extreme verge or border, is surrounded by thirty hairs, and the sides
adorned with others that are smaller; here and there the large hairs
branch out into smaller ones, which may be reckoned as single hairs.
These hairs are all rooted in the outer skin, which in this place is
covered with rough grains, as may be seen by cutting it off, and holding
it up, when dry, against the light, upon a thin plate of glass. By the
same mode you will find, that at the extremities of the hairs there are
also grains like those of the skin; in the middle of the tail there is a
small opening, within it are minute holes, by which the insect inhales
and expels the air it breathes. The hairs are very seldom disposed in so
regular a manner as they are represented in Fig. 3. Plate XI. except
when the insect floats with the body in the water, and the tail with its
hairs a little lower than the surface, for they are then displayed
exactly as delineated in the plate. The least motion downward of the
tail produces a concavity in the water, and it then assumes the figure
of a wine-glass, wide at the top, narrow at the bottom. The tail serves
the larva both for the purposes of swimming and breathing, and it
receives through the tail that which is the universal principle of life
and motion in animals. By means of the hairs it can stop itself at
pleasure when swimming, or remain suspended quietly in the water for any
length of time. The motion of the insect in swimming is very beautiful,
especially when it advances with its whole body floating on the surface
of the water; after filling itself with air by the tail. To set out, it
first bends the body to the right or left, and then contracts it in the
form of the letter S, and again stretches it out in a strait line: by
thus alternately contracting and then extending the body, it moves along
on the surface of the water. It is of a very quiet disposition, and not
to be disturbed by handling.
These larvæ are generally to be found in shallow standing waters, about
the beginning of June, sooner or later, as the summer is more or less
favourable; in some seasons they are to be found in great numbers, while
in others, it is no easy matter to meet with them. They love to crawl on
the plants and grass which grow in the water, and are often to be met
with in ditches, floating on the surface of the water by means of their
tail, the head and thorax at the same time hanging down; and in this
situation they will turn over the clay and dirt with their snout and
feet in search of food, which is generally a viscous matter that is
common in small ponds and about the sides of ditches. This worm is very
harmless, contrary to the opinion one might form at first sight, from
the surprizing vibratory motion of the legs, which resembles the
brandishing of an envenomed tongue or sting. They are most easily killed
for dissection in spirit of turpentine.
After a certain period they pass into the pupa form; when they are about
to change, they betake themselves to the herbs that float on the surface
of the water, and creep gently thereon, till at length they lie partly
on the dry surface, and partly on the water; when in the larva or pupa
state, they can live in water, but can by no means inhabit there when
changed into flies: indeed, man also, whilst in the uterus, lives in
water, which he cannot do afterwards. When these worms have found a
proper situation, they by degrees contract themselves, and in a manner
scarce perceptible lose all power of motion. The inward parts of the
worm’s tail now separate from the outmost skin, and become greatly
contracted; this probably gives the insect considerable pain: by this
contraction, an empty space is left in the exterior skin, into which the
air soon penetrates.
Thus this insect passes into the pupa state under its own skin, entirely
different from that of the caterpillar, which casts off the exterior
skin at this time; this change may often be observed to take place in
the space of ten or twelve hours, but in what manner it is performed we
are ignorant, as it is effected in a hidden unknown way, inwardly within
the skin, which conceals it from our view.
Whilst the larva is changing under the skin, the body, head, and tail,
separate insensibly from their outward vesture. The legs at this time,
and their cartilaginous bones, are, on account of the parts which are
withdrawn from them, left empty; the worm loses also now the former
skull, the beak, together with the horny bones belonging thereto, which
remain in the skin of the exuvia. It is worthy of notice, that the optic
nerves separate also from the eyes, and no more perform their office.
The muscles of the rings in like manner, and a great part of the
pulmonary points of respiration, are separated from the external skin.
Thus the whole body contracts itself by degrees into a small compact
mass. At this time the gullet and the pulmonary tubes cast a coat within
the skin. To make this evident, it is necessary to open the abdomen,
when the pupa, its parts, together with the cast off pulmonary pipes,
may be clearly seen.
An exact account of all the changes of the interior parts is to be found
in Swammerdam’s Book of Nature. These changes are best examined by
taking the pupa out of the skin, or outside case, when it begins to
harden; for as it has not then quite attained the pupa form, and the
members are somewhat different from what they will be when in that
state, it is more easy to observe their respective situation, than when
the pupa is some days older, and has lost the greatest part of the
superfluous humours. The pupa is inclosed in a double garment; the
interior one is a thin membrane, which invests it very closely; the
other, or exterior one, is formed of the outermost hard skin of the
larva, within which it performs its changes in an invisible manner: it
is this skin which gives it the appearance of the larva while in the
pupa state.
When the time approaches that the hidden insect, now in the pupa form
within its old covering, is to attain the imago, fly, or perfect state,
which generally happens in about eleven days after the preceding change,
the superfluous humours are evaporated by insensible perspiration. The
little pupa is contracted into the fifth ring of the skin, and the four
last rings of the abdomen are filled with air, through the aperture in
the respiratory orifice of the tail. This may be seen by exposing the
pupa for a short space to the rays of the sun, and then putting its tail
in water, when you will find it breathe stronger than it did before,
and, by expressing an air bubble out of its tail, and then sucking it in
again, will manifestly perform the action of inspiration and expiration.
The anterior part of the pupa is drawn back from the skin, and having
partly deserted it, with the beak, head, and first ring of the breast,
the little creature lies still, until its exhaling members have acquired
strength to burst the two membranes which surround it.
If the exterior case be opened near this period, a wonderful variety of
colour may be perceived through the thin skin which invests the pupa.
The colours of many of the different parts are now changed; some parts
from aqueous become membranaceous, some fleshy, and others crustaceous.
The whole body becomes insensibly shaggy, the feet and claws begin to
move: the variations may be accurately observed by opening a pupa every
day until the time of change. For this purpose they should be laid on
white paper in an earthen dish; they should also be made somewhat moist,
and be kept under a glass: the paper serves the pupa to fix its claw to,
when they come forth in the form of a fly. A little water should be
poured into the dish, to keep the pupa from drying and suffocation.
When the fly begins to appear, the exterior skin is seen to move about
the third and fourth anterior ring; the insect then uses all its efforts
to promote its escape, and to quit the interior and exterior skin at one
and the same time. The exterior skin is divided into four parts; the
insect immediately afterwards breaks open its inner coat, and casting it
off, escapes from the prison in which it was entombed, in the form of a
beautiful fly. It is to be observed here, that there is nothing
accidental in the breaking of the outermost skin, being perfectly
conformable to the rule ordained, always happening in the same manner in
all these changes: the skin also is, in those places where it is broke
open, so constructed by the Author of nature, as if joined together by
sutures. Having now acquired its perfect state, the little creature
which lived before in water and mud, enters into a new scene of life,
visits the fields and meadows, is transported through the air on its
elegant wings, and sports in the wide expanse with unrestrained jollity
and freedom.
The larva a queue de rat,[76] musca pendula, Lin. is also transformed
under the skin, which hardens, and forms a case or general covering to
the pupa: two horns are pushed out, while it is in this state, from the
interior parts; they serve the purpose of respiration: this larva will
be more particularly described in a subsequent part of this chapter.
[76] Reaum. 8vo. edit. tom. 4, pt. 2, 11 mem. p. 199, plate 30 and 31.
According to Reaumur, the insects in this class, that is, those that
pass into the pupa state under the skin of the larva, go through a
change more than the caterpillar, a transformation taking place while
under their skin, before they assume the pupa form.
The aquatic larva of the musca chamæleon retains its form to the last;
but there are many insects that are transformed under their skin, which
forms a cone or case for the pupa. In these the larva loses first its
length; the body becoming shorter, assumes the figure of an egg; and the
skin forms a hard and crustaceous case or solid lodging for the embryo
insect.
OF THE LIBELLULA OR DRAGON FLY.
In the libellula we have an instance of those insects which are termed
in the pupa state, semicompleta, that is, such as proceed from the egg
in the figure which they preserve till the time arrives for assuming
their wings; and who walk, act, and eat as well before that period as
afterwards.
Of all the flies which adorn or diversify the face of nature, there are
few, if any, more beautiful than the libellulæ: they are almost of all
colours, green, blue, crimson, scarlet, and white; some unite a variety
of the most vivid teints, and exhibit in one animal more different
shades than are to be found in the rainbow. It is not to colour alone
that their beauty is confined, it is heightened by the brilliancy of
their eyes, and the delicate texture and wide expansion of their wings.
The larva of the libellula is an inhabitant of the water, the fly itself
is generally found hovering on the borders thereof.
These insects are produced from an egg, which is deposited in the water
by the parent; the egg sinks to the bottom, and remains there till the
young insect finds strength to break the shell. The larva is hexapode,
and is not quite so long as the fly; on the trunk are four prominences
or little bunches, which become more apparent, in proportion as the
larva increases in size and changes its skin. These bunches contain the
rudiments of the wings, which adorn the insect when in its perfect
state.
The head of the larva is exceedingly singular, the whole fore part of it
being covered with a mask, which fits it more exactly than the common
mask does the human face, having proper cavities within to suit the
different prominences of the face; it is of a triangular form, growing
smaller towards the bottom; at this part there is a knuckle which fits a
cavity near the neck, on this it turns as on a pivot. The upper part of
this mask is divided into two pieces or shutters, which the insect can
open or close at pleasure; it can also let down the whole mask whenever
it pleases. The edges of the shutters are jagged like a saw. It makes
use of the mask to seize and hold its prey. There is a considerable
difference in the shape of these masks in different species of the
libellula, some having two claws near the top of it, which they can
thrust out or draw in, as most convenient; these render it a very
formidable instrument to the insects on which they feed.
These animals generally live and feed at the bottom of the water,
swimming only occasionally: their manner of swimming, or rather moving
in the water, is curious, being by sudden jerks given at intervals; but
this motion is not occasioned by their legs, which at this time are kept
immoveable and close to the body; it is by forcing out a stream of water
from the tail that the body is carried forward; this may be easily
perceived, by placing them in a flat vessel, in which there is only
just water enough to cover the bottom. Here the action of the water
squirted from their tail will be very visible; it will occasion a small
current, and give a sensible motion to any light bodies that are lying
on the surface thereof. This action can only be effected at intervals,
because after each expulsion the insect is obliged to inhale a fresh
supply of water. The larva will sometimes turn its tail above the
surface of the water, and eject a small stream from it as from a little
fountain, and that with considerable force.
The pupa differs but very little from the larva, the bunches containing
the wings grow large, and begin to appear like four short thick wings.
It is full as lively as the larva, seeking and enjoying its food in the
same manner: when it is arrived at its full growth, and is nearly ready
to go through its last change, it approaches the edge of the water, or
comes entirely out of it, fixing itself firmly to some piece of wood or
other substance, by its acute claws. It remains for some time
immoveable; the skin then opens down the back, and on the head; through
this opening is exhibited the real head and eyes, and at length the
legs; it then creeps gradually forward, drawing its wings, and then the
body out of the skin. The wings, which are moist and folded, now expand
themselves to their real size; the body is also extended till it has
gained its proper dimensions, which extension is accomplished by the
propelling force of the circulating fluids. When the wings and limbs are
dry, it enters on a more noble state of life: in this new scene it
enjoys itself to the fullest extent, feasts on the living fragrance
issuing from innumerable openings, sports and revels in delight, and,
having laid the foundation for its future progeny, sinks into an easy
dissolution.
The dragon fly is of a ferocious and warlike disposition, hovering in
the air like a bird of prey, in order to feed on and destroy every
species of fly; its appetite is gross and voracious, not confining
itself to small flies only, but the large flesh-fly, moths, and
butterflies, are equally subjected to its tyranny. It frequents marshy
grounds, where insects mostly abound.
The female of the CYNIPS or GALL INSECT, which has no wings, passes
through no transformation; while the male, which has four wings, passes
through the pupa state before it becomes a fly. The only change, though
a considerable one, which takes place in the female gall insect, is
this, that after a certain time it fixes itself to the branch of a tree,
without being able to detach itself; it afterwards increases much in
size, and becomes like a true gall; the female, by remaining thus fixed
for the greater part of her life, to the place where she was first seen,
has very little the appearance of an animal; it is in this period of
their life that they grow most and produce their young, while they
appear a portion of the branch they adhere to; and what is more
singular, the larger they grow, the less they appear like animals, and
whilst they are employed in laying thousands of eggs, seem to be nothing
but mere galls. The genera of gall insects are very extensive; they are
to be found on almost every shrub and tree.
The APHIDES or PLANT LICE, to arrive at their respective state, pass
through that of the semicomplete pupa, and their wings do not appear
till they have quitted their pupa state; but as in all the families of
the pucerons there are many which never become winged, we must not
forget to observe, that these undergo no transformation, remaining
always the same, without changing their figure, though they increase in
size and change their skin. It is remarkable, that amongst insects of
the same kind, some individuals should be transformed, while others are
not at all changed. These insects will be considered more fully in
another part of this chapter.
Reaumur[77] has shewn that the SPIDER FLY, hyppobosca equina, Lin. lays
so large an egg, that the fly which proceeds from it is as big as the
mother, though the egg does not increase the least in size from the time
it is first laid. The insect proceeds also from the egg in the imago or
fly state; it is probably transformed in the egg, for Reaumur has found
it in the pupa state therein, and having boiled some of their eggs which
had been laid for some days, he found the insect in the form of an oval
ball, similar to that in which the pupa of flies with two wings are
generally found. De Geer is of opinion that the egg itself is a true
larva, which, when it is born, has only to disengage its limbs, &c. from
the shell which covers it; and he thinks this the more probable, because
there is no embryo seen in this egg, but it is entirely filled with the
insect; he has also perceived a contracting and dilating motion in the
egg, while it was in the belly of the mother, and immediately after it
was laid; circumstances which do not agree with a simple egg.
[77] Reaumur, tom. 6, mem. 14.
As M. Bonnet[78] has attempted to give a theory of these various
changes, the following extract from it will, I hope, prove agreeable to
the reader; it will at least tend to render his ideas of this wonderful
subject clearer, and will probably open to his mind many new sources of
contemplation.
[78] Bonnet Considerations sur les Corps organises. Contemplation of
Nature, &c.
An insect that must cast off its exuvia, or moult five times before it
attains the pupa state, may be considered as composed of five organized
bodies, inclosed within each other, and nourished by common viscera,
placed in the center: what the bud of the tree is to the invisible buds
it contains, such is the exterior part of the caterpillar to the
interior bodies it conceals in its bosom. Four of these bodies have the
same essential structure, namely, that which is peculiar to the insect
in its larva or caterpillar state: the fifth body is that of the pupa.
The respective state of these bodies is in proportion to their distance
from the center of the animal; those that are farthest off have most
consistence, or unfold themselves soonest. When the exterior body has
attained its full growth, that interior one which is next in order is
considerably unfolded; it is then lodged in too narrow a compass,
therefore it stretches on all sides the sheath which covers it; the
vessels which nourish the external covering, are broken by this violent
distension, and ceasing to act, the skin wrinkles and dries up; at
length it opens, and the insect is cloathed with a new skin, and new
organs. The insect generally fasts for a day or two preceding each
change; this is probably occasioned by the violent state in which it
then is, or it may be necessary to prevent obstructions, &c. let this be
as it may, the insect is always very weak after it has changed its skin,
the parts being as yet affected by the exertions they have gone through.
The scaly parts, as the head and legs, are almost entirely
membranaceous, and imbrued with a fluid that insinuates itself between
the two skins, and thus facilitates their separation; this moisture
evaporates by degrees, all the parts acquire a consistence, and the
insect is then in a condition to act.
The first use that some caterpillars which live on leaves make of their
new form, is to devour greedily their exuvia: sometimes they do not wait
till their jaws have acquired their full strength; some have been seen
to gnaw the shell from which they proceeded, and even the eggs of such
caterpillars as have not been hatched.
When we have once formed the idea that all the exterior parts are
inlaid, or included one within the other, the production of new organs
does not appear so embarrassing, being nothing more than a simple
developement; but it is more difficult to form any conception of the
changes that happen in the viscera before and after the transformation,
the various modifications they undergo eluding our researches. We have
already observed, that a little before the change the caterpillar
rejects the membrane that lines the intestinal bag: this bowel has
hitherto digested only gross food, whereas it must hereafter digest that
which is very delicate: a fluid that circulates in the caterpillar from
the hind part towards the head, circulates a contrary way after
transformation. Now if this inversion is as real as observation seems to
indicate, how amazing the change the interior parts of the animal must
have undergone? When the caterpillar moults, small clusters of the
tracheal vessels are cast off with the exuvia, and new ones are
substituted in their room; but how is this effected, and how are the
lungs replaced by other lungs? The more we endeavour to investigate this
subject, the more we find it is enveloped in darkness.
Whilst the powers of life are employed conformable to the laws of Divine
Providence, to change the viscera, and give them a new form, they are
also unfolding divers other organs, which were useless to the insect
while in the larva state, but which are necessary to that which
succeeds. That these interior operations of life may be carried on with
greater energy, the animal is thrown into a kind of sleep; during this
period, the corpus crassum is distributed into all the parts, in order
to bring them to perfection, while the evaporation of the superfluous
humours makes way for the elements of the fibres to approach each other,
and unite more closely. The little wounds in the inside, which have been
occasioned by the rupture of the vessels, are gradually consolidated;
those parts which had been violently exercised, recover their tone, and
the circulating fluids insensibly find their new channel. Lastly, many
vessels are effaced, and turned into a liquid sediment, which is
rejected by the perfect insect.
When these various changes are considered, we are surprized at the
singularity of the means the AUTHOR OF NATURE has made choice of, in
order to bring the different species of animals to perfection; and are
apt to ask, why the caterpillar was not born a moth? why it passes
through the larva and pupa state? why all insects that are transformed
do not undergo the same change? These, and a variety of questions that
may be started concerning the constituent substances of those existences
which appear before us, derive their solution from the general system
which is unknown to us. If all were to arrive at perfection at once, the
chain would be broken, the creature unhappy, and man most of all. Let us
also consider what riches we should have been deprived of, if the
silk-worm had been born in its perfect state.
Amongst insects, some are produced in the state in which they will
remain during their whole lives; others come forth inclosed in an egg,
and are hatched from this into a form that admits of no variation; many
come into the world under a form which differs but little from that
which they have when arrived at an age of maturity; some again assume
various forms, more or less remote from that which constitutes their
perfect state; lastly, some go through part of these transformations in
the body of the parent, and are born of an equal size with them. By
these various changes, a single individual unites within itself two or
three different species, and becomes successively the inhabitant of two
or three worlds: and how great is the diversity of its operation in
these various abodes!
Since it has been shewn that the larva or caterpillar is really the
moth, crawling, eating, and spinning, under the form of the worm, and
that the pupa is only the moth swathed up, it is clear that they are not
three beings, but that the same individual feels, tastes, sees, and acts
by different organs, at different periods of its life, having sensations
and wants at one time, which it has not at another; these always bearing
a relation to the organs which excite them.
OF THE RESPIRATION OF INSECTS.