BOOK XXXIII.

_Titus Quinctius Flamininus, proconsul, gains a decisive

victory over Philip at Cynoscephalae. Caius Sempronius

Tuditanus, praetor, cut off by the Celtiberians. Death of

Attalus, at Pergamus. Peace granted to Philip, and liberty to

Greece. Lucius Furius Purpureo and Marcus Claudius Marcellus,

consuls, subdue the Boian and Insubrian Gauls. Triumph

of Marcellus. Hannibal, alarmed at an embassy from Rome

concerning him, flies to Antiochus, king of Syria, who was

preparing to make war on the Romans_.

1. Such were the occurrences of the winter. In the beginning of

spring, Quinctius, having summoned Attalus to Elatia, and being

anxious to bring under his authority the nation of the Boeotians, who

had until then been wavering in their dispositions, marched through

Phocis, and pitched his camp at the distance of five miles from

Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. Next day, attended by one company of

soldiers, and by Attalus, together with the ambassadors, who had come

to him in great numbers from all quarters, he proceeded towards the

city, having ordered the spearmen of two legions, being two

thousand men, to follow him at the distance of a mile. About midway,

Antiphilus, praetor of the Boeotians, met him: the rest of the people

stood on the walls, watching the arrival of the king and the Roman

general. Few arms and few soldiers appeared around them--the hollow

roads, and the valleys concealing from view the spearmen, who followed

at a distance. When Quinctius drew near the city, he slackened his

pace, as if with intention to salute the multitude, who came out to

meet him; but the real motive of his delaying was, that the spearmen

might come up. The townsmen pushed forward, in a crowd, before the

lictors, not perceiving the band of soldiers who were following them

close, until they arrived at the general's quarters. Then, supposing

the city betrayed and taken, through the treachery of Antiphilus,

their praetor, they were all struck with astonishment and dismay.

It was now evident that no room was left to the Boeotians for a free

discussion of measures in the assembly, which was summoned for the

following day. However, they concealed their grief, which it would

have been both vain and unsafe to have discovered.

2. When the assembly met, Attalus first rose to speak, and he began

his discourse with a recital of the kindnesses conferred by his

ancestors and himself on the Greeks in general, and on the Boeotians

in particular. But, being now too old and infirm to bear the exertion

of speaking in public, he lost his voice and fell; and for some time,

while they were carrying him to his apartments, (for he was deprived

of the use of one half of his limbs,) the proceedings of the assembly

were for a short time suspended. Then Aristaenus spoke on the part of

the Achaeans, and was listened to with the greater attention, because

he recommended to the Boeotians no other measures than those which he

had recommended to the Achaeans. A few words were added by Quinctius,

extolling the good faith rather than the arms and power of the Romans.

A resolution was then proposed, by Dicaearchus of Plataea, for forming

a treaty of friendship with the Roman people, which was read; and no

one daring to offer any opposition, it was received and passed by the

suffrages of all the states of Boeotia. When the assembly broke up,

Quinctius made no longer stay at Thebes than the sudden accident

to Attalus made necessary. When it appeared that the force of the

disorder had not brought the king's life into any immediate danger,

but had only occasioned a weakness in his limbs, he left him there,

to use the necessary means for recovery, and returned to Elatia, from

whence he had come. Having now brought the Boeotians, as formerly

the Achaeans, to join in the confederacy, while all places were left

behind him in a state of tranquillity and safety, he bent his whole

attention towards Philip, and the remaining business of the war.

3. Philip, on his part, as his ambassadors had brought no hopes of

peace from Rome, resolved, as soon as spring began, to levy soldiers

through every town in his dominions: but he found a great scarcity of

young men; for successive wars, through several generations, had very

much exhausted the Macedonians, and, even in the course of his own

reign great numbers had fallen, in the naval engagements with the

Rhodians and Attalus, and in those on land with the Romans. Mere

youths, therefore, from the age of sixteen, were enlisted; and even

those who had served out their time, provided they had any remains of

strength, were recalled to their standards. Having, by these means,

filled up the numbers of his army about the vernal equinox, he drew

together all his forces to Dius: he encamped them there in a fixed

post; and, exercising the soldiers every day, waited for the enemy.

About the same time Quinctius left Elatia, and came by Thronium and

Scarphea to Thermopylae. There he held an assembly of the Aetolians,

which had been summoned to meet at Heraclea, to determine with what

number of auxiliaries they should follow the Roman general to the war.

On the third day, having learned the determination of the allies,

he proceeded from Heraclea to Xyniae; and, pitching his camp on the

confines between the Aenians and Thessalians, waited for the Aetolian

auxiliaries. The Aetolians occasioned no delay. Six hundred foot and

four hundred horse, under the command of Phaeneas, speedily joined

him; and then Quinctius, to show plainly what he had waited for,

immediately decamped. On passing into the country of Phthiotis, he

was joined by five hundred Cretans of Gortynium, whose commander was

Cydantes, with three hundred Apollonians, armed nearly in the same

manner; and not long after, by Amynander, with one thousand two

hundred Athamanian foot.

4. Philip, being informed of the departure of the Romans from Elatia,

and considering that, on the approaching contest, his kingdom was

at hazard, thought it advisable to make an encouraging speech to

his soldiers; in which, after he had expatiated on many topics often

alluded to before, respecting the virtues of their ancestors, and the

military fame of the Macedonians, he touched particularly on those

considerations which at the time threw the greatest damp on their

spirits, and on those by which they might be animated to some degree

of confidence. To the defeat thrice suffered at the narrow passes

near the river Aous, by the phalanx of the Macedonians, he opposed

the repulse given by main force to the Romans at Atrax: and even with

respect to the former case, when they had not maintained possession

of the pass leading into Epirus, he said, "the first fault was to be

imputed to those who had been negligent in keeping the guards; and

the second, to the light infantry and mercenaries in the time of the

engagement; but that, as to the phalanx of the Macedonians, it had

stood firm on that occasion; and would for ever remain invincible, on

equal ground, and in regular fight." This body consisted of sixteen

thousand men, the prime strength of the army, and of the kingdom.

Besides these, he had two thousand targeteers, called Peltastae;

of Thracians, and Illyrians of the tribe called Trallians, the like

number of two thousand; and of hired auxiliaries, collected out of

various nations, about one thousand; and two thousand horse. With this

force the king waited for the enemy. The Romans had nearly an equal

number; in cavalry alone they had a superiority, by the addition of

the Aetolians.

5. Quinctius, having decamped to Thebes in Phthiotis, and having

received encouragement to hope that the city would be betrayed to him

by Timon, a leading man in the state, came up close to the walls with

only a small number of cavalry and some light infantry. So entirely

were his expectations disappointed, that he was not only obliged to

maintain a fight with the enemy who sallied out against him, but would

have incurred a fearful conflict had not both infantry and cavalry

been called out hastily from the camp, and come up in time. Not

meeting with that success which he had too inconsiderately expected,

he desisted from any further attempt to take the city at present. He

had received certain information of the king being in Thessaly; but

as he had not yet discovered into what part of it he had come, he sent

his soldiers round the country, with orders to cut timber and prepare

palisades. Both Macedonians and Greeks had palisades; but the latter

had not adopted the most convenient mode of using them, either

with respect to carriage, or for the purpose of strengthening their

fortifications. They cut trees both too large and too full of branches

for a soldier to carry easily along with his arms: and after they

had fenced their camp with a line of these, the demolition of their

palisade was no difficult matter; for the trunks of large trees

appearing to view, with great intervals between them, and the numerous

and strong shoots affording the hand a good hold, two, or at most

three young men, uniting their efforts, used to pull out one tree,

which, being removed, a breach was opened as wide as a gate, and there

was nothing at hand with which it could be stopped up. But the Romans

cut light stakes, mostly of one fork, with three, or at the most four

branches; so that a soldier, with his arms slung at his back, can

conveniently carry several of them together; and then they stick them

down so closely, and interweave the branches in such a manner, that

it cannot be seen to what main stem any branch belongs; besides which,

the boughs are so sharp, and wrought so intimately with each other,

as to leave no room for a hand to be thrust between; consequently an

enemy cannot lay hold of any thing capable of being dragged out,

or, if that could be done, could he draw out the branches thus

intertwined, and which mutually bind each other. And even if, by

accident, one should be pulled out, it leaves but a small opening,

which is very easily filled up.

6. Next day Quinctius, causing his men to carry palisades with them,

that they might be ready to encamp on any spot, marched forward a

short way, and took post about six miles from Pherae; whence he sent

scouts to discover in what part of Thessaly the king was, and what

appeared to be his intention. Philip was then near Larissa, and as

soon as he learnt that the Roman general had removed from Thebes,

being equally impatient for a decisive engagement, he proceeded

towards the enemy, and pitched his camp about four miles from Pherae.

On the day following, some light troops went out from both camps, to

seize on certain hills, which over looked the city. When, nearly at

equal distance from summit which was intended to be seized, they came

within sight of each other, they halted; and sending messengers to

their respective camps for directions, how they were to proceed on

this unexpected meeting with the enemy, waited their return in quiet.

For that day, they were recalled to their camps, without having

commenced any engagement. On the following day, there was a battle

between the cavalry, near the same hills, in which the Aetolians

bore no small part; and in which the king's troops were defeated,

and driven into their camp. Both parties were greatly impeded in

the action, by the ground being thickly planted with trees; by the

gardens, of which there were many in a place so near the city; and by

the roads being enclosed between walls, and in some places shut up.

The commanders, therefore, were equally desirous of removing out of

that quarter; and, as if by a preconcerted scheme, they both directed

their route to Scotussa: Philip with the hope of getting a supply of

corn there; the Roman intending to get before the enemy and destroy

the crops. The armies marched the whole day without having sight of

each other in any place, the view being intercepted by a continued

range of hills between them. The Romans encamped at Eretria, in

Phthiotis; Philip, on the river Onchestus. But though Philip lay at

Melambius, in the territory of Scotussa, and Quinctius near Thetidium,

in Pharsalia, neither party knew with any certainty where his

antagonist was. On the third day, there first fell a violent rain,

which was succeeded by darkness equal to that of night, and this

confined the Romans to their camp, through fear of an ambuscade.

7. Philip, intent on hastening his march, and in no degree deterred by

the clouds, which after the rain lowered over the face of the country,

ordered his troops to march: and yet so thick a fog had obscured the

day, that neither the standard-bearers could see the road, nor the

soldiers the standards; so that all, led blindly by the shouts of

uncertain guides, fell into disorder, like men wandering by night.

When they had passed over the hills called Cynoscephalae, where

they set a strong guard of foot and horse, they pitched their camp.

Although the Roman general staid at Thetidium, yet he detatched troops

of horse and one thousand foot, to find out where the enemy lay;

warning them, however, to beware of ambuscades, which the darkness of

the day would cover, even in an open country. When these arrived at

the hills, where the enemy's guard was posted, struck with mutual

fear, both parties stood, as if deprived of the power of motion. They

then sent back messengers to their respective commanders; and when the

first surprise subsided, they proceeded to action without more delay.

The fight was begun by small advanced parties; and afterwards the

numbers of the combatants were increased by reinforcements of men, who

supported those who gave way. In this contest the Romans, being far

inferior to their adversaries, sent message after message to the

general, that they were being overpowered; on which he hastily sent

five hundred horse and two thousand foot, mostly Aetolians, under the

command of two military tribunes, who relieved them, and restored the

fight. The Macedonians, distressed in turn by this change of fortune,

sent to beg succour from their king; but as, on account of the general

darkness from the fog, he had expected nothing less, on that day, than

a battle, and had therefore sent a great number of men, of every kind,

to forage, he was, for a considerable time, in great perplexity, and

unable to form a resolution. Subsequently, as the messengers still

continued to urge him, and the covering of clouds was now removed

from the tops of the mountains, and the Macedonian party was in view,

having been driven up to the highest summit, and trusting for safety

rather to the nature of the ground than to their arms, he thought it

necessary, at all events, to hazard the whole, in order to prevent

the loss of a part, for want of support; and, accordingly, he sent

up Athenagoras, general of the mercenary soldiers, with all the

auxiliaries, except the Thracians, joined by the Macedonian and

Thessalian cavalry. On their arrival, the Romans were forced from the

top of the hill, and did not face about until they came to the level

plain. The principal support which saved them from being driven down

in disorderly flight, was the Aetolian horsemen. The Aetolians

were then by far the best cavalry in Greece; in infantry, they were

surpassed by some of their neighbours.

8. This affair was represented as more successful than the advantage

gained in the battle could warrant; for people came, one after

another, and calling out that the Romans were flying in a panic; so

that, though reluctant and hesitating declaring it a rash proceeding,

and that he liked not either place or the time, yet he was prevailed

upon to draw out his whole force to battle. The Roman general did the

same, induced by necessity, rather than by the favourableness of the

occasion. Leaving the right wing as a reserve, having the elephants

posted in front, he, with the left, and all the right infantry,

advanced against the enemy; at the same time reminding his men, that

"they were going to fight the same Macedonians whom they had fought in

the passes of Epirus, fenced, as they were, with mountains and rivers,

and whom, after conquering the natural difficulties of the ground,

they had dislodged and vanquished; the same, whom they had before

defeated under the command of Publius Sulpicius, when they opposed

their passage to Eordaea. That the kingdom of Macedonia had been

hitherto supported by its reputation, not by real strength; and that

even that reputation had, at length, vanished." Quinctius soon reached

his troops, who stood in the bottom of the valley; and they, on the

arrival of their general and the army, renewed the fight, and, making

a vigorous onset, compelled the enemy again to turn their backs.

Philip, with the targeteers, and the right wing of infantry, (the main

strength of the Macedonian army, called by them the phalanx,) advanced

at a quick pace, having ordered Nicanor, one of his courtiers, to

bring up the rest of his forces with all speed. At first, on reaching

the top of the hill, from a few arms and bodies lying there, he

perceived that there had been an engagement on the spot, and that the

Romans had been repulsed from it. When he likewise saw the fight now

going on close to the enemy's works, he was elated with excessive

delight; but presently, observing his men flying back, and that the

panic was on the other side, he was much embarrassed, and hesitated

for some time, whether he should cause his troops to retire into the

camp. Then, as the enemy approached, he was sensible that his party,

besides the losses which they suffered as they fled, must be entirely

lost, if not speedily succoured; and as, by this time, even a retreat

would be unsafe, he found himself compelled to put all to hazard,

before he was joined by the other division of his forces. He placed

the cavalry and light infantry that had been engaged, on the right

wing; and ordered the targeteers, and the phalanx of Macedonians,

to lay aside their spears, which their great length rendered

unserviceable, and to manage the business with their swords: at the

same time, that his line might not be easily broken, he lessened the

extent of the front one half, and doubled the files within so that it

might be deeper than it was broad. He ordered them also to close their

files, so that man might join with man and arms with arms.

9. Quinctius, having received among the standards and ranks those who

had been engaged with the enemy, gave the signal by sound of trumpet.

It is said, that such a shout was raised, as was seldom heard at the

beginning of any battle; for it happened, that both armies shouted

at once; not only the troops then engaged, but also the reserves, and

those who were just then coming into the field. The king, fighting

from the higher ground, had the better on the right wing, by means

chiefly of the advantage of situation. On the left, all was disorder

and confusion; particularly when that division of the phalanx, which

had marched in the rear, was coming up. The centre stood intent on the

fight as on a spectacle which in no way concerned them. The phalanx,

just arrived (a column rather than a line of battle, and fitter for

a march than for a fight,) had scarcely mounted the top of the hill:

before these could form, Quinctius, though he saw his men in the left

wing giving way, charged the enemy furiously, first driving on the

elephants against them, for he judged that one part being routed

would draw the rest after. The affair was no longer doubtful. The

Macedonians, repelled by the first shock of the elephants, instantly

turned their backs; and the rest, as had been foreseen, followed them

in their retreat. Then, one of the military tribunes, forming his

design in the instant, took with him twenty companies of men; left

that part of the army which was evidently victorious; and making a

small circuit, fell on the rear of the enemy's right wing. Any army

whatever, thus charged from the rear, must have been thrown into

confusion. But to that confusion which under such circumstances would

be common to all armies, there was in this case an additional cause.

The phalanx of the Macedonians, being heavy, could not readily face

about; nor would they have been suffered to do it by their adversaries

in front, who, although they gave way to them a little before, on this

new occasion pressed them vigorously. Besides, they lay under

another inconvenience in respect of the ground; for, by pursuing the

retreating enemy down the face of the hill, they had left the top to

the party who came round on their rear. Thus attacked on both sides,

they were exposed for some time to great slaughter, and then betook

themselves to flight, most of them throwing away their arms.

10. Philip, with a small party of horse and foot, ascended a hill

somewhat higher than the rest, to take a view of the situation of his

troops on the left. Then, when he saw them flying in confusion, and

all the hills around glittering with Roman standards and arms,

he withdrew from the field. Ouinctius, as he was pressing on the

retreating enemy, observed the Macedonians suddenly raising up their

spears, and not knowing what they meant thereby, he ordered the

troops to halt. Then, on being told that this was the practice of the

Macedonians when surrendering themselves prisoners, he was disposed

to spare the vanquished; but the troops, not being apprized, either of

the enemy having ceased fighting, or of the general's intention, made

a charge on them, and the foremost having been cut down, the rest

dispersed themselves and fled. Philip hastened in disorderly flight

to Tempè, and there halted one day at Gonni, to pick up any who

might have survived the battle. The victorious Romans rushed into the

Macedonian camp with hopes of spoil, but found it, for the most part,

plundered already by the Aetolians. Eight thousand of the enemy were

killed on that day, five thousand taken. Of the victors, about seven

hundred fell. If any credit is to be attached to Valerius Antias, who

on every occasion exaggerates numbers enormously, the killed of the

enemy on that day amounted to forty thousand; the prisoners taken, (in

which article the deviation from truth is less extravagant,) to five

thousand seven hundred, with two hundred and forty-nine military

standards. Claudius also asserts that thirty-two thousand of the enemy

were slain, and four thousand three hundred taken. We have not

given entire credit, even to the smallest of those numbers, but have

followed Polybius, a safe authority with respect to all the Roman

affairs, but especially those which were transacted in Greece.

11. Philip having collected, after the flight, such as, having been

scattered by the various chances of the battle, had followed his

steps, and having sent people to Larissa to burn the records of the

kingdom, lest they should fall into the hands of the enemy, retired

into Macedonia. Quinctius set up to sale a part of the prisoners and

booty, and part he bestowed on the soldiers; and then proceeded to

Larissa, without having yet received any certain intelligence to what

quarter Philip had betaken himself, or what were his designs. To this

place came a herald from the king, apparently to obtain a truce, until

those who had fallen in battle should be removed and buried, but in

reality to request permission to send ambassadors. Both were obtained

from the Roman general; who, besides, added this message to the king,

"not to be too much dejected." This expression gave much offence,

particularly to the Aetolians, who were become very assuming, and who

complained, that "the general was quite altered by success. Before the

battle, he was accustomed to transact all business, whether great or

small, in concert with the allies; but they had, now, no share in

any of his counsels; he conducted all affairs entirely by his own

judgment; and was even seeking an occasion of ingratiating himself

personally with Philip, in order that, after the Aetolians had

laboured through all hardships and difficulties of the war, the Roman

might assume to himself all the merit and all the fruits of a peace."

Certain it is, that he had treated them with less respect than

formerly, but they did not know why they were thus slighted. They

imagined that he was actuated by an expectation of presents from the

king, though he was of a spirit incapable of yielding to any such

passion of the mind; but he was, with good reason, displeased at the

Aetolians, on account of their insatiable greediness for plunder,

and of their arrogance in assuming to themselves the honour of

the victory--a claim so ill founded, as to offend the ears of all.

Besides, he foresaw that, if Philip were removed out of the way,

and the strength of the kingdom of Macedonia entirely broken, the

Aetolians would necessarily be regarded as the masters of Greece.

For these reasons, he intentionally did many things to lessen their

importance and reputation in the judgment of the other states.

12. A truce for fifteen days was granted to the Macedonians, and a

conference with the king himself appointed. Before the day arrived on

which this was to be held, the Roman general called a council of the

allies, and desired their opinions respecting the terms of peace,

proper to be prescribed. Amynander, king of Athamania, delivered his

opinion in a few words; that "the conditions of peace ought to be

adjusted in such a manner, as that Greece might have sufficient power,

even without the interference of the Romans, to maintain the peace,

and also its own liberty." The address of the Aetolians was more

harsh; for after a few introductory observations on the justice and

propriety of the Roman general's conduct, in communicating his plans

of peace to those who had acted with him as allies in the war, they

insisted, "that he was utterly mistaken, if he supposed that he

could leave the peace with the Romans, or the liberty of Greece, on a

permanent footing, unless Philip was either put to death or banished

from his kingdom; both which he could easily accomplish, if he chose

to pursue his present success." Quinctius, in reply, said, that "the

Aetolians, in giving such advice, attended not either to the maxims of

the Roman policy, or to the consistency of their own conduct. For,

in all the former councils and conferences, wherein the conditions of

peace were discussed, they never once urged the pushing of the war to

the utter ruin of the Macedonian: and, as to the Romans, besides that

they had, from the earliest periods, observed the maxim of sparing the

vanquished, they had lately given a signal proof of their clemency

in the peace granted to Hannibal and the Carthaginians. But, not

to insist on the case of the Carthaginians, how often had the

confederates met Philip himself in conference, yet that it had never

been urged that he should resign his kingdom: and, because he had

been defeated in battle, was that a reason that their animosity should

become implacable? Against an armed foe, men ought to engage with

hostile resentment; towards the vanquished, the loftiest spirit was

ever the most merciful. The kings of Macedonia were thought to be

dangerous to the liberty of Greece. Suppose that kingdom and nation

extirpated, the Thracians, Illyrians, and in time the Gauls, (nations

unsubjugated and savage,) would pour themselves into Macedonia first,

and then into Greece. That they should not, by removing inconveniences

which lay nearest, open a passage to others greater and more

grievous." Here he was interrupted by Phaeneas, praetor of the

Aetolians, who solemnly declared, that "if Philip escaped now, he

would soon raise a new and more dangerous war." On which Quinctius

said,--"Cease wrangling, when you ought to deliberate. The king shall

be bound down by such conditions as will not leave it in his power to

raise a war."

13. The convention was then adjourned; and next day, the king came

to the pass at the entrance of Tempè, the place appointed for a

conference; and the third day following was fixed for introducing him

to a full assembly of the Romans and allies. On this occasion Philip,

with great prudence, intentionally avoided the mention of any of those

conditions, without which peace could not be obtained, rather than

suffer them to be extorted after discussion; and declared, that he was

ready to comply with all the articles which, in the former conference,

were either prescribed by the Romans or demanded by the allies; and to

leave all other matters to the determination of the senate. Although

he seemed to have hereby precluded every objection, even from the

most inveterate of his enemies, yet, all the rest remaining silent,

Phaeneas, the Aetolian, said to him,--"What! Philip, do you at last

restore to us Pharsalus and Larissa, with Cremaste, Echinus, and

Thebes in Phthiotis?" On Philip answering, that "he would give no

obstruction to their retaking the possession of them," a dispute

arose between the Roman general and the Aetolians about Thebes; for

Quinctius affirmed, that it became the property of the Roman people by

the laws of war; because when, before the commencement of hostilities,

he marched his army thither, and invited the inhabitants to

friendship, they, although at full liberty to renounce the king's

party, yet preferred an alliance with Philip to one with Rome.

Phaeneas alleged, that, in consideration of their being confederates

in the war, it was reasonable, that whatever the Aetolians possessed

before it began, should be restored; and that, besides, there was, in

the first treaty, a provisional clause of that purport, by which the

spoils of war, of every kind that could be carried or driven, were to

belong to the Romans; and that the lands and captured cities should

fall to the Aetolians. "Yourselves," replied Quinctius, "annulled the

conditions of that treaty, at the time when ye deserted us, and made

peace with Philip; but supposing it still remained in force, yet that

clause could affect only captured cities. Now, the states of Thessaly

submitted to us by a voluntary act of their own."--These words were

heard by their allies with universal approbation; but to the

Aetolians they were both highly displeasing at the present, and proved

afterwards the cause of a war, and of many great disasters attending

it. The terms settled with Philip were, that he should give his

son Demetrius, and some of his friends, as hostages; should pay two

hundred talents[1] and send ambassadors to Rome, respecting the other

articles: for which purpose there should be a cessation of arms for

four months. An engagement was entered into, that, in case the senate

should refuse to conclude a treaty, his money and hostages should

be returned to Philip. It is said, that one of the principal reasons

which made the Roman general wish to expedite the conclusion of a

peace, was, that he had received certain information of Antiochus

intending to commence hostilities, and to pass over into Europe.

[Footnote 1: 38,750l.]

14. About the same time, and, as some writers say, on the same day,

the Achaeans defeated Androsthenes, the king's commander, in a general

engagement near Corinth. Philip, intending to use this city as a

citadel, to awe the states of Greece, had invited the principal

inhabitants to a conference, under pretence of agreeing with them as

to the number of horsemen which the Corinthians could supply towards

the war, and these he detained as hostages. Besides the force already

there, consisting of five hundred Macedonians and eight hundred

auxiliaries of various kinds, he had sent thither one thousand

Macedonians, one thousand two hundred Illyrians, and of Thracians and

Cretans (for these served in both the opposite armies) eight hundred.

To these were added Botians, Thessalians, and Acarnanians, to the

amount of one thousand, all carrying bucklers; with as many of the

young Corinthians themselves, as filled up the number of six thousand

men under arms,--a force which inspired Androsthenes with a confident

wish to decide the matter in the field. Nicostratus, praetor of the

Achaeans, was at Sicyon, with two thousand foot and one hundred horse;

but seeing himself so inferior, both in the number and kind of

troops, he did not go outside the walls: the king's forces, in various

excursions, were ravaging the lands of Pellene, Phliasus, and Cleone.

At last, reproaching the enemy with cowardice, they passed over into

the territory of Sicyon, and, sailing round Achaia, laid waste the

whole coast. As the enemy, while thus employed, spread themselves

about too widely and too carelessly, (the usual consequence of too

much confidence,) Nicostratus conceived hopes of attacking them by

surprise. He therefore sent secret directions to all the neighbouring

states, as to what day, and what number from each state, should

assemble in arms at Apelaurus, a place in the territory of Stymphalia.

All being in readiness at the time appointed, he marched thence

immediately; and, without the knowledge of any one as to what he was

contemplating, came by night through the territory of the Phliasians

to Cleone. He had with him five thousand foot, of whom * * * * * * [1]

were light-armed, and three hundred horse; with this force he waited

there, having despatched scouts to watch on what quarter the enemy

should make their irregular inroads.

[Footnote 1: In the original, the number is omitted, or lost.]

15. Androsthenes, utterly ignorant of all these proceedings, set out

from Corinth, and encamped on the Nemea, a river running between

the confines of Corinth and Sicyon. Here, dismissing one half of his

troops, he divided the remainder into three parts, and ordered all the

cavalry of each part to march in separate divisions, and ravage,

at the same time, the territories of Pellene, Sicyon, and Phlius.

Accordingly, the three divisions set out by different roads. As soon

as Nicostratus received intelligence of this at Cleone, he instantly

sent forward a numerous detachment of mercenaries, to seize a pass

at the entrance into the territory of Corinth; and he himself quickly

followed, with his troops in two columns, the cavalry proceeding

before the head of each, as advanced guards. In one column marched

the mercenary soldiers and light infantry; in the other, the

shield-bearers of the Achaeans and other states, who composed the

principal strength of the army. Both infantry and cavalry were now

within a small distance of the camp, and some of the Thracians had

attacked parties of the enemy, who were straggling and scattered over

the country, when the sudden alarm reached their tents. The commander

was thrown into the utmost perplexity; for, having never had a sight

of the Achaeans, except occasionally on the hills before Sicyon,

when they did not venture to come down into the plains, he had

never imagined that they would come so far as Cleone. He ordered the

stragglers to be recalled by sound of trumpet; commanded the soldiers

to take arms with all haste; and, marching out of the gate at the head

of thin battalions, drew up his line on the bank of the river. His

other troops, having scarcely had time to be collected and formed, did

not withstand the enemy's first onset; the Macedonians had surrounded

their standards in by far the greatest numbers, and now kept the

prospect of victory a long time doubtful. At length, being left

exposed by the flight of the rest, and pressed by two bodies of the

enemy on different sides, by the light infantry on their flank, and by

the shield-bearers and targeteers in front, and seeing victory declare

against them, they at first gave ground; soon after, being vigorously

pushed, they turned their backs; and most of them, throwing away their

arms and having lost all hope of defending their camp, made the best

of their way to Corinth. Nicostratus sent the mercenaries in pursuit

of these; and the auxiliary Thracians against the party employed

in ravaging the lands of Sicyon: occasioned great carnage in both

instances, greater almost than occurred in the battle itself. Of those

who had been ravaging Pellene and Phlius, some, returning to their

camp, ignorant of all that had happened, and without any regular

order, fell in with the advanced guards of the enemy, where they

expected their own. Others, from the bustle which they perceived,

suspecting what was really the case, fled and dispersed themselves in

such a manner, that, as they wandered up and down, they were cut

off by the very peasants. There fell, on that day, one thousand

five hundred: three hundred were made prisoners. All Achaia was thus

relieved from their great alarm.

16. Before the battle at Cynoscephalae, Lucius Quinctius had invited

to Corcyra some chiefs of the Acarnanians, the only state in Greece

which had continued to maintain its alliance with the Macedonians; and

there made some kind of scheme for a change of measures. Two causes,

principally, had retained them in friendship with the king: one was a

principle of honour, natural to that nation; the other, their fear and

hatred of the Aetolians. A general assembly was summoned to meet at

Leucas; but neither did all the states of Acarnania come thither, nor

were those who did attend agreed in opinion. However, the magistrates

and leading men prevailed so far, as to get a decree passed, thus

privately, for joining in alliance with the Romans. This gave great

offence to those who had not been present; and, in this ferment of

the nation, Androcles and Echedemus, two men of distinction among the

Acarnanians, being commissioned by Philip, had influence enough in the

assembly, not only to obtain the repeal of the decree for an alliance

with Rome, but also the condemnation, on a charge of treason, of

Archesilaus and Bianor, both men of the first rank in Acarnania, who

had been the advisers of that measure; and to deprive Zeuxidas, the

praetor, of his office, for having put it to the vote. The persons

condemned took a course apparently desperate, but successful in the

issue: for, while their friends advised them to yield to the necessity

of the occasion, and withdraw to Corcyra, to the Romans, they resolved

to present themselves to the multitude; and either, by that act, to

mollify their resentment, or endure whatever might befall them. When

they had introduced themselves into a full assembly, at first, a

murmur arose, expressive of surprise; but presently silence took

place, partly from respect to their former dignity, partly from

commiseration of their present situation. Having been also permitted

the liberty of speaking, at first they addressed the assembly in a

suppliant manner; but, in the progress of their discourse, when they

came to refute the charges made against them, they spoke with that

degree of confidence which innocence inspires. At last, they even

ventured to utter some complaints, and to charge the proceedings

against them with injustice and cruelty; and this had such an effect

on the minds of all present, that, with one consent, they annulled

all the decrees passed against them. Nevertheless, they came to a

resolution, to renounce the friendship of the Romans, and return to

the alliance with Philip.

17. These decrees were passed at Leucas, the capital of Acarnania, the

place where all the states usually met in council. As soon, therefore,

as the news of this sudden change reached the lieutenant-general

Flamininus, in Corcyra, he instantly set sail with the fleet for

Leucas; and coming to an anchor at a place called Heraeus, advanced

thence towards the walls with every kind of machine used in the

attacking of cities; supposing that the first appearance of danger

might bend the minds of the inhabitants to submission. But seeing no

prospect of effecting any thing, except by force, he began to erect

towers and sheds, and to bring up the battering-rams to the walls. The

whole of Acarnania, being situated between Aetolia and Epirus, faces

towards the west and the Sicilian sea. Leucadia, now an island,

separated from Acarnania by a shallow strait which was dug by the

hand, was then a peninsula, united on its eastern side to Acarnania by

a narrow isthmus: this isthmus was about five hundred paces in length,

and in breadth not above one hundred and twenty. At the entrance of

this narrow neck stands Leucas, stretching up part of a hill which

faces the east and Acarnania: the lower part of the town is level,

lying along the sea, which divides Leucadia from Acarnania. Thus it

lies open to attacks, both from the sea and from the land; for the

channel is more like a marsh than a sea, and all the adjacent ground

is solid enough to render the construction of works easy. In many

places, therefore, at once the walls fell down, either undermined,

or demolished by the ram. But the spirit of the besieged was as

invincible as the town itself was favourably situated for the

besiegers: night and day they employed themselves busily in repairing

the shattered parts of the wall; and, stopping up the breaches that

were made, fought the enemy with great spirit, and showed a wish to

defend the walls by their arms rather than themselves by the walls.

And they would certainly have protracted the siege to a length

unexpected by the Romans, had not some exiles of Italian birth, who

resided in Leucas, admitted a band of soldiers into the citadel:

notwithstanding which, when those troops ran down from the higher

ground with great tumult and uproar, the Leucadians, drawing up in a

body in the forum, withstood them for a considerable time in regular

fight. Meanwhile the walls were scaled in many places; and the

besiegers, climbing over the rubbish, entered the town through the

breaches. And now the lieutenant-general himself surrounded the

combatants with a powerful force. Being thus hemmed in, many were

slain, the rest laid down their arms and surrendered to the conqueror.

In a few days after, on hearing of the battle at Cynoscephalae,

all the states of Acarnania made their submission to the

lieutenant-general.

18. About this time, fortune, depressing the same party in every

quarter at once, the Rhodians, in order to recover from Phillip the

tract on the continent called Peraea, which had been in possession of

their ancestors, sent thither their praetor, Pausistratus, with eight

hundred Achaean foot, and about one thousand nine hundred men, made

up of auxiliaries of various nations. These were Gauls, Nisuetans,

Pisuetans, Tamians Areans from Africa, and Laodiceans from Asia. With

this force Pausistratus seized by surprise Tendeba, in the territory

of Stratonice, a place exceedingly convenient for his purpose, without

the knowledge of the king's troops who had held it. A reinforcement

of one thousand Achaean foot and one hundred horse, called out for the

same expedition, came up at the very time, under a commander called

Theoxenus. Dinocrates, the king's general, with design to recover

the fort, marched his army first to Tendeba, and then to another fort

called Astragon, which also stood in the territory of Stratonice.

Then, calling in all the garrisons, which were scattered in many

different places, and the Thessalian auxiliaries from Stratonice

itself, he led them on to Alabanda, where the enemy lay. The Rhodians

were no way averse from a battle, and the camps being pitched near

each other both parties immediately came into the field. Dinocrates

placed five hundred Macedonians on his right wing, and the Agrians

on his left; the centre he formed of the troops which he had drawn

together out of the garrisons of the forts; these were mostly Carians;

and he covered the flanks with the cavalry, and the Cretan and

Thracian auxiliaries. The Rhodians had on the right wing the Achaeans;

on the left mercenary soldiers; and in the centre a chosen band of

infantry, a body of auxiliaries composed of troops of various nations.

The cavalry and what light infantry they had, were posted on the

wings. During that day both armies remained on the banks of a rivulet,

which ran between them, and, after discharging a few javelins, they

retired into their camps. Next day, being drawn up in the same order,

they fought a more important battle than could have been expected,

considering the numbers engaged; for there were not more than three

thousand infantry on each side, and about one hundred horse: but they

were not only on an equality with respect to numbers, and the kind of

arms which they used, but they also fought with equal spirit and equal

hopes. First, the Achaeans crossing the rivulet, made an attack on the

Agrians; then the whole line passed the river, almost at full speed.

The fight continued doubtful a long time: the Achaeans, one thousand

in number, drove back the four hundred from their position. Then the

left wing giving way, all exerted themselves against the right. On

the Macedonians no impression could be made, so long as their phalanx

preserved its order, each man clinging as it were to another:

but when, in consequence of their flank being left exposed, they

endeavoured to turn their spears against the enemy, who were advancing

upon that side, they immediately broke their ranks. This first caused

disorder among themselves; they then turned their backs, and at last,

throwing away their arms, and flying with precipitation, made the best

of their way to Bargylii. To the same place Dinocrates also made his

escape. The Rhodians continued the pursuit as long as the day lasted,

and then retired to their camp. There is every reason to believe,

that, if the victors had proceeded with speed to Stratonice, that

city would have been gained without a contest; but the opportunity for

effecting this was neglected, and the time wasted in taking possession

of the forts and villages in Peraea. In the mean time, the courage

of the troops in garrison at Stratonice revived; and shortly after,

Dinocrates, with the troops which had escaped from the battle, came

into the town, which, after that, was besieged and assaulted without

effect; nor could it be reduced until a long time after that, when

Antiochus took it. Such were the events that took place in Thessaly,

in Achaia, and in Asia, all about the same time.

19. Philip was informed that the Dardanians, in contempt of the

power of his kingdom, shaken as at that time it was, had passed the

frontiers, and were spreading devastation through the upper parts

of Macedonia: on which, though he was hard pressed in almost every

quarter of the globe, fortune on all occasions defeating his measures

and those of his friends, yet, thinking it more intolerable than death

to be expelled from the possession of Macedonia, he made hasty levies

through the cities of his dominions; and, with six thousand foot and

five hundred horse, defeated the enemy by a surprise near Stobi in

Paeonia. Great numbers were killed in the fight, and greater numbers

of those who were scattered about in quest of plunder. As to such as

found a road open for flight, without having even tried the chance

of an engagement, they hastened back to their own country. After this

enterprise executed with a degree of success beyond what he met in

the rest of his attempts, and which raised the drooping courage of his

people, he retired to Thessalonica. Seasonable as was the termination

of the Punic war, in extricating the Romans from the danger of a

quarrel with Philip, the recent triumph over Philip happened still

more opportunely, when Antiochus, in Syria, was already making

preparations for hostilities. For besides that it was easier to wage

war against them separately than if both had combined their forces

together, Spain had a little before this time, risen in arms in great

commotion Antiochus, though he had in the preceding summer reduced

under his power all the states in Coele-Syria belonging to Ptolemy,

and retired into winter quarters at Antioch, yet allowed himself no

relaxation from the exertions of the summer. For resolving to exert

the whole strength of his kingdom, he collected a most powerful force,

both naval and military; and in the beginning of spring, sending

forward by land his two sons, Ardues and Mithridates, at the head of

the army, with orders to wait for him at Sardis, he himself set out

by sea with a fleet of one hundred decked ships, besides two hundred

lighter vessels, barks and fly-boats, designing to attempt the

reduction of all the cities under the dominion of Ptolemy along the

whole coast of Caria and Cilicia; and, at the same time, to aid Philip

with an army and ships, for as yet that war had not been brought to a

conclusion.

20. The Rhodians, out of a faithful attachment to the Roman people,

and an affection for the whole race of the Greeks have performed

many honourable exploits, both on land and sea: but never was their

gallantry more eminently conspicuous than on this occasion, when,

nowise dismayed at the formidable magnitude of the impending war,

they sent ambassadors to tell the king, that he should not double the

tribute of Cheledoniae, which is a promontory of Cilicia, rendered

famous by an ancient treaty between the Athenians and the king

of Persia; that if he did not confine his fleet and army to that

boundary, they would meet him there and oppose not out of any ill

will, but because they would not suffice to join Philip and obstruct

the Romans, who were resisting liberty to Greece. At this time

Antiochus was pushing the siege of Coracesium with his works; for,

after he had possession of Zephyrium, Solae, Aphrodisias, and Corycus;

and doubling Anemurium, another promontory of Cilicia, had taken

Selinus; when all these, and the other fortresses on that coast, had,

either through fear or inclination, submitted without resistance,

Coracesium shut its gates, and gave him a delay which he did not

expect. Here an audience was given to the ambassadors of the Rhodians,

and although the purport of their embassy was such as might kindle

passion in the breast of a king, yet he stifled his resentment, and

answered, that "he would send ambassadors to Rhodes, and would give

them instructions to renew the old treaties, made by him and his

predecessors, with that state; and to assure them, that they need not

be alarmed at his approach; that it would involve no injury or fraud

either to them or their allies; for that he was not about to violate

the friendship subsisting between himself and the Romans, both his own

late embassy to that people, and the senate's answers and decrees, so

honourable to him, were a sufficient evidence." Just at that time his

ambassadors happened to have returned from Rome, where they had been

heard and dismissed with courtesy, as the juncture required; the

event of the war with Philip being yet uncertain. While the king's

ambassadors were haranguing to the above purpose, in an assembly of

the people at Rhodes, a courier arrived with an account of the battle

at Cynoscephalae having finally decided the fate of the war.

Having received this intelligence, the Rhodians, now freed from all

apprehensions of danger from Philip, resolved to oppose Antiochus with

their fleet. Nor did they neglect another object that required their

attention; the protection of the freedom of the cities in alliance

with Ptolemy, which were threatened with war by Antiochus. For, some

they assisted with men, others by forewarning them of the enemy's

designs; by which means they enabled the Cauneans, Mindians,

Halicarnassians, and Samians to preserve their liberty. It were

needless to attempt enumerating all the transactions as they occurred

in that quarter, when I am scarcely equal to the task of recounting

those which immediately concern the war in which Rome was engaged.

21. At this time king Attalus, having fallen sick at Thebes, had been

carried thence to Pergamus, died at the age of seventy-one after he

had reigned forty-four years. To this man fortune had given nothing

which could inspire hopes of a throne except riches. By a prudent,

and, at the same time, a splendid use of these, he begat, in himself

first, and then in others, an opinion, that he was not undeserving of

a crown. Afterwards, having in one battle utterly defeated the Gauls,

which nation was then the more terrible to Asia, as having but lately

made its appearance there, he assumed the title of king, and ever

after exhibited a spirit equal to the dignity of that name. He

governed his subjects with the most perfect justice, and observed an

unvarying fidelity towards his allies; gentle and bountiful to his

friends; affectionate to his wife and four sons, who survived him; and

he left his government established on such solid and firm foundations,

that the possession of it descended to the third generation. While

this was the posture of affairs in Asia, Greece, and Macedonia, the

war with Philip being scarcely ended, and the peace certainly not yet

perfected, a desperate insurrection took place in the Farther Spain.

Marcus Helvius was governor of that province. He informed the senate

by letter, that "two chieftains, Colca and Luscinus, were in arms;

that Colca was joined by seventeen towns, and Luscinus by the powerful

cities of Carmo and Bardo; and that the people of the whole sea-coast,

who had not yet manifested their disposition, were ready to rise on

the first motion of their neighbours." On this letter being read by

Marcus Sergius, city praetor, the senate decreed, that, as soon as

the election of praetors should be finished, the one to whose lot the

government of Spain fell should, without delay, consult the senate

respecting the commotions in that province.

22. About the same time the consuls came home to Rome, and, on

their holding a meeting of the senate in the temple of Bellona, and

demanding a triumph, in consideration of their successes in the war,

Caius Atinius Labeo, and Caius Ursanius, plebeian tribunes, insisted

that "the consuls should propose their claims of a triumph separately,

for they would not suffer the question to be put on both jointly,

lest equal honours might be conferred where the merits were unequal."

Minucius urged, that they had both been appointed to the government

of one province, Italy; and that, through the course of their

administration, his colleague and himself had been united in

sentiments and in counsels; to which Cornelius added, that, when the

Boians were passing the Po, to assist the Insubrians and Caenomanians

against him, they were forced to return to defend their own country,

from his colleague ravaging their towns and lands. In reply the

tribunes acknowledged, that the services performed in the war by

Cornelius were so great, that "no more doubt could be entertained

respecting his triumph than respecting the ascribing of glory to the

immortal gods." Nevertheless they insisted, that "neither he nor any

other member of the community should possess such power and influence

as to be able, after obtaining the honour that was due to himself, to

bestow the same distinction on a colleague, who immodestly demanded

what he had not deserved. The exploits of Quintus Minucius in Liguria

were trifling skirmishes, scarcely deserving mention; and in Gaul

he had lost great numbers of soldiers." They mentioned even military

tribunes, Titus Juvencius and Cneius Labeo, of the fourth legion, the

plebeian tribune's brother, who had fallen in unsuccessful conflict,

together with many other brave men, both citizens and allies: and

they asserted, that "pretended surrenders of a few towns and villages,

fabricated for the occasion, had been made, without any pledge of

fidelity being taken." These altercations between the consuls and

tribunes lasted two days: at last the consuls, overcome by the

obstinacy of the tribunes, proposed their claims separately.

23. To Cneius Cornelius a triumph was unanimously decreed: and the

inhabitants of Placentia and Cremona added to the applause bestowed

on the consul, by returning him thanks, and mentioning, to his honour,

that they had been delivered by him from a siege; and that very

many of them, when in the hands of the enemy, had been rescued from

captivity. Quintus Minucius just tried how the proposal of his claim

would be received, and finding the whole senate averse from it,

declared, that by the authority of his office of consul, and pursuant

to the example of many illustrious men, he would triumph on the

Alban mount. Caius Cornelius, being yet in office, triumphed over

the Insubrian and Caenomanian Gauls. He produced a great number of

military standards, and earned in the procession abundance of Gallic

spoils in captured chariots. Many Gauls of distinction were led before

his chariot, and along with them, some writers say, Hamilcar, the

Carthaginian general. But what, more than all, attracted the eyes of

the public, was a crowd of Cremonian and Placentian colonists, with

caps of liberty on their heads, following his chariot. He carried

in his triumph two hundred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred

_asses_,[1] and of silver denarii, stamped with a chariot,

seventy-nine thousand.[2] He distributed to each of his soldiers

seventy _asses_,[3] to a horseman and a centurion double that sum.

Quintus Minucius, consul, triumphed on the Alban mount, over the

Ligurian and Boian Gauls. Although this triumph was less respectable,

in regard to the place and the fame of his exploits, and because all

knew the expense was not issued from the treasury; yet, in regard of

the number of standards, chariots, and spoils, it was nearly equal to

the other. The amount of the money also was nearly equal. Two hundred

and fifty-four thousand _asses_[4] were conveyed to the treasury, and

of silver denarii, stamped with a chariot, fifty-three thousand

two hundred.[5] He likewise gave to the soldiers, horsemen, and

centurions, severally, the same sums that his colleague had given.

[Footnote 1: 766l. 18s. 6-1/2d]

[Footnote 2: 2551l. 0s. 10d]

[Footnote 3: 4s. 6-1/2d]

[Footnote 4: 820l. 4s. 2d]

[Footnote 5: 1717l. 18s. 4d]

24. After the triumph, the election of consuls came on. The persons

chosen were Lucius Furius Purpureo and Marcus Claudius Marcellus.

Next day, the following were elected praetors; Quintus Fabius Buteo,

Tiberius Sempronius Longus, Quintus Minucius Thermus, Manius Acilius

Glabrio, Lucius Apustius Fullo, and Caius Laelius. Toward the close of

this year, a letter came from Titus Quinctius, with information that

he had fought a pitched battle with Philip in Thessaly, and that the

army of the enemy had been routed and put to flight. This letter was

read by Sergius, the praetor, first in the senate, and then, by the

direction of the fathers, in a general assembly; and supplications

of five days' continuance were decreed on account of those successes.

Soon after arrived the ambassadors, both from Titus Quinctius and from

the king. The Macedonians were conducted out of the city to the Villa

Publica, where lodgings and every other accommodation were provided

for them, and an audience of the senate was given them in the temple

of Bellona. Not many words passed; for the Macedonians declared, that

whatever terms the senate should prescribe, the king was ready

to comply with them. It was decreed, that, conformably to ancient

practice, ten ambassadors should be appointed, and that, in council

with them, the general, Titus Quinctius, should grant terms of peace

to Philip; and a clause was added, that, in the number of these

ambassadors, should be Publius Sulpicius and Publius Villius, who in

their consulship had held the province of Macedonia. On the same day

the inhabitants of Oossa having presented a petition, praying that the

number of their colonists might be enlarged; an order was accordingly

passed, that one thousand should be added to the list, with a

provision, that no persons should be admitted into that number who,

at any time since the consulate of Publius Cornelius and Tiberius

Sempronius, had been partisans of the enemy.

25. This year the Roman games were exhibited in the circus, and on

the stage, by the curule aediles, Publius Cornelius Scipio and Cneius

Manlius Vulso, with an unusual degree of splendour, and were beheld

with the greater delight, in consequence of the late successes in war.

They were thrice repeated entire, and the plebeian games seven times.

These were exhibited by Manius Acilius Glabrio and Caius Laelius,

who also, out of the money arising from fines, erected three brazen

statues, to Ceres, Liber, and Libera. Lucius Furius and Marcus

Claudius Marcellus, having entered on the consulship, when the

distribution of the provinces came to be agitated, and the senate

appeared disposed to vote Italy the province of both, exerted

themselves to get that of Macedonia put to the lot along with Italy.

Marcellus, who of the two was the more eager for that province, by

assertions that the peace was merely a feigned and delusive one, and

that, if the army were withdrawn thence, the king would renew the war,

caused some perplexity in the minds of the senate. The consuls would

probably have carried the point, had not Quintus Marcius Rex and Caius

Antinius Labeo, plebeian tribunes, declared, that they would

enter their protest, unless they were allowed, before any further

proceeding, to take the sense of the people, whether it was their will

and order that peace be concluded with Philip. This question was put

to the people in the Capitol, and every one of the thirty-five tribes

voted on the affirmative side. The public found the greater reason to

rejoice at the ratification of the peace with Macedonia, as melancholy

news was brought from Spain; and a letter was made public, announcing

that "the proconsul, Caius Sempronius Tuditanus, had been defeated in

battle in the Hither Spain; that his army had been utterly routed and

dispersed, and several men of distinction slain in the fight. That

Tuditanus, having been grievously wounded, and carried out of the

field, expired soon after." Italy was decreed the province of both

consuls, in which they were to employ the same legions which the

preceding consuls had; and they were to raise four new legions, two

for the city, and two to be in readiness to be sent whithersoever

the senate should direct. Titus Quinctius Flamininus was ordered

to continue in the government of his province, with the army of two

legions, then on the spot. The former prolongation of his command was

deemed sufficient.

26. The praetors then cast lots for their provinces. Lucius Apustius

Fullo obtained the city jurisdiction; Manius Acilius Glabrio, that

between natives and foreigners; Quintus Fabius Buteo, Farther Spain;

Quintus Minucius Thermus, Hither Spain; Caius Laelius, Sicily;

Tiberius Sempronius Longus, Sardinia. To Quintus Fabius Buteo and

Quintus Minucius, to whom the government of the two Spains had fallen,

it was decreed, that the consuls, out of the four legions raised by

them, should give one each whichever they thought fit, together with

four thousand foot and three hundred horse of the allies and Latin

confederates; and those praetors were ordered to repair to their

provinces at the earliest possible time. This war in Spain broke out

in the fifth year after the former had been ended, together with the

Punic war. The Spaniards now, for the first time, had taken arms in

their own name, unconnected with any Carthaginian army or general.

Before the consuls stirred from the city, however, they were ordered,

as usual, to expiate the reported prodigies. Publius Villius, a Roman

knight, on the road to Sabinia, had been killed by lightning, together

with his horse. The temple of Feronia, in the Capenatian district, had

been struck by lightning. At the temple of Moneta, the shafts of

two spears had taken fire and burned. A wolf, coming in through the

Esquiline gate, and running through the most frequented part of

the city, down into the forum, passed thence through the Tuscan and

Maelian streets; and scarcely receiving a stroke, made its escape out

of the Capenian gate. These prodigies were expiated with victims of

the larger kinds.

27. About the same time Cneius Cornelius Lentulus, who had held the

government of Hither Spain before Sempronius Tuditanus, entered the

city in ovation, pursuant to a decree of the senate, and carried in

the procession one thousand five hundred and fifteen pounds' weight

of gold, twenty thousand of silver; and in coin, thirty-four thousand

five hundred and fifty denarii.[1] Lucius Stretinius, from the Farther

Spain, without making any pretensions to a triumph, carried into

the treasury fifty thousand pounds' weight of silver; and out of the

spoils taken, built two arches in the cattle-market, at the fronts of

the temple of Fortune and Mother Matuta, and one in the great Circus;

and on these arches placed gilded statues. These were the principal

occurrences during the winter. At this time Quinctius was in winter

quarters at Elatia. Among many requests, made to him by the allies,

was that of the Boeotians, namely, that their countrymen, who had

served in the army with Philip, might be restored to them. With

this Quinctius readily complied; not because he thought them very

deserving, but that, as king Antiochus was already suspected, he

judged it advisable to conciliate every state in favour of the Roman

interest. It quickly appeared how very little gratitude existed among

the Boeotians; for they not only sent persons to give thanks to Philip

for the restoration of their fellows, as if that favour had been

conferred on them by him, and not by Quinctius and the Romans; but,

at the next election, raised to the office of Boeotarch a man named

Brachyllas, for no other reason than because he had been commander

of the Boeotians serving in the army of Philip; passing by Zeuxippus,

Pisistratus, and the others, who had promoted the alliance with Rome.

These men were both offended at the present and alarmed about the

future consequences: for if such things were done when a Roman army

lay almost at their gates, what would become of them when the Romans

should have gone away to Italy, and Philip, from a situation so near,

should support his own associates, and vent his resentment on those

who had been of the opposite party?

[Footnote 1: 1115l. 13s. 3-1/2d.]

28. It was resolved, while they had the Roman army near at hand, to

take off Brachyllas, who was the principal leader of the faction which

favoured the king; and they chose an opportunity for the deed, when,

after having been at a public feast, he was returning to his house

inebriated, and accompanied by some of his debauched companions,

who, for the sake of merriment, had been admitted to the crowded

entertainment. He was surrounded and assassinated by six men, of whom

three were Italians and three Aetolians. His companions fled, crying

out for help; and a great uproar ensued among the people, who ran

up and down, through all parts of the city, with lights; but the

assassins made their escape through the nearest gate. At the first

dawn, a full assembly was called together in the theatre, by the

voice of a crier, as if in consequence of a previous appointment.

Many openly clamoured that Brachyllas was killed by those detestable

wretches who accompanied him; but their private conjectures pointed

to Zeuxippus, as author of the murder. It was resolved, however, that

those who had been in company with him should be seized and examined

in their presence. While they were under examination, Zeuxippus,

with his usual composure, came into the assembly, for the purpose of

averting the charge from himself; yet said, that people were mistaken

in supposing that so daring a murder was the act of such effeminate

wretches as those who were charged with it, urging many plausible

arguments to the same purpose. By which behaviour he led several to

believe, that, if he were conscious of guilt, he would never have

presented himself before the multitude, or, without being challenged

by any, have made any mention of the murder. Others were convinced

that he intended, by thus unblushingly exposing himself to the charge,

to throw off all suspicion from himself. Soon after, those men who

were innocent were put to the torture; and, taking the universal

opinion as having the effect of evidence, they named Zeuxippus and

Pisistratus; but they produced no proof to show that they knew any

thing of the matter. Zeuxippus, however, accompanied by a man named

Stratonidas, fled by night to Tanagra; alarmed by his own conscience

rather than by the assertion of men who were privy to no one

circumstance of the affair. Pisistratus, despising the informers,

remained at Thebes. A slave of Zeuxippus had carried messages

backwards and forwards, and had been intrusted with the management of

the whole business. From this man Pisistratus dreaded a discovery; and

by that very dread forced him, against his will, to make one. He sent

a letter to Zeuxippus, desiring him to "put out of the way the slave

who was privy to their crime; for he did not believe him as

well qualified for the concealment of the fact as he was for the

perpetration of it." He ordered the bearer of this letter to

deliver it to Zeuxippus as soon as possible; but he, not finding an

opportunity of meeting him, put it into the hands of the very slave

in question, whom he believed to be the most faithful to his master of

any; and added, that it came from Pisistratus respecting a matter of

the utmost consequence to Zeuxippus. Struck by consciousness of guilt,

the slave after promising to deliver the letter, immediately opened

it; and, on reading the contents, fled in a fright to Thebes and

laid the information before the magistrate. Zeuxippus, alarmed by the

flight of his slave, withdrew to Athens, where he thought he might

live in exile with greater safety. Pisistratus, after being examined

several times by torture, was put to death.

29. This murder exasperated the Thebans, and all the Boeotians, to the

most rancorous animosity against the Romans, for they considered that

Zeuxippus, one of the first men of the nation, had not been party

to such a crime without the instigation of the Roman general. To

recommence a war, they had neither strength nor a leader; but they had

recourse to private massacres, as being next to war, and cut off many

of the soldiers, some as they came to lodge in their houses, others as

they wandered about their winter quarters, or were on leave of absence

for various purposes. Some were killed on the roads by parties lying

in wait in lurking-places; others were seduced and carried away to

inns, which were left uninhabited, and there put to death. At last

they committed these crimes, not merely out of hatred, but likewise

from a desire of booty; for the soldiers on furlough generally carried

money in their purses for the purpose of trading. At first a few at a

time, afterwards greater numbers used to be missed, until all Boeotia

became notorious for those practices, and a soldier went beyond the

bounds of the camp with more timidity than into an enemy's country.

Quinctius then sent deputies round the states, to make inquiry

concerning the murders committed. The greatest number of murders were

found to have been committed about the lake called Copais; there the

bodies were dug out of the mud, and drawn up out of the marsh, having

had earthen jars or stones tied to them, so as to be dragged to the

bottom by the weight. Many deeds of this sort were discovered to have

been perpetrated at Acrphia and Coronea. Quinctius at first insisted

that the persons guilty should be given up to him, and that, for five

hundred soldiers, (for so many had been cut off,) the Botians should

pay five hundred talents.[1] Neither of these requisitions being

complied with, and the states only making verbal apologies, declaring,

that none of those acts had been authorized by the public; Quinctius

first sent ambassadors to Athens and Achaia, to satisfy the allies,

that the war which he was about to make on the Botians was conformable

to justice and piety; and then, ordering Publius Claudius to

march with one-half of the troops to Acrphia, he himself, with

the remainder, invested Coronea; and these two bodies' marching by

different roads from Elatia, laid waste all the country through which

they passed. The Botians, dismayed by these losses, while every place

was filled with fugitives, and while the terror became universal, sent

ambassadors to the camp; and as these were refused admittance, the

Achaeans and Athenians came to their assistance. The Achaeans had the

greater influence as intercessors; inasmuch as they were resolved, in

case they could not procure peace for the Botians, to join them in

the war. Through the mediation of the Achaeans, however, the Botians

obtained admission and an audience of the Roman general; who, ordering

them to deliver up the guilty, and to pay thirty talents[2] as a fine,

granted them peace, and raised the siege.

[Footnote 1: 96,875l.]

[Footnote 2: 5821l. 10s.]

30. A few days after this, the ten ambassadors arrived from Rome,

in pursuance of whose counsel, peace was granted to Philip on the

following conditions: "That all the Grecian states, as well those in

Asia as those in Europe, should enjoy liberty, and their own laws:

That from such of them as had been in the possession of Philip, he

should withdraw his garrisons, particularly from the following places

in Asia; Euromus, Pedasi, Bargylii, Iassus, Myrina, Abydus; and from

Thasus and Perinthus, for it was determined that these likewise should

be free: That with respect to the freedom of Cius, Quinctius should

write to Prusias, king of Bithynia, the resolutions of the senate, and

of the ten ambassadors: That Philip should return to the Romans

the prisoners and deserters, and deliver up all his decked ships,

excepting five and the royal galley,--of a size almost unmanageable,

being moved by sixteen banks of oars: That he should not keep more

than five hundred soldiers, nor any elephant: That he should not wage

war beyond the bounds of Macedonia without permission from the senate:

That he should pay to the Roman people one thousand talents:[1] one

half at present, the other by instalments, within ten years." Valerius

Antias writes, that there was imposed on him an annual tribute of four

thousand pounds' weight of silver, for ten years, and an immediate

payment of twenty thousand pounds' weight. The same author says that

an article was expressly inserted, that he should not make war on

Eumenes, Attalus's son, who had lately come to the throne. For the

performance of these conditions hostages were received, among whom

was Demetrius, Philip's son. Valerius Antias adds, that the island of

Aegina, and the elephants, were given as a present to Attalus, who was

absent; to the Rhodians, Stratonice, and other cities of Caria which

had been in the possession of Philip; and to the Athenians, the

islands of Paros, Imbros, Delos, and Scyros.

[Footnote 1: 193,750l.]

31. While all the other states of Greece expressed their approbation

of these terms of peace, the Aetolians alone, in private murmurs, made

severe strictures on the determination of the ten ambassadors. They

said, "it consisted merely of an empty piece of writing varnished over

with a fallacious appearance of liberty. For why should some cities

be put into the hands of the Romans without being named, while others

were particularized, and ordered to be enfranchised without such

consignment; unless the intent was, that those in Asia, which, from

their distant situation, were more secure from danger, should be free;

but those in Greece, not being even mentioned by name, should be

made their property: Corinth, Chalcis, and Oreum; with Eretria, and

Demetrias." Nor was this charge entirely without foundation: for there

was some hesitation with respect to Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias;

because, in the decree of the senate in pursuance of which the ten

ambassadors had been sent from Rome, all Greece and Asia, except these

three, were expressly ordered to be set at liberty; but, with regard

to these, ambassadors were instructed, that, whatever measures the

exigencies of the state might render expedient, they should determine

to pursue in conformity to the public good and their own honour. King

Antiochus was one of whom they did not doubt that, so soon as he was

satisfied that his forces were adequate, he would cross over into

Europe; and they were unwilling to let these cities, the possession

of which would be so advantageous to him, lie open to his occupation.

Quinctius, with the ten ambassadors, sailed from Elatia to Anticyra,

and thence to Corinth. Here the plans they had laid down respecting

the liberation of Greece were discussed for about three days in a

council of the ten ambassadors. Quinctius frequently urged, that

"every part of Greece ought to be set at liberty, if they wished

to refute the cavils of the Aetolians; if they wished, that sincere

affection and respect for the Roman nation should be universally

entertained; or if they wished to convince the world that they had

crossed the sea with the design of liberating Greece, and not of

transferring the sovereignty of it from Philip to themselves." The

Macedonians alleged nothing in opposition to the arguments made use of

in favour of the freedom of the cities; but "they thought it safer for

those cities themselves that they should remain, for a time, under the

protection of Roman garrisons, than be obliged to receive Antiochus

for a master in the room of Philip." Their final determination was,

that "Corinth be restored to the Achaeans, but that a Roman garrison

should continue in the citadel; and that Chalcis and Demetrias be

retained, until their apprehensions respecting Antiochus should

cease."

32. The stated solemnity of the Isthmian games was at hand. These have

ever been attended by very numerous meetings, as well on account of

the universal fondness entertained by this nation for exhibitions of

skill in arts of every kind, as well as of contests in strength

and swiftness of foot; as also, because of the convenience of the

locality, which furnishes commercial advantages of all kinds by its

two opposite seas, and by which it had obtained the character of a

rendezvous for all the population of Asia and Greece. But on this

occasion, all were led thither not only for their ordinary purposes,

but by an eager curiosity to learn what was thenceforward to be the

state of Greece, and what their own condition; while many at the same

time not only formed opinions within themselves but uttered their

conjectures in conversation. Scarcely any supposed that the Romans,

victorious as they were, would withdraw from the whole of Greece.

They took their seats, as spectators; and a herald, preceded by

a trumpeter, according to custom, advanced into the centre of the

theatre, where notice of the commencement of the games is usually

made, in a solemn form of words. Silence being commanded by sound of

trumpet, he uttered aloud the following proclamation: THE SENATE AND

PEOPLE OF ROME, AND TITUS QUINCTIUS, THEIR GENERAL, HAVING SUBDUED

KING PHILIP AND THE MACEDONIANS, DO HEREBY ORDER, THAT THE FOLLOWING

STATES BE FREE, INDEPENDENT, AND RULED BY THEIR OWN LAWS: THE

CORINTHIANS, PHOCIANS, AND ALL THE LOCRIANS; THE ISLAND OF EUBOEA,

AND THE MAGNESIANS; THE THESSALIANS, PERRHAEBIANS, AND THE ACHAEANS OF

PHTHIOTIS. He then read a list of all the states which had been under

subjection to king Philip. The joy occasioned by hearing these words

of the herald was so great, that the people's minds were unable to

conceive the matter at once. Scarcely could they believe that they had

heard them; and they looked at each other, marvelling as at the

empty illusion of a dream. Each inquired of his neighbours about what

immediately concerned himself, altogether distrusting the evidence

of his own ears. As everyone desired not only to hear, but to see the

messenger of liberty, the herald was called out again; and he again

repeated the proclamation. When they were thus assured of the reality

of the joyful tidings, they raised such a shout, and clapping of

hands, and repeated them so often, as clearly to show that of all

blessings none is more grateful to the multitude than liberty. The

games were then proceeded through with hurry; for neither the thoughts

nor eyes of any attended to the exhibitions, so entirely had the

single passion of joy pre-occupied their minds, as to exclude the

sense of all other pleasures.

33. But, when the games were finished, every one eagerly passed

towards the Roman general; so that by the crowd rushing to one

spot, all wishing to come near him, and to touch his right hand, and

throwing garlands and ribands, he was in some degree of danger. He was

then about thirty-three years of age; and besides the vigour of youth,

the grateful sensations excited by so eminent a harvest of glory,

increased his strength. Nor was the general exultation exhausted in

the presence of all the assembly, but, through the space of many days,

was continually revived by sentiments and expressions of gratitude.

"There was a nation in the world," they said, "which, at its own

expense, with its own labour, and at its own risk, waged wars for the

liberty of others. And this was performed, not merely for contiguous

states, or near neighbours, or for countries that made parts of the

same continent; but they even crossed the seas for the purpose, that

no unlawful power should subsist on the face of the whole earth; but

that justice, right, and law should every where have sovereign sway.

By one sentence, pronounced by a herald all the cities of Greece and

Asia had been set at liberty. To have conceived hopes of this, argued

a daring spirit; to have carried it into effect, was a proof of the

most consummate bravery and good fortune."

34. Quinctius and the ten ambassadors then gave audience to the

embassies of the several kings, nations, and states. First of all, the

ambassadors of king Antiochus were called. Their proceedings, here,

were nearly the same as at Rome; a mere display of words unsupported

by facts. But the answer given them was not ambiguous as formerly,

during the uncertainty of affairs, and while Philip was unsubdued; for

the king was required in express terms to evacuate the cities of

Asia, which had been in possession either of Philip or Ptolemy; not to

meddle with the free cities, or ever take arms against them, and to

be in a state of peace and equality with all the cities of Greece

wherever they might be. Above all it was insisted on, that he should

neither come himself into Europe, nor transport an army thither.

The king's ambassadors being dismissed, a general convention of

the nations and states was immediately held; and the business was

despatched with the greater expedition, because the resolutions of the

ten ambassadors mentioned the several states by name. To the people

of Orestis, a district of Macedonia, in consideration of their having

been the first who came over from the side of the king, their own

laws were granted. The Magnesians, Perrhaebians, and Dolopians were

likewise declared free. To the nation of the Thessalians, besides

the enjoyment of liberty, the Achaean part of Phthiotis was granted,

excepting Phthiotian Thebes and Pharsalus. The Aetolians, demanding

that Pharsalus and Leucas should be restored to them in conformity

to the treaty, were referred to the senate: but the council united to

these, by authority of a decree, Phocis and Locris, places which had

formerly been annexed to them. Corinth, Triphylia, and Heraea,

another city of Peloponnesus, were restored to the Achaeans. The ten

ambassadors were inclined to give Oreum and Eretria to king Eumenes,

son of Attalus; but Quinctius dissenting, the matter came under the

determination of the senate, and the senate declared those cities

free; adding to them Carystus. Lycus and Parthinia, Illyrian states,

each of which had been under subjection to Philip, were given to

Pleuratus. Amynander was ordered to retain possession of the forts,

which he had taken from Philip during the war.

35. When the convention broke up, the ten ambassadors, dividing the

business among them, set out by different routes to give liberty to

the several cities within their respective districts. Publius Lentulus

went to Bargylii; Lucius Stertinius, to Hephaestia, Thasus, and

the cities of Thrace; Publius Villius and Lucius Terentius to king

Antiochus; and Cneius Cornelius to Philip. The last of these, after

executing his commission with respect to smaller matters, asked

Philip, whether he was disposed to listen to advice, not only useful

but highly salutary. To which the king answered that he was, and would

give him thanks besides, if he mentioned any thing conducive to his

advantage. He then earnestly recommended to him, since he had obtained

peace with the Romans, to send ambassadors to Rome to solicit their

alliance and friendship; lest, in case of Antiochus pursuing any

hostile measure, he might be suspected of having lain in wait and

seized the opportunity of the times for reviving hostilities. This

meeting with Philip was at Tempè in Thessaly; and on his answering

that he would send ambassadors without delay, Cornelius proceeded to

Thermopylae, where all the states of Greece are accustomed to meet

in general assembly on certain stated days. This is called the Pylaic

assembly. Here he admonished the Aetolians, in particular, constantly

and firmly to cultivate the friendship of the Roman people; but some

of the principal of these interrupted him with complaints, that the

disposition of the Romans towards their nation was not the same since

the victory, that it had been during the war; while others censured

them with greater boldness, and in a reproachful manner asserted,

that "without the aid of the Aetolians, the Romans could neither have

conquered Philip, nor even have made good their passage into Greece."

To such discourses the Roman forbore giving an answer, lest the

matter might end in an altercation, and only said, that if they sent

ambassadors to Rome, every thing that was reasonable would be granted

to them. Accordingly, they passed a decree for such mission, agreeably

to his direction.--In this manner was the war with Philip concluded.

36. While these transactions passed in Greece, Macedonia, and Asia,

a conspiracy among the slaves had well nigh made Etruria an hostile

province. To examine into and suppress this, Manius Acilius the

praetor, whose province was the administration of justice between

natives and foreigners, was sent at the head of one of the two city

legions. A number of them, who were by this time formed in a body, he

reduced by force of arms, killing and taking many. Some, who had been

the ringleaders of the conspiracy, he scourged with rods and then

crucified; some he returned to their masters. The consuls repaired

to their provinces. Just as Marcellus entered the frontiers of the

Boians, and while his men were fatigued with marching the whole

length of the day, and as he was pitching his camp on a rising ground,

Corolam, a chieftain of the Boians, attacked him with a very numerous

force, and slew three thousand of his men: several persons of

distinction fell in that tumultuary engagement; amongst others,

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and Marcus Junius Silanus, praefects of

the allies; and Aulus Ogulnius and Publius Claudius, military tribunes

in the second legion. The Romans, not withstanding, had courage enough

to finish the fortification of their camp, and to defend it, in spite

of an assault made on it by the enemy, elated by their success in the

field. Marcellus remained for some time in the same post, until he

could tend the wounded, and revive the spirits of his men after such

a disheartening blow. The Boians, a nation remarkably impatient of

delay, and quickly disgusted at a state of inaction, separated, and

withdrew to their several forts and villages. Marcellus then, suddenly

crossing the Po, led his legions into the territory of Comum, where

the Insubrians, after rousing the people of the country to arms, lay

encamped. The fierce Boian Gauls attacked him on his march, and they

first onset was so vigorous, as to make a considerable impression on

his van. On perceiving which, and fearing lest, if his men once gave

way, they would be dislodged, he brought up a cohort of Marsians

against the enemy, and ordered every troop of the Latin cavalry to

charge them. The first and second charges of these having checked the

enemy in their furious attack, the other troops in the Roman line,

resuming courage, advanced briskly on the foe. The Gauls no longer

maintained the contest, but turned their backs and fled in confusion.

Valerius Antias relates, that in that battle above forty thousand men

were killed, five hundred and seven military standards taken, with

four hundred and thirty-two chariots, and a great number of gold

chains, one of which, of great weight, Claudius says, was deposited as

an offering to Jupiter, in his temple in the Capitol. The camp of the

Gauls was taken and plundered the same day; and the town of Comum was

reduced in a few days after. In a little time, twenty-eight forts came

over to the consul. There is a doubt among writers, whether the consul

led his legions first against the Boians, or against the Insubrians;

so as to determine, whether the successful battle obliterated the

disgrace of the defeat, or whether the victory obtained at Comum was

tarnished by the disaster incurred among the Boii.

37. Soon after those matters had passed with such variety of fortune,

Lucius Furius Purpureo, the other consul, came into the country of the

Boians, through the Sappinian tribe. He proceeded almost to the fort

of Mutilus, when, beginning to apprehend that he might be enclosed

between the Boians and Ligurians, he marched back by the road by which

he came; and, making a long circuit, through an open and therefore

safe country, arrived at the camp of his colleague. After this

junction of their forces, they overran the territory of the Boians,

spreading devastation as far as the city of Felsina. This city, with

the other fortresses, and almost all the Boians, excepting only the

young men who kept arms in their hands for the sake of plunder, and

had at that time withdrawn into remote woods, made submission. The

army was then led away against the Ligurians. The Boians thought that

the Romans, as they were supposed to be at a great distance, would be

the more careless in keeping their army together, and thereby afford

an opportunity of attacking them unawares: with this expectation,

they followed them by secret paths through the forests. They did not

overtake them: and therefore, passing the Po suddenly in ships, they

ravaged all the country of the Laevans and Libuans; whence, as they

were returning with the spoil of the country, they fell in with the

Roman army on the borders of Liguria. A battle was begun with more

speed, and with greater fury, than if the parties had met with their

minds prepared, and at an appointed time and place. On this occasion

it appeared to what degree of violence anger can stimulate men; for

the Romans fought with such a desire of slaughter, rather than of

victory, that they scarcely left one of the enemy to carry the news of

their defeat. On account of these successes, when the letters of

the consuls were brought to Rome, a supplication for three days was

decreed. Soon after, Marcellus came to Rome, and had a triumph decreed

him by an unanimous vote of the senate. He triumphed, while in office,

over the Insubrians and Comans. The prospect of a triumph over

the Boians he left to his colleague, because his own arms had been

unfortunate in that country; those of his colleague, successful.

Large quantities of spoils, taken from the enemy, were carried in the

procession in captured chariots, and many military standards; also,

three hundred and twenty thousand _asses_ of brass,[1] two hundred

and thirty-four thousand of silver denarii,[2] stamped with a chariot.

Eighty _asses_[3] were bestowed on each foot soldier, and thrice that

value on each horseman and centurion.

[Footnote 1: 1033l. 6s. 8d.]

[Footnote 2: 2331l. 2s. 6d.]

[Footnote 3: 5s. 2-1/4d.]

38. During that year, king Antiochus, after having spent the winter

at Ephesus, took measures for reducing, under his dominion, all the

cities of Asia, which had formerly been members of the empire. As to

the rest, being either situated in plains, or having neither walls,

arms, nor men in whom they could confide, he supposed they would,

without difficulty, receive the yoke. But Smyrna and Lampsacus openly

asserted their independence: yet there was a danger that if what they

claimed were conceded to these, the rest of the cities in Aetolia and

Ionia would follow the example of Smyrna; and those on the Hellespont

that of Lampsacus. Wherefore he sent an army from Ephesus to invest

Smyrna; and ordered the troops, which were at Abydos, to leave there

only a small garrison, and to go and lay siege to Lampsacus. Nor did

he only alarm them by an exhibition of force. By sending ambassadors,

to make gentle remonstrances, and reprove the rashness and obstinacy

of their conduct, he endeavoured to give them hopes that they might

soon obtain the object of their wishes; but not until it should appear

clearly, both to themselves and to all the world, that they had gained

their liberty through the kindness of the king, and not by any violent

efforts of their own. In answer to which, they said, that "Antiochus

ought neither to be surprised nor displeased, if they did not very

patiently suffer the establishment of their liberty to be deferred to

a distant period." He himself, with his fleet, set sail from Ephesus

in the beginning of spring, and steered towards the Hellespont. His

army he transported to Madytus, a city in the Chersonese, and there

joined his land and sea forces together. The inhabitants having shut

their gates, he surrounded the walls with his troops; and when he was

just bringing up his machines to the walls, a capitulation was entered

into. This diffused such fear through the inhabitants of Sestus and

the other cities of the Chersonese, as induced them to submit. He

then came, with the whole of his united forces, by land and sea, to

Lysimachia; which finding deserted, and almost buried in ruins, (for

the Thracians had, a few years before, taken, sacked, and burned

it,) he conceived a wish to rebuild a city so celebrated, and so

commodiously situated. Accordingly, extending his care to every object

at once, he set about repairing the walls and houses, ransomed some

of the Lysimachians who were in captivity, sought out and brought home

others, who had fled and dispersed themselves through the Chersonese

and Hellespontus, enrolled new colonists, whom he invited by prospects

of advantages, and used every means to repeople it fully. At the same

time, that all fear of the Thracians might be removed, he went, in

person, with one half of the land forces, to lay waste the nearest

provinces of Thrace; leaving the other half, and all the crews of the

ships, employed in the repairs of the city.

39. About this time Lucius Cornelius, who had been commissioned by the

senate to accommodate the differences between the kings Antiochus and

Ptolemy, stopped at Selymbria; and, of the ten ambassadors, Publius

Lentulus from Bargylii, and Publius Villius and Lucius Terentius from

Thasus, came to Lysimachia. Hither came, likewise, Lucius Cornelius

from Selymbria, and a few days after Antiochus from Thrace. His first

meeting with the ambassadors, and an invitation which he afterwards

gave them, were friendly and hospitable; but when the business

intrusted to them and the present state of Asia, came to be treated

of, the minds of both parties were exasperated. The Romans did not

scruple to declare, that every one of his proceedings, from the time

when he set sail from Syria, was displeasing to the senate; and they

required restitution to be made, to Ptolemy, of all the cities which

had been under his dominion. "For, as to what related to the cities

which had been in the possession of Philip, and which Antiochus,

taking advantage of a season when Philip's attention was turned to the

war with Rome, had seized into his own hands, it would surely be an

intolerable hardship, if the Romans were to have undergone such toils

and dangers, on land and sea, for so many years, and Antiochus to

appropriate to himself the prizes of the war. But, though his coming

into Asia might be passed over unnoticed by the Romans, as a matter

not pertaining to them, yet when he proceeded so far as to pass over

into Europe with all his land and naval forces, how much was this

short of open war with the Romans? Doubtless, had he even passed into

Italy, he would deny that intention. But the Romans would not wait to

give him an opportunity of doing so."

40. To this the king replied, that "he wondered how it was, that the

Romans were in the habit of diligently inquiring what ought to be done

by king Antiochus; but never considered how far they themselves ought

to advance on land or sea. Asia was no concernment of the Romans, in

any shape; nor had they any more right to inquire what Antiochus did

in Asia, than Antiochus had to inquire what the Roman people did in

Italy. With respect to Ptolemy, from whom they complained that cities

had been taken, there was a friendly connexion subsisting between him

and Ptolemy, and he was taking measures to effect speedily a connexion

of affinity also; neither had he sought to acquire any spoils from the

misfortunes of Philip, nor had he come into Europe against the Romans,

_but to recover the cities and lands of the Chersonese, which, having

been the property of Lysimachus_,[1] he considered as part of his own

dominion; because, when Lysimachus was subdued, all things belonging

to him became, by the right of conquest, the property of Seleucus.

That, at times, when his predecessors were occupied by cares of

different kinds, Ptolemy first, and afterwards Philip, usurping the

rights of others, possessed themselves of several of these places, but

who could doubt that the Chersonese and the nearest parts of Thrace

belonged to Lysimachus? To restore these to their ancient state, was

the intent of his coming, and to build Lysimachia anew, (it having

been destroyed by an inroad of the Thracians,) in order that his son,

Seleucus, might have it for the seat of his empire."

[Footnote 1: Here is a chasm in the original, which is supplied from

Polybius.]

41. These disputes had been carried on for several days, when a rumour

reached them, but without any sufficiently certain authority, that

Ptolemy was dead; which prevented the conferences coming to any issue:

for both parties made a secret of their having heard it; and Lucius

Cornelius, who was charged with the embassy to the two kings,

Antiochus and Ptolemy, requested to be allowed a short space of time,

in which he could have a meeting with the latter; because he wished

to arrive in Egypt before any change of measures should take place

in consequence of the new succession to the crown: while Antiochus

believed that Egypt would be his own, if at that time he should take

possession of it. Wherefore, having dismissed the Romans, and left

his son Seleucus, with the land forces, to finish the rebuilding of

Lysimachia, as he had intended to do, he sailed, with his whole fleet,

to Ephesus; sent ambassadors to Quinctius to treat with him about an

alliance, assuring him that the king would attempt no innovations,

and then, coasting along the shore of Asia, proceeded to Lycia. Having

learned at Patarae that Ptolemy was living, he dropped the design of

sailing to Egypt, but nevertheless steered towards Cyprus; and, when

he had passed the promontory of Chelidonium, was detained some little

time in Pamphylia, near the river Eurymedon, by a mutiny among his

rowers. When he had sailed thence as far as the headlands, as they are

called, of Sarus, such a dreadful storm arose as almost buried him

and his whole fleet in the deep. Many ships were broken to pieces, and

many cast on shore; many swallowed so entirely in the sea, that not

one man of their crews escaped to land. Great numbers of his men

perished on this occasion; not only persons of mean rank, rowers and

soldiers, but even of his particular friends in high stations. When he

had collected the relics of the general wreck, being in no capacity of

making an attempt on Cyprus, he returned to Seleucia, with a far less

numerous force than he had set out with. Here he ordered the ships

to be hauled ashore, for the winter was now at hand, and proceeded to

Antioch, where he intended to pass the winter.--In this posture stood

the affairs of the kings.

42. At Rome, in this year, for the first time, were created offices

called _triumviri epulones_;[1] these were Caius Licinius Lucullus,

who, as tribune, had proposed the law for their creation, Publius

Manlius, and Publius Porcius Laeca. These triumvirs, as well as

the pontiffs, were allowed by law the privilege of wearing the

purple-bordered gown. The body of the pontiffs had this year a warm

dispute with the city quaestors, Quintus Fabius Labeo and Lucius

Aurelius. Money was wanted; an order having been passed for making the

last payment to private persons of that which had been raised for the

support of the war; and the quaestors demanded it from the augurs and

pontiffs, because they had not contributed their share while the

war subsisted. The priests in vain appealed to the tribunes; and the

contribution was exacted for every year in which they had not paid.

During the same year two pontiffs died, and others were substituted

in their room: Marcus Marcellus, the consul, in the room of Caius

Sempronius Tuditanus, who had been a praetor in Spain; and Lucius

Valerius, in the room of Marcus Cornelius Cethegus. An augur also,

Quintius Fabius Maximus, died very young, before he had attained to

any public office; but no augur was appointed in his place during that

year. The consular election was then held by the consul Marcellus. The

persons chosen were, Lucius Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Porcius Cato.

Then were elected praetors, Caius Fabricius Luscinus, Caius Atinius

Labeo, Cneius Manlius Vulso, Appius Claudius Nero, Publius Manlius,

and Publius Porcius Laeca. The curule aediles, Marcus Fulvius Nobilior

and Caius Flaminius, made a distribution to the people of one million

pecks of wheat, at the price of two asses. This corn the Sicilians had

brought to Rome, out of respect to Caius Flaminius and his father;

and he gave share of the credit to his colleague. The Roman games

were solemnized with magnificence, and exhibited thrice entire. The

plebeian aediles, Cneius Domitius Aenobarbus and Caius Scribonius,

chief curio, brought many farmers of the public pastures to trial

before the people. Three of these were convicted; and out of the money

accruing from fines imposed on them, they built a temple of Faunus in

the island. The plebeian games were exhibited for two days, and there

was a feast on occasion of the games.

[Footnote 1: It was their office to regulate the feasts of the gods.]

43. Lucius Valerius Flaccus and Marcus Porcius, on the ides of March,

the day of their entering into office, consulted the senate respecting

the provinces; who resolved, that "whereas the war in Spain was grown

so formidable, as to require a consular army and commander; it was

their opinion, therefore, that the consuls should either settle

between themselves, or cast lots, for Hither Spain and Italy as

their provinces. That he to whom Spain fell should carry with him two

legions, five thousand of the Latin confederates, and five hundred

horse; together with a fleet of twenty ships of war. That the other

consul should raise two legions; for these would be sufficient to

maintain tranquillity in the province of Gaul, as the spirits of the

Insubrians and Boians had been broken the year before." The lots gave

Spain to Cato, and Italy to Valerius. The praetors then cast lots

for their provinces: to Caius Fabricius Luscinus fell the city

jurisdiction; Caius Atinius Labeo obtained the foreign; Cneius Manlius

Vulso, Sicily; Appius Claudius Nero, Farther Spain; Publius Porcius

Laeca, Pisa, in order that he might be at the back of the Ligurians;

and Publius Manlius was sent into Hither Spain, as an assistant to

the consul. Quinctius was continued in command for the year, as

apprehensions were entertained, not only of Antiochus and the

Aetolians, but likewise of Nabis, tyrant of Lacedaemon; and it was

ordered that he should have two legions, for which, if there was any

necessity for a further supply, the consuls were ordered to raise

recruits, and send them into Macedonia. Appius Claudius was permitted

to raise, in addition to the legion which Quintius Fabius had

commanded, two thousand foot and two hundred horse. The like number of

new-raised foot and horse was assigned to Publius Manlius for Hither

Spain; and the legion was given to him which had been under the

command of Minucius, the praetor. To Publius Porcius Laeca, for

Etruria, near Pisa, were decreed two thousand foot and five hundred

horse, out of the army in Gaul. Sempronius Longus was continued in

command in Sardinia.

44. The provinces being thus distributed, the consuls, before their

departure from the city, were ordered, in accordance with a decree

of the pontiffs, to proclaim a sacred spring, which Aulus Cornelius

Mammula, praetor, had vowed in pursuance of a vote of the senate, and

an order of the people, in the consulate of Cneius Servilius and Caius

Flaminius. It was celebrated twenty-one years after the vow had been

made. About the same time, Caius Claudius Pulcher, son of Appius,

was chosen and inaugurated into the office of augur, in the room of

Quintus Fabius Maximus, who died the year before. While people, in

general, wondered that, though Spain had arisen in arms, they were

neglecting the war, a letter was brought from Quintus Minucius,

announcing "that he had fought a pitched battle with the Spanish

generals, Budar and Besasis, near the town of Tura, and had gained the

victory: that twelve thousand of the enemy were slain; their general,

Budar, taken; and the rest routed and dispersed." After the reading of

this letter less alarm prevailed with respect to Spain, where a very

formidable war had been apprehended. The whole anxiety of the public

was directed towards king Antiochus, especially after the arrival

of the ten ambassadors. These, after relating the proceedings with

Philip, and the conditions on which peace had been granted him, gave

information, that "there still subsisted a war of no less magnitude to

be waged with Antiochus; that he had come over into Europe with a very

numerous fleet and a powerful army; that, had not a delusive prospect

of an opportunity of invading Egypt, raised by a more delusive rumour,

diverted him to another quarter, all Greece would have quickly been

involved in the flames of war. Nor would even the Aetolians remain

quiet, a race as well restless by nature as full of anger against the

Romans. That, besides, there was another evil, of a most dangerous

nature, lurking in the bowels of Greece: Nabis, tyrant at present

of Lacedaemon, but who would soon if suffered, become tyrant of

all Greece, equalling in avarice and cruelty all the tyrants most

remarkable in history. For, if he were allowed to keep possession of

Argos, which served as a citadel commanding the Peloponnesus, when the

Roman armies should be brought home to Italy, Greece would have been

in vain delivered out of bondage to Philip; because, instead of that

king, who, supposing no other difference, resided at a distance, she

would have for a master, a tyrant, close to her side."

45. On this intelligence being received from men of such respectable

authority, and who had, besides, examined into all the matters which

were reported, the senate, although they deemed the business relating

to Antiochus the more important, yet, as the king had, for some

reason or other, gone home into Syria, they thought that the affair

respecting the tyrant ought to be more promptly attended to. After

debating, for a long time, whether they should judge the grounds which

they had at present sufficient whereon a declaration of war should be

decreed, or whether they should empower Titus Quinctius to act, in the

case respecting Nabis the Lacedaemonian, in such manner as he should

judge conducive to the public interest; they left it in his hands. For

they thought the business of such a nature, that whether expedited or

delayed, it could not very materially affect the general interest

of the Roman people. It was deemed more important to endeavour to

discover what line of conduct Hannibal and the Carthaginians would

pursue, in case of a war breaking out with Antiochus. Persons of the

faction which opposed Hannibal wrote continually to their several

friends, among the principal men in Rome, that "messages and letters

were sent by Hannibal to Antiochus, and that envoys came secretly from

the king to him. That, as some wild beasts can never be tamed, so

the disposition of this man was irreclaimable and implacable. That

he sometimes complained, that the state was debilitated by ease and

indolence, and lulled by sloth into a lethargy, from which nothing

could rouse it but the sound of arms." These accounts were deemed

probable, when people recollected the former war, which had not more

been carried on than at first set on foot by the efforts of that

single man. Besides, he had by a recent act provoked the resentment of

many men in power.

46. The order of judges possessed, at that time, absolute power in

Carthage; and this was owing chiefly to their holding the office

during life. The property, character, and life of every man was in

their disposal. He who incurred the displeasure of one of that order,

found an enemy in every one of them; nor were accusers wanting in a

court where the justices were disposed to condemn. While they were

in possession of this despotism, (for they did not exercise their

exorbitant power constitutionally,) Hannibal was elected praetor and

he summoned the quaestor before him. The quaestor disregarded the

summons, for he was of the opposite faction; and besides, as the

practice was that, after the quaestorship men were advanced into the

order of judges, the most powerful of all, he already assumed a spirit

suited to the powers which he was shortly to possess. Hannibal, highly

offended Hereat, sent an officer to apprehend the quaestor; and,

bringing him forth into an assembly of the people, he made heavy

charges not against him alone, but on the whole order of judges; in

consequence of whose arrogance and power neither the magistracy nor

the laws availed any thing. Then perceiving that his discourse was

with willing ears attended to, and that the conduct of those men was

incompatible with the freedom of the lowest classes, he proposed a

law, and procured it to be enacted, that the "judges should be

elected annually; and that no person should hold the office two years

successively." But, whatever degree of favour he acquired among

the commons by this proceeding, he roused, in a great part of the

nobility, an equal degree of resentment. To this he added another act,

which, while it was for the advantage of the people, provoked personal

enmity against himself. The public revenues were partly wasted through

neglect, partly embezzled, and divided among some leading men and

magistrates; insomuch, that there was not money sufficient for the

regular annual payment of the tribute to the Romans, so that private

persons seemed to be threatened with a heavy tax.

47. When Hannibal had informed himself of the amount of the revenues

arising from taxes and port duties, for what purposes they were

issued from the treasury, what proportion of them was consumed by

the ordinary expenses of the state, and how much was alienated by

embezzlement; he asserted in an assembly of the people, that if

payment were enforced of the residuary funds, the taxes might be

remitted to the subjects; and that the state would still be rich

enough to pay the tribute to the Romans: which assertion he proved

to be true. But now those persons who, for several years past, had

maintained themselves by plundering the public, were greatly enraged;

as if this were ravishing from them their own property, and not as

dragging out of their hands their ill-gotten spoil. Accordingly, they

instigated the Romans against Hannibal, who were seeking a pretext

for indulging their hatred against him. A strenuous opposition was,

however, for a long time made to this by Scipio Africanus, who

thought it highly unbecoming the dignity of the Roman people to make

themselves a party in the animosities and charges against Hannibal;

to interpose the public authority among factions of the Carthaginians,

not deeming it sufficient to have conquered that commander in the

field, but to become as it were his prosecutors[1] in a judicial

process, and preferring an action against him. Yet at length the point

was carried, that an embassy should be sent to Carthage to represent

to the senate there, that Hannibal, in concert with king Antiochus,

was forming plans for kindling a war. Three ambassadors were sent,

Caius Servilius, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, and Quintus Terentius

Culleo. These, when they had arrived at Carthage, by the advice of

Hannibal's enemies, ordered, that any who inquired the cause of

their coming should be told, that they came to determine the disputes

subsisting between the Carthaginians and Masinissa, king of Numidia;

and this was generally believed. But Hannibal was not ignorant that he

was the sole object aimed at by the Romans; and that, though they

had granted peace to the Carthaginians, their war against him,

individually, remained irreconcilable. He therefore determined to

give way to fortune and the times; and having already made every

preparation for flight, he showed himself that day in the forum, in

order to guard against suspicion; and, as soon as it grew dark, went

in his common dress to one of the gates, with his two attendants, who

knew nothing of his intention.

[Footnote 1: _Subscribere actioni_ is to join the prosecutor as an

assistant; and the prosecutors were obliged _calumniam jurare_, to

swear that they did not carry on the prosecution through malice, or

a vexatious design. Scipio, therefore, means to reprobate the

interference of the Roman state, which could bring it into the

situation of a common prosecutor in a court of justice.]

48. Finding horses in readiness at a spot where he had ordered, he

traversed by night a district which the Africans denominated Byzacium,

and arrived, in the morning of the following day, at a castle of his

own between Acholla and Thapsus. There a ship, ready fitted out and

furnished with rowers, took him on board. In this manner did Hannibal

leave Africa, lamenting the misfortunes of his country oftener than

his own. He sailed over, the same day, to the island of Cercina, where

he found in the port a number of merchant ships, belonging to the

Phoenicians, with their cargoes; and on landing was surrounded by a

concourse of people, who came to pay their respects to him; on which

he gave orders that, in answer to any inquiries, it should be said

that he had been sent as ambassador to Tyre. Fearing, however, lest

some of these ships might sail in the night to Thapsus or Adrumetum,

and carry information of his having been seen at Cercina, he ordered

a sacrifice to be prepared, and the masters of the ships, with the

merchants, to be invited to the entertainment, and that the sails and

yards should be collected out of the ships to form a shade on shore

for the company at supper, as it happened to be the middle of summer.

The feast of the day was as sumptuous, and well attended, as the time

and circumstances allowed; and the entertainment was prolonged, with

plenty of wine, until late in the night. As soon as Hannibal saw an

opportunity of escaping the notice of those who were in the harbour,

he set sail. The rest were fast asleep, nor was it early, next day,

when they arose from their sleep, full of the illness of intoxication;

and then, when it was too late, they set about replacing the sails in

the ships, and fitting up the rigging, which employed several hours.

At Carthage, those who were accustomed to visit Hannibal met in a

crowd, at the porch of his house; and when it was publicly known that

he was not to be found, the whole multitude assembled in the forum,

eager to gain intelligence of the man who was considered as the first

in the state. Some surmised that he had fled, as the case was; others,

that he had been put to death through the treachery of the Romans;

and there was visible in the expression of their countenances, that

variety which might naturally be expected in a state divided into

factions, whereof each supported a different interest. At length

intelligence was brought, that he had been seen at Cercina.

49 The Roman ambassadors represented to the council, that "proof had

been laid before the senate at Rome, that formerly king Philip had

been moved, principally by the instigation of Hannibal, to make war on

the Roman people; and that lately, Hannibal had, besides, sent letters

and messages to king Antiochus, that he had entered into plans for

driving Carthage to revolt, and that he had now gone no whither but to

king Antiochus. That he was a man who would never be content, until

he had excited war in every part of the globe. That such conduct ought

not to be suffered to pass with impunity, if the Carthaginians wished

to convince the Roman people that none of those things were done

with their consent, or with the approbation of the state." The

Carthaginians answered, that they were ready to do whatever the Romans

required them.

Hannibal, after a prosperous voyage, arrived at Tyre; where, as a man

illustrated by every description of honours, he was received by those

founders of Carthage, as if in a second native country, and here he

staid a few days. He then sailed to Antioch; where, hearing that the

king had already left the place, he procured an interview with his

son, who was celebrating the solemnity of the games at Daphne, and

who treated him with much kindness; after which, he set sail without

delay. At Ephesus, he overtook the king, who was still hesitating in

his mind, and undetermined respecting a war with Rome: but the

arrival of Hannibal proved an incentive of no small efficacy to the

prosecution of that design. At the same time, the inclinations of the

Aetolians also were alienated from the Roman alliance in consequence

of the senate having referred to Quinctius their ambassadors, who

demanded Pharsalus and Leucas, and some other cities, in conformity

with the first treaty.