. (Sudworth.)
Joshua-tree, The Joshua, Yucca, Yucca Tree (Utah, Ariz., N. M.,
Cal.).
Yucca Cactus (Cal.).
Locality.
Central and lower Rocky Mountain region.
Features of Tree.
Twenty-five to forty feet in height, six inches to two feet in
diameter.
Thick outer cover or bark.[117]
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Light brown to white, porous grain.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, soft, spongy, flexible in thin sheets.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Paper-pulp, souvenirs, boxes, book covers, and other small articles.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
23.
Modulus of Elasticity.
Modulus of Rupture.
Remarks.
Bark is unusual in the case of endogenous trees. Arborescens refers
to fact that _it_ is a tree. [p190]
FOOTNOTE
[Footnote 117: See paragraph Bark, Endogenous Trees, page 55.]
BAMBOO.
(_Bambusæ_.)
The bamboos are giant members of a group (grasses[118]), the other
individuals of which, while widely distributed, valued, and very
numerous, are for the most part insignificant as to bulk, height,
and structural characteristics. The canes and bamboos are exceptions
in that they form what may well be called forests, and produce woods
used in construction. The Bamboos (_Bambusæ_), including about twenty
genera and two hundred species,[119] are distributed unevenly over
the tropical zone.
[Illustration: PLATE 39. BAMBOO (_Bambusæ_).
Bamboo Grove, Philippines.
_By the courtesy of the Manila P.O. Forestry Bureau._
Bamboo Grove, China.
Bamboo sections, 5-1/4 inches diameter.]
The bamboo plant with its numerous stalks and delicate foliage
resembles a plume of giant ostrich feathers. The stems attain heights
of seventy feet and diameters of four and six inches (see Fig. 3
plate). Knots or joints are at first close together, but are later
one or two feet apart. Growth is surprisingly rapid. A Philippine
specimen, which when measured was eighteen inches high and four
inches in diameter, grew two feet in three days.[120] Florida stalks
have reached heights of seventy-two feet in a single season.[121] The
plants are apt to take complete possession of the ground on which
they grow. Those who use bamboo value it highly. It is employed
entire or else split into segments. Some can be [p191] opened
and flattened into rough boards, splitting everywhere but holding
together.[122] For vessels it is cut off with reference to the
partitions. The subject is thus summarized by Dr. Martin:[123] "The
Chinese make masts of it for their small junks, and twist it into
cables for their larger ones. They weave it into matting for floors,
and make it into rafters for roofs. They sit at table on bamboo
chairs, eat shoots of bamboo with bamboo chop-sticks. The musician
blows a bamboo flute, and the watchman beats a bamboo rattle.
Criminals are confined in a bamboo cage and beaten with bamboo rods.
Paper is made of bamboo fibre, and pencils of a joint of bamboo in
which is inserted a tuft of goat's hair."
The manipulation of this valuable material is not yet understood in
America. Prof. Johnson notes[124] that the wood of "bamboo is just
twice as strong as the strongest wood in cross-bending, weight for
weight, when the wood is taken in specimens, with a square and solid
cross-section." Dr. Fernow considers the bamboo worthy of extensive
trial throughout the Gulf region.[125] [p192]
FOOTNOTES
[Footnote 118: Grasses, "one of the largest and probably one of
the most useful groups of plants. . . . If grass-like sedges be
associated, . . . there are about 6000 species, representing
nearly one third of the Monocotyledons." (Coulter, "Plants," pp.
240-241.) The various pasture-grasses, cereals, and sugar-canes are
here included. Bamboos and canes are distinct in that they afford
structural materials.]
[Footnote 119: B. E. Fernow notes (p. 29, Forestry Bulletin No. 11):
"In addition to the genus bambusa, the genera Arundinaria, Arundo,
Dendrocalamus, and Guadua are the most important." All of tribe
Bambusae.]
[Footnote 120: Frederic H. Sawyer. Memb. Inst. C. E., "Inhabitants
of the Philippines," Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1900 (p. 5).]
[Footnote 121: Page 29, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11.]
[Footnote 122: Prof. Isaac F. Holton, "New Granada," Harper Bros.,
New York, 1857 (p. 109).]
[Footnote 123: "Cycle of Cathay," Fleming H. Revell Co., 1899 (p.
172).]
[Footnote 124: Materials of Construction, 1897, p. 689.]
[Footnote 125: Henry G. Hubbard, U. S. Forestry Bulletin No. 11, A.
B. Mitford.]
"The Bamboo Garden," Macmillan, 1896. Kurz, "Bamboo and its Uses,"
Calcutta, 1876.
"Bamboo as substitute for Wood," Fernow, p. 203, 6th Annual Report.
BAMBOO.
_Bambusa vulgaris._
Nomenclature.
Bamboo local and common name.
Locality.
Florida (acclimated).
Features of Tree.
Seventy-five feet in height, four to six inches in diameter.
Delicate branches and leaves. Greenish glazed jointed stem,
extensive roots.
Color, Appearance, or Grain of Wood.
Yellowish brown, conspicuously fibrous, moderately thin walls,
central canal broken by joints.
Structural Qualities of Wood.
Light, elastic, works easily.
Representative Uses of Wood.
Posts, poles, utensils, troughs, pipes, roofing, paper.
Weight of Seasoned Wood in Pounds per Cubic Foot.
Variable.
Modulus of Elasticity.
2,380,000 (Johnson's "Materials of Construction," p. 689).
Modulus of Rupture.
27,400 (Johnson's "Materials of Construction," p. 689).
Remarks.
[p193]
INDEX.
PAGE
A
_Abies_, 149, 156
_balsamea_, 156, 157
_concolor_, 136, 156, 159
_grandis_, 156, 158
_magnifica_, 160
_nobilis_, 161
_taxifolia_, 154
Acacia, 77
False, 78
Three-thorned, 78
_Acer_, 40
_dasycarpum_, 43
_macrophyllum_, 45
_negundo_, 46
_pseudo-platanus_, 40, 65
_rubrum_, 44
_saccharinum_, 43
_saccharum_, 42
_Æsculus_, 96
_flava_, 98
_glabra_, 97
_hippocastanum_, 96, 97
_octandra_, 98
Alburnum, 7
Algaroba, 79
Alligator-wood, 100
Apple, 27
Apple-tree (Osage), 113
Arborvitæ, 168, 171, 172
Giant, 172
Pacific, 175
_Arbutus_, 108
_menziesii_, 108, 110
_Arundinaria_, 190
_Arundo_, 190
Ash, 27, 29, 33
American, 29
Black, 28, 29, 32, 46
Blue, 31, 33
Brown, 30
Cane, 29
Green, 27, 33
Hoop, 32
Mountain, 27
Oregon, 34
Prickly, 27
Red, 30
River, 30
Second-growth, 28
Swamp, 32, 33
Stinking, 46
Sugar, 46
Water, 32, 33, 46
White, 27, 29, 33
Yellow, 27
Aspen, 81
Large American, 83
Quaking, 83
B
Balluck, 128
Balm, 85
Balm of Gilead, 157
Fir, 157
Balsam, 157
Canada, 157
He, 150
White, 159
Balsam Fir, 136
Balsam Tree, 159
Bamboo, 190, 192
_Bambusæ_, 190
_vulgaris_, 192
Bass, 81
Basswood, 80, 87
White, 87
Yellow, 87
Bast, 87
Bay Rose, 108
Bay Tree, 109
California, 109
Bayonet, Spanish, 188
Baywood, 120
Beech, 60, 62
Blue, 60, 63
Red, 62
Ridge, 62
Water, 63
White, 62
Bee-tree, 81, 87
_Betula_, 68
_lenta_, 74, 111
_lutea_, 73
_nigra_, 72
_papyrifera_, 71
_populifolia_, 70
Big-bud, 54
Big Tree, 161, 180, 182
California, 180, 182
Birch, 68, 72
Black, 72, 74
Blue, 72
Canoe, 71
Cherry, 111
Gray, 70, 73
Large White, 71
Mahogany, 74
Oldfield, 70
Paper, 71
Poplar-leaved, 70
Poverty, 70
Red, 72
River, 72, 74
Silver, 71, 73
Small White, 70
Swamp, 73
Sweet, 74, 111
Water, 72
White, 70, 71
Bitternut, 53
Blisted, 100
Blue Lin, 86
Boc, 60
Bodark, 113
Bodock, 113
Bois Puant, 91
Bois D'Arc, 111, 113
Bok, 60
Boleau, 71
Botanical Name, 1
Bow-wood, 113
Boxelder, 46
Boxwood, 103, 106, 108
New England, 106
Box, False (Dogwood), 106
BROADLEAF TREES, 10
WOODS, 10
Buche, 60
Buckeye, 96, 97, 98
Big, 98
Fetid, 97
Large, 98
Ohio, 97
Stinking, 97
Sweet, 98
Yellow, 98
Bullnut, 54
_Bumelia_, 61
_tenax_, 61
_lycioides_, 61
Burl, 47
Buttonball, 66, 67
Buttonball tree, 66, 67
Buttonwood, 66, 67
C
Canoewood, 82
_Carpinus_, 60
_caroliniana_, 60, 63
_Carya_, 51
_alba_, 52
_olivæformis_, 55
_porcina_, 53
_tomentosa_, 54
_Castanea_, 56
_dentata_, 58
_pumila_, 56, 59
_vesca_, 58
_vesca var. americana_, 58
_vulgaris var. americana_, 58
_Castanopsis chrysopylla_, 57, 59
Catalpa, 90, 91, 92
_Catalpa_, 90
_bignonioides_, 92
_catalpa_, 92
_speciosa_, 91
Catawba, 92
Catawba Tree, 92
Cajeput, 109
Calico Bush, 108
Cedar, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172
Atlantic Red, 171
Bastard, 176
California Post, 177
California White, 177
Canoe, 168, 172
Cuban, 122
Giant, 172
Giant Red, 172
Incense, 168, 176
Lebanon, 167
Mexican, 122
Oregon, 174
Pacific Red, 172
Pencil, 169
Port Orford, 168, 174
Post, 173, 176
Red, 167, 168, 169, 172, 176
Southern, 169
Spanish, 119, 122, 168
Swamp, 173
Western, 170, 172
Western Red, 169, 170
White, 167, 168, 171, 173, 174, 176
Yellow, 168, 170, 175
_Cedrela_, 118
_australis_, 122
_odorata_, 122
_toona_, 122
_Cedrus_, 167
_libani_, 167
Cell Structures, 2
Census U. S. Experiments, 4
_Cercocarpus breviflorus_, 118
_ledifolius_, 118
_parvifolius_, 118
_Chamæcyparis_, 167, 177
_lawsoniana_, 168, 174
_nootkatensis_, 175
_nutkænsis_, 168, 175
_thyoides_, 168, 173
Chêne étoilé, 16
Chêne Vert, 23
Cherry, 111, 114
Black, 114
Choke, 114
Rum, 114
Whisky, 114
Wild, 111, 114
Wild Black, 111, 114
Cherry Birch, 74
Chestnut, 56, 58
Horse Chestnut, 96, 97
Chinquapin, 56, 59
Cigar-tree, 91, 92
Indian, 92
_Cladrastis lutea_, 27
_Cliftonia monophylla_, 61
Coefficients, 3
Conifers, 9, 129
Coniferous Trees, 129
Coniferous Woods, 129
Confederate Pintree, 78
Cornel, 106
Flowering, 106
_Cornus_, 103
_florida_, 106
Cotton Tree, 84
Cottonwood, 80, 84, 85
Balm, 85
Balsam, 85
Big, 84
Black, 85
Broadleaved, 84
Yellow, 84
Crab Apple, 27
Cross-section, 8
Cucumber, 86
Cucumber-tree, 80, 82, 86
_Cupressus_, 177
_Cupressus goveniana_, 177
_macrocarpa_, 177
Cypress, 167, 177, 179
American, 179
Bald, 178, 179
Black, 179
Deciduous, 179
Gowan, 177
Monterey, 177
Red, 179
Southern, 179
Swamp, 179
White, 179
D
Dagger, Spanish, 188
_Dammara australis_, 146, 147
Date Plum, 112
Date, Wild, 187
Deal, 145, 149
Deciduous Trees, 7
Deciduous Woods, 7
_Dendrocalamus_, 190
DICOTYLEDONS, 6, 7
_Diospyros_, 111
_virginiana_, 111, 112
Dogwood, 103, 106
Flowering, 106
Douglas Tree, 155
Duramen, 7
E
Ebony, 111
_Ebenaceæ_, 111
Elm, 35, 36, 39
American, 36
Cliff, 37
Cork, 37, 39
Hickory, 37
Moose, 38
Mountain, 39
Red, 38, 39
Redwooded, 38
Rock, 37, 38
Slippery, 38
Small-leaved, 39
Wahoo, 39
Water, 36, 39
White, 36, 37
Wing, 39
Winged, 39
Witch, 39
Encena, 24
ENDOGENS, 6, 183
ENDOGENOUS TREES, 6, 183
ENDOGENOUS WOODS, 6, 183
Evergreen, 9, 129
Evergreen Trees, 9, 129
Evergreen Woods, 9, 129
_Eucalyptus_, 123
_colossea_, 126
_diversicolor_, 123, 126
_globulus_, 123, 128
_gomphocephala_, 123, 127
_Eucalyptus marginata_, 123, 125
EXOGENS, 7
EXOGENOUS TREES, 7
EXOGENOUS WOODS, 7
_Exothea paniculata_, 61
F
_Fagus_, 60
_atropunicea_, 62
_ferruginea_, 62
False Box, 106
Feather-cone, 161
Fever Tree, 128
Fibre, 2
_Ficus sycamorus_, 65
Fig-tree, 65
Fir, 149, 155, 156
Balsam, 136, 156, 157, 159
California Red, 160
California Red-bark, 160
California White, 159
Colorado White, 159
Concolor White, 159
Dantzic, 145
Douglas, 155
Feather-cone, 161
Golden, 160
Great Silver, 158
Lowland, 158
Magnificent, 160
Memel, 145
Noble, 161
Noble Red, 161
Noble Silver, 161
Northern, 145
Oregon White, 158
Prince Albert's, 163
Red, 155, 160, 161
Rigi, 145
Scots, 145
Scottish, 145
Shasta, 160
Silver, 156, 158, 159
Stettin, 145
Swedish, 145
Tree, 157
Western Hemlock, 163
Western White, 158
White, 156, 158, 159
Yellow, 158
Forestry Division Experiments, 4
_Fraxinus_, 27
_americana_, 29
_lanceolata_, 27, 33
_nigra_, 32
_oregona_, 34
_pubescens_, 30
_pennsylvanica_, 30
_quadrangulata_, 31
_sambucifolia_, 32
_viridis_, 33
G
Gallic Acid, 12
Generic Name, 1
_Gleditsia_, 75
_triacanthos_, 75, 78
Gopher Wood, 27
Gum, 99, 100, 101
Black, 101, 160
Blue, 123, 128
Cotton, 102
Kauri, 147
Mahogany, 125
Red, 100
Satin, 100
Sour, 99, 101, 102
Star-leaved, 100
Sweet, 99, 100
Tree, 100, 123
Tupelo, 101, 102
Walnut, 100
White, 126, 127
Yellow (Gum) Tree, 101
Great Laurel, 106, 108
Greenheart, 115, 117
_Gaujacum_, 103
_arborium_, 107
_officinale_, 104, 107
_sanctum_, 61, 104, 107
_Guadua_, 190
H
Hackmatack, 165, 166
Hardhack, 64
Hardshell, 53
HARDWOODS, 9, 10
Heartwood, 7
He Balsam, 150
Hedge, 113
Hedge-plant, 113
Hemlock, 149, 162, 163
Carolina, 163
Southern, 163
Western, 163
_Hicoria_, 51
_alba_, 54
_glabra_, 53
_ovata_, 52
_pecan_, 55
Hickory, 51, 54
Black, 53, 54
Brown, 53
Common, 54
Hardbark, 54
(Hickory Nuts), 51, 52, 54
Hognut, 54
Mockernut, 54
Pecan, 55
Pignut, 53
Red, 53, 54
Scalybark, 52
Second-growth, 51
Shagbark, 52
Shellbark, 52
Switch-bud, 53
Upland, 52
White, 52, 53, 54
Holly, 103, 105
American, 105
White, 105
Honey, 78
Honey Pod, 79
Honey Shucks, 78
Hornbeam, 60, 63, 64
Horse Chestnut, 96, 97
I
_Ilex_, 103
_opaca_, 103, 105
_aquifolium_, 103
Indian Cigar Tree, 92
Indian-bean, 91, 92
Iron-bark, 123
Ironwood, 60, 63, 64, 79, 107
J
Jarrah, 123, 125
Joshua (The), 189
Tree, 188, 189
_Juglans_, 47
_cinerea_, 48, 50
_nigra_, 49
_regia_, 47, 49
Juniper, 165, 167, 169, 170, 176
Red, 169
Western, 170
Juniper Bush, 169
_Juniperus_, 167
_barbadensis_, 167, 168, 169
_occidentalis_, 167, 168, 170
_scopulorum_, 167, 168, 169
_virginiana_, 167, 168, 169
K
_Kalmia latifolia_, 108
Karri, 123, 126
Kauri Gum, 146, 147
Kauri Pine, 146, 147
L
Lanza Experiments, 5
Larch, 161, 164, 165
American, 165
American Western, 166
Black, 165
Great Western, 166
Red, 165
Tamarack, 166
Western, 166
_Larix_, 164
_americana_, 164, 165
_laricina_, 165
_occidentalis_, 164, 166
Laurel, 106, 108, 109, 110
Big, 108
California, 109
Great, 106, 108
Madroña, 108, 110
Mountain, 108, 109
Laurelwood, 110
Lazlett Experiments, 5
Leverwood, 64
_Libocedrus_, 167, 168
_decurrens_, 168, 176
Lignumvitæ, 103, 107
Lime, 81
Lime Tree, 81, 87
Black, 87
Smooth-leaved, 87
Linn, 87
Lin, Black, 86
Lind, 81
White, 87
Linden, 81, 87
American, 87
_Liriodendron_, 80
_tulipifera_, 80, 82
Liquidamber, 99, 100
_Liquidamber_, 99
_styraciflua_, 99, 100
Locust, 75, 77, 78
Black, 75, 77, 78
Green, 77
Honey, 75, 77, 78, 79
Honey Shucks, 78
Pea Flower, 77
Post, 77
Red, 77
Screw Pod, 76
Sweet, 78
Thorn, 78
Thorny, 78
White, 77
Yellow, 77
M
_Maclura_, 111
_aurantiaca_, 111, 113
Madeira, 120
Madroña, 108, 110
Madrone Tree, 110
Madrove, 110
Magnolia, 108
Mountain, 86
_Magnolia_, 80, 108
_grandiflora_, 108
_acuminata_, 86
Mahogany, 118, 120
African, 118, 120
American, 118, 120
Cuban, 118, 120
Honduras, 118, 120
Indian, 118
Mexican, 118, 120
Mountain, 74, 118
San Domingan, 118, 120
Spanish, 118, 120
White, 50, 119, 121
Mammoth Trees, 180, 182
Manzanita, 110
Maple, 40, 45
Ash-leaved, 46
Bird's-eye, 40, 42
Black, 42
Blister, 40, 42
Broad-leaved, 45
Curly, 40, 42, 43, 44
Cut-leaved, 46
Hard, 42
(Maple Keys), 41
Negundo, 41, 46
Oregon, 45
Red, 44
Red River, 46
River, 43
Rock, 42
Silver, 43
Soft, 43, 44
Swamp, 43, 44
Sugar (Sugar Maple), 42
(Maple Sugar), 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 50
Water, 43, 44
White, 43, 44
Three-leaved, 46
Medullary Rays, 8
Merisier, 73
Mesquite, 75, 79
Rouge, 73
Mockernut, 54
Mock Orange, 113
Modulii, 3
MONOCOTYLEDONS, 6, 185
_Morus_, 93
_alba_, 93
_Morus, nigra_, 93
_rubra_, 93, 95
Mulberry, 93, 95
Black, 93, 95
Red, 93, 95
Russian, 93
White, 93
Mulberry-tree, Virginia, 95
Murier Sauvage, 95
Myrtle Tree, 109
N
Naval Stores, 132
_Nectandra_, 115
_rodiali_, 115, 117
Needleleaf Conifers, 9, 129
Trees, 9, 129
Woods, 9, 129
_Negundo aceroides_, 46
_Neowashingtonia filamentosa_, 187
Noble Silver Fir, 161
_Nyssa_, 99
_aquatica_, 102
_sylvatica_, 99, 101
O
Oak, 11
African, 116
Basket, 14
Black, 12, 19, 22
Box, 16
Box White, 16
Brash, 16
British, 11, 26
Bur, 12, 17
California Live, 12, 24
California Post, 18
Canyon, 25
Canyon Live, 25
Chêne étoilé, 16
Chêne Vert, 23
Chestnut, 12, 15, 26
Coast Live, 24
Common, 26
Cow, 12, 14
Dantzic, 26
Durmast, 26
Dyer's, 22
Encina, 24
English, 11, 26
Evergreen, 24
Highland, 25
Indian, 115, 116
Iron, 16, 25
Live, 11, 12, 23, 24, 25
Maul, 25
Mossycup, 17
Mossycup White, 17
Mountain, 15
Oregon White, 18
Overcup, 16, 17
Pacific Post, 12, 18
Pin, 12, 20
Post, 12, 16
Quercitron, 22
Red, 12, 19, 21, 26
Rigi, 26
Rock, 15
Rock Chestnut, 15
Scrub, 17
Spanish, 12, 19, 21
Spotted, 22
Stave, 13
Swamp, 20
Swamp Chestnut, 14, 15
Swamp Spanish, 20
Swamp White, 14
Tanbark, 15, 22
Water, 20
Water Spanish, 20
Western White, 18
White, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18
Valparaiso, 25
Yellow, 12, 22
Yellowbark, 22
Oil Nut, 50
_Oldfieldia africana_, 115, 116
Olive California, 109
Olivetree, 102
Wild, 102
_Olneya tesota_, 61
Orange, Mock, 113
Oreodaphne, 109
_Oredoya regia_, 185
Osage, 111, 113
Osage Apple Tree, 113
Osage Orange, 111, 113
_Ostrya_, 60
_virginiana_, 60, 64
P
Palm, 185
California Fan, 187
Desert, 187
Fanleaf, 185, 187
Royal, 185
Sargent, 185
Washington, 187
PALMACEA, 85
Palmetto, 186
Cabbage, 185, 186
Mexican, 185
Silvertop, 185
Silktop, 185
Tree, 186
Papyrus, 60
Peaflower (Locust), 77
Pear, 27
Wild, 101
Pecan, 55
Nut, 55
Tree, 55
Pecanier, 51
Pepperidge, 101
Persimmon, 111, 112
Black, 106
Mexican, 106
_Picea_, 148, 149
_alba_, 148, 151
_canadensis_, 151
_excelsa_, 148
_engelmanni_, 148, 152
_mariana_, 150
_nigra_, 148, 150
_rubens_, 150
_sitchensis_, 153
Pignut, 53
Pine, 130, 135, 149, 151
Alaska, 163
Bastard, 139, 141, 159
Big, 136, 142
Black, 141, 144
Black Norway, 144
Black Slash, 141
Blister, 157
Brown, 138
Bull, 135, 140, 141, 143
Canadian Red, 143
Carolina, 140
Common Yellow, 140
Cornstalk, 141
Cowdie, 147
Cuban, 132, 133, 139
Dantzic, 133, 145
Douglas, 154, 155
European, 133, 145
Fat, 138, 144
Finger Cone, 137
Fir, 157
Florida, 138
Florida Longleaved, 138
Florida Yellow, 138
Foothills Yellow, 142
Foxtail, 141
Frankincense, 141
Georgia, 138
Georgia Heart, 138
Georgia Longleaved, 138
Georgia Pitch, 138
Georgia Yellow, 138
Gigantic, 136
Ginger, 174
Great Sugar, 136
Hard, 133, 139, 140, 143, 144
Heart, 138
Heavy, 142
Heavy-wooded, 142
Indian, 141
Kauri, 146, 147
Little Sugar, 136, 137
Loblolly, 133, 141
Longleaf, 133, 138, 139
Longleaved, 142, 144
Longleaved Pitch, 138
Longleaved Yellow, 138
Longshat, 141
Longshucks, 141
Longstraw, 138, 141
Meadow, 139, 141
Montana Black, 142
Mountain, 137
Mountain Weymouth, 137
Northern, 133, 134, 145
North Carolina, 140
North Carolina Pitch, 138
North Carolina Yellow, 140
Norway, 143
Oldfield, 140, 141
Oregon, 154, 155
Pitch, 133, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144
Poor, 140
Puget Sound, 155
Pumpkin, 134
Red, 142, 143, 155
Rigid, 144
Rocky Mountain White, 135
Sap, 141, 144
Scotch, 145
Shade, 136
She, 139
She Pitch, 139
Shortleaf, 133, 140, 141
Shortleaved Yellow, 140
Shortshat, 140
Silver, 157
Slash, 139, 140, 141
Soft, 130, 131, 134, 137
Southern, 133, 138
Southern Hard, 138
Southern Heart, 138
Southern Pitch, 138
Southern Yellow, 138, 142
Spruce, 134, 140, 141, 163
Swamp, 139, 141
Texas Longleaved, 138
Texas Yellow, 138
Torch, 141
Turpentine, 138
Virginia, 141
Virginia Yellow, 140
Western Pitch, 142
Western White, 131, 135, 137
Western Yellow, 142
Weymouth, 133, 134
White, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137
Yellow, 133, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144
Pintree, Confederate, 78
_Pinus_, 130, 149
_echinata_, 132, 133, 140
_flexilis_, 131, 135
_heterophylla_, 132, 133, 139
_lambertiana_, 131, 136
_mitis_, 132, 140
_monticola_, 137
_palustris_, 132, 133, 138, 139
_ponderosa_, 142
_resinosa_, 143
_rigida_, 144
_strobus_, 131, 134
_sylvestris_, 145
_tæda_, 132, 133, 141
Piquant armourette, 78
Pith cavity, 7
Pith Ray, 2, 8
Plane Tree, 65, 66
Platane Cotonier, 66
_Platanus_, 65
_occidentalis_, 65, 66
_orientalis_, 65
_racemosa_, 65, 67
Plaqueminier, 112
Plum, Date, 112
Poplar, 80, 82, 83, 157
Blue, 82
Hickory, 82
Large, 83
Large Toothed, 83
Necklace, 84
Tulip, 80, 82
White, 83
Yellow, 82
Popple, 82, 83
_Populus_, 80
_balsamifera_, 157
_deltoides_, 84
_grandidentata_, 83
_monilifera_, 84
_tremuloides_, 81, 83
_trichocarpa_, 85
Powcohicora, 51
Possumwood, 122
Prima vera, 119, 121
_Prosopis_, 75
_juliflora_, 61, 79
_odorata_, 76
_Prunus_, 111
_serotina_, 111, 114
_Pseudophoenix sargentii_, 185
_Pseudotsuga_, 154
_douglasii_, 156
_taxifolia_, 155
_Pyrus_, 28
_americana_, 28
_ancuparia_, 28
_communis_, 28
_coronaria_, 28
_malus_, 28
_sambucifolia_, 28
_vulgaris_, 28
Q
Quarter Sawing, 9
Quercitron, 22
_Quercus_, 11
_agrifolia_, 12, 24
_alba_, 12, 13
_chrysolepis_, 12, 25
_digitata_, 12, 21
_falcata_, 21
_garryana_, 12, 18
_macrocarpa_, 12, 17
_michauxii_, 12, 14
_minor_, 12, 16
_obtusiloba_, 16
_palustris_, 12, 20
_prinus_, 12, 15
_robur_, 12
_robur var. sessiliflora_, 12, 26
_robur var. pedunculata_, 12, 26
_rubra_, 12, 19
_tinctoria_, 22
_velutina_, 12, 22
_virens_, 23
_virginiana_, 12, 23
_wislizeni_, 25
Quince, 27
R
Radial Section, 8
Red Flower, 44
Redwoood, 120, 145, 180, 182
California, 182
Coast, 182
Giant, 182
Resin, 132
Resin ducts, 2, 10
_Rhododendron maximum_, 106, 108
_Rhus integrifolia_, 118
_Robinia_, 75
_pseudacacia_, 75, 77
Rose Bay, 108
Rotary Cut, 9
Rowan Tree, 27
S
_Sabal mexicana_, 185
_palmetto_, 185, 186
Salicylic Acid, 74, 88
_Salix_, 88
_alba_, 88
_babylonica_, 88
_caprea_, 88
_fragilis_, 88
_nigra_, 89
_russeliana_, 88
Sapwood, 7
Sargent (Prof. C. S.) Experiments, 4
Sassafac, 94
Sassafrac, 94
Sassafras, 93, 94
Californian, 109
_Sassafras_, 93
_officinale_, 94
_sassafras_, 94
Savin, 169
Saxifrax, 94
Tree, 94
_Schæfferia frutescens_, 106
Sequoia, 183
_Sequoia_, 180
_gigantea_, 182
_sempervirens_, 180, 182
_washingtoniana_, 180, 182
Shagbark, 52
Sharpless (J. P.) Experiments, 4
Shawneewood, 91
Shellbark, 52
Shinglewood, 172
Simmon, 112
Smoking-bean, 92
SOFT WOODS, 9, 129
_Sorbus_ (see _Pyrus_), 28
_Soymida_, 118
_febrifuga_, 118
Spanish Bayonet, 188
Spanish Dagger, 188
Species, 2
Specific Gravity, 4
Specific Name, 2
Spice-tree, 109
Spruce, 148, 149, 150, 154, 155, 163
Black, 148, 150
Blue, 150
Bog, 151
California Hemlock Spruce, 163
Cat, 151
Cork-barked Douglas, 155
Double, 150, 151
Douglas, 154, 155
Engelmann, 152
Great Tideland, 153
He Balsam, 150
Hemlock, 163
Menzies', 153
Mountain, 152
Red, 150
Single, 157
Sitka, 153
Skunk, 151
Water, 150
Western, 153
White, 150, 152
Stinkwood, 101
Strength of Woods, 3
Stringy-bark, 123
Sugar, 41, 42, 44, 46, 50
Sugar Tree, 42
_Swietenia_, 118
_mahagoni_, 118, 120
Sycamore, 40, 65, 66, 67
California, 67
T
_Tabeuia Donnell-Smithii_, 121
Tamarack, 164, 165, 166
Western, 166
Tanbark, 2
Tangential Section, 8
Tar, 132
_Taxodium_, 177
_distichum_, 178
Teak, 115, 116
African, 115
Indian, 115
Teek, 116
_Tectona grandis_, 115, 116
Tewart, 127
Thorn, 78
_Thrinax microcarpa_, 185
_parviflora_, 185
_Thuya_, 167
_gigantea_, 168, 172
_occidentalis_, 168, 171
_plicata_, 172
Tiel, 81
Tiel-tree, 81
_Tilia_, 80
_americana_, 87
_heterophylla_, 87
Tooart, 127
Toothache Tree, 27
_Toxylon pomiferum_, 113
Tracheid, 2
_Tsuga_, 149, 162
_canadensis_, 163
_caroliniana_, 163
_heterophylla_, 163
Tree, 1
Tree Yucca, 188
Tuart, 123, 127
Tulip-tree, 80, 82
Tupelo, 101, 102
Large, 102
Swamp, 102
Turpentine, 132
U
_Ulmus_, 35
_americana_, 36
_alata_, 39
_fulva_, 38
_racemosa_, 37
_pubescens_, 38
_Umbellularia californica_, 108, 109
U. S. Census Experiments, 4
U. S. Forestry Division Experiments, 4
V
Veneer, 42, 47, 119
Vessel, 2
Vitæ, 171
W
Wahoo, 39
Whahoo, 39
Walnut, 47, 49, 50, 52
Black, 47, 49
English, 47, 49
Persian, 47, 49
Royal, 47, 49
Shagbark, 52
Sweet, 52
White, 50
_Washingtonia filifera_, 185, 187
Watertown Arsenal Experiments, 4
Weights of Woods, 3
White Mahogany, 50
Whitewood, 80, 82, 84, 87
Wickup, 87
Wild Date, 187
Wild Olive Tree, 102
Wild Pear Tree, 101
Willow, 88, 89
Bedford, 88
Black, 89
Crack, 88
Goat, 88
Swamp, 89
Weeping, 88
White, 88
X
_Xanthoxylum americana_, 27
_clava-herculis_, 27
Y
Yellowbark, 22
Yellow Gum Tree, 101
Yellowwood, 106, 113, 145
Yucca, 184, 188, 189
Aloe-leaf, 188
Broadfruit, 188
Cactus, 189
Mohave, 188
Schott, 188
Tree, 188, 189
_Yucca_, 188, 189
_aloifolia_, 188
_arborescens_, 188, 189
_brevifolia_, 188, 189
_constricta_, 188
_gloriosa_, 188
_macrocarpa_, 188
_mohavensis_, 188
_treculeana_, 188
* * * * * *
Transcriber's note:
Original spelling and grammar have usually been retained.
Each footnote has been moved from the bottom of a page to the end of
its section.
Illustrations have been moved from within paragraphs to nearby
locations between paragraphs.
Plates were originally printed on unnumbered pages and followed by a
blank page.
Pages 26 and 116: the name "Laslett", retained, probably refers to
"Lazlett".
Page 35: Some paragraphs of the original printed book appear to be
footnotes, but lack an anchor in the text. For example, the one on
page 35 is likely a general reference for the Genus Ulmus (Elm).
Pages 123-124 contain a particularly interesting example. This
Chapter on Eucalyptus contains five footnote paragraphs. The third
and fifth are not anchored. It may be that either: (1) the third
paragraph was meant to be part of the second footnote, or (2) the
third paragraph was meant to be a general reference for Eucalyptus,
or (3) the anchor for the third paragraph was simply not printed
due to typographical error. Since such ambiguity is rather common
in this book, the footnote paragraphs, both anchored and not, have
been retained in the order printed, but relocated to the end of the
immediate containing section.
Page 57: "chrysaphylla" changed to "chrysophylla".
Page 60: the original second footnote, " * Keeler notes experiments
made to prove resistance on part of beechwood." had no anchor in the
text, and in the 1908 edition (the Second Edition, First Thousand),
this footnote was omitted entirely from the corresponding chapter.
Herein, it is retained.
Page 64: "virginina" changed to "virginiana".
Page 88: the names "Salix babylónica", and "Salix babylonica" (the
latter in the index), are both retained. There are several other
retained instances of spelling inconsistencies in the use of accents,
or "æ-ligature" versus "ae".
Page 120: "Santa Anna" on page 120 and "Santa Ana" on page 118 are
both retained.
Pages 133, 149: these two data tables were recast in a different
shape to achieve shorter line length.
Page 168: The table says "Spanish Cedar. (See page 99.)". This may be
a misprint, referring to page 119.
Page 198: Index entry "_Nectanara_, 115" changed to "_Nectandra_,
115". Also, "_Negunao_" to "_Negundo_".
Page 201: "Caliofrnia" (under "Sassafras") to "Californian".