evenings they are led out from their stable one by one, and picketed
in the courtyard to enjoy the night air, and take their repose in
cooler quarters. They come prancing from their stalls with their necks
arched, tossing their manes as if they appreciated the interest we take
in them. Their fore-feet are hobbled, and one of their hind-feet is
fastened by a rope to a peg. The Turkish horse is the gentlest creature
in the world, and also the most capable of attachment to its master
or groom. These qualities are the results of the kind treatment they
receive from the Turks during their early training. I saw, when I was
travelling to Cappadocia through Pontus or the part of Bithynia which
is deservedly called Axylos[171] (woodless), what care the peasants
take of the foals while they are still quite young and tender, how
they pet them, how they bring them into their rooms and almost to
their tables, and how they handle them and stroke them. They seemed to
regard them almost as their children. Round their neck all have a band
like a necklace full of amulets against the evil eye, which is greatly
dreaded. The grooms in whose care they are placed treat them with equal
kindness, making them fond of them by continually stroking them, and
never beating them cruelly with a stick unless they are absolutely
compelled to do so. Being thus used they become extremely attached to
men, and yet you will not find one which this treatment has made a
kicker or a biter or refractory. Such vices are seldom met with in this
country. But, good heavens, how different our system is from theirs!
According to our method grooms think it essential to use the roughest
words and loudest tones in talking to their horses, and to be for ever
thrashing them. The consequence is that the horses quiver all over with
terror on their entering the stable, and regard them with equal hatred
and fear.[172]
The Turks like to have them trained to kneel down at command and so
take up their rider, and to pick up from the ground in their teeth
a stick, a mace, or a sword, and to give it to their master in the
saddle. When they have learned to do these things, as an honour and a
mark of their proficiency, they fit silver rings in their nostrils,
to show that they have been thoroughly trained. I saw a horse who,
when his master was thrown from the saddle, would stand by him without
moving a step, and others who would go round their groom, as he stood
at a distance, and halt at his bidding. I also saw some who, when
their master was dining with me in a room upstairs, kept their ears
pricked up to catch his voice, and neighed when they heard it. It is
a peculiarity of these horses that they always come in at the end of
their work with stiff and outstretched necks. Again, they cannot be
pulled up or turned sharply, which I think
I may say is the fault of the bit, which is of the same kind and shape
throughout Turkey, and is not, as among us, made more or less severe
to suit the horse’s mouth. Their horses’ shoes are not so wide open
in the middle as with us, but are almost solid and unbroken, so as to
protect the feet more thoroughly.[173] Turkish horses live much longer
than ours, for you may see some twenty years old with as much spirit
and strength as eight-year-olds have with us, and some, which for their
great services were pensioned for life in the Sultan’s stables, are
said to have lasted to their fiftieth year, and even longer. During the
hot summer nights the Turks do not keep their horses under cover, but
expose them, as I said, to the night air with horse-cloths over them,
their litter being composed of dry dung. For this purpose all through
the year they gather the horses’ droppings, and after drying them in
the sun break them up into powder. This forms their horses’ bedding,
and is the only kind of litter they have. They use no straw, not even
for food, but diet their horses on a moderate portion of hay and a
little barley. They prefer having them too thin to too fat, considering
that in this condition they are fitter for travelling and work of every
kind. They cover their horses with the rugs I mentioned, in summer just
the same as in winter, but change them according to the season. They
consider these coverings useful for producing a sleek coat, and also
necessary as a protection against cold, for their horses are chilly and
cannot stand exposure.
As I said, I enjoy looking at my horses when, towards sunset, they are
being picketed out in the court. When I call them by their names of
Arab or Caramanian, or whatever else it may be, they neigh in reply,
and give me a look. I have taught them to know me by sometimes going
down and giving them each a pumpkin skin. In truth I am glad of any
employment to divert my thoughts from my troubles.
I have six she camels procured, nominally for the purpose of carrying
baggage, but in reality that I may bring them to the royal family, as
I think it not impossible that they may like to keep a stud of these
useful animals. There are two things from which, in my opinion, the
Turks derive the greatest advantage, namely, rice among grains and the
camel among beasts of burden, both of which are exceedingly well suited
for the distant campaigns they make. The first keeps well, affords a
wholesome food for men, and a little of it goes a long way. Camels
carry the heaviest weights, endure hunger and thirst, and require very
little care. One driver can attend to six camels. They are, I may say,
the most obedient creatures in the world, and they need no currycomb or
scraper, but are groomed with brushes as clothes are with us. They lie,
or, more correctly speaking, kneel on the bare ground to receive their
loads. But if the load should be excessive, they give a grunt by way of
protest and refuse to rise. If the weight be unduly heavy, it does not
take much to rupture them, especially if the road be muddy or slippery.
It is a pretty sight to see them kneeling in a circle with their heads
together, and taking their food and drink out of the same bucket or
manger without any quarrelling or discontent, though their fare be
scanty. On an emergency, if food is scarce, they browse on brambles
and thorns, and the more these make their mouths bleed the more they
enjoy them. The Scythians supply some camels, but more are produced
by Syria and Assyria, where they are kept in very large herds and are
bred in great numbers. They are so cheap there, that sometimes a mare
of good pedigree is bartered for a hundred camels. Yet in this perhaps
it is not the cheapness of the camels that is so wonderful as the price
asked and given for the mares, for such mares are valued so highly
that the owner of one considers himself a rich man. The test of their
excellence consists in their being ridden down the side of a steep and
high mountain, and those that do not stumble in the descent are highly
prized.
The Turkish monarch going to war takes with him over 40,000 camels
and nearly as many baggage mules, of which a great part, when he is
invading Persia, are loaded with rice and other kinds of grain. These
mules and camels also serve to carry tents and armour, and likewise
tools and munitions for the campaign. The territories, which bear the
name of Persia, and are ruled by the Sophi, or Kizilbash as the Turks
call him,[174] are less fertile than our country, and even such crops
as they bear are laid waste by the inhabitants in time of invasion in
hopes of starving out the enemy, so that it is very dangerous for an
army to invade Persia, if it be not furnished with abundant supplies.
The invading army carefully abstains from encroaching on its magazines
at the outset; as they are well aware that, when the season for
campaigning draws to a close, they will have to retreat over districts
wasted by the enemy, or scraped as bare by countless hordes of men and
droves of baggage animals, as if they had been devastated by locusts;
accordingly they reserve their stores as much as possible for this
emergency. Then the Sultan’s magazines are opened, and a ration just
sufficient to sustain life is daily weighed out to the Janissaries
and other troops of the royal household.[175] The rest of the army
are badly off, unless they have provided some supplies at their own
expense. And this is generally the case, for the greater number, and
especially the cavalry, having from their long experience in war
already felt such inconveniences, lead with them a sumpter horse by a
halter, on which they carry many of the necessaries of life; namely, a
small piece of canvas which they use as a tent, for protection against
sun and rain, with the addition of some clothes and bedding; and as
provisions for their private use, a leathern bag or two of the finest
flour, with a small pot of butter, and some spices and salt, on which
they sustain life when they are hard pressed. On such occasions they
take out a few spoonfuls of flour and put them into water, adding some
butter, and seasoning the mess with salt and spices; these ingredients
are boiled, and a large bowl of gruel is thus obtained. Of this they
eat once or twice a day, according to the quantity they have, without
any bread, unless they have brought some biscuit with them. In this
way they are able to support themselves from their own supplies for a
month, or if necessary longer. Some fill a bladder with beef, dried
and reduced to powder, which forms a highly nutritious food and
expands greatly in the cooking, like the flour of which I spoke above.
Sometimes too they have recourse to horseflesh; dead horses are of
course plentiful in their great hosts, and such beasts as are in good
condition when they die furnish a meal not to be despised by famished
soldiers. I must not forget to tell you of the men who have lost their
horses. When the Sultan moves his camp they stand in a long line by the
side of the road with their saddles on their heads, as a sign that they
have lost their steeds and need assistance for the purchase of others.
An allowance is then made to them by the Sultan at his discretion.
From this you will see that it is the patience, self-denial, and
thrift of the Turkish soldier that enable him to face the most trying
circumstances, and come safely out of the dangers that surround him.
What a contrast to our men! Christian soldiers on a campaign refuse to
put up with their ordinary food, and call for thrushes, becaficos, and
such like dainty dishes! If these are not supplied they grow mutinous
and work their own ruin; and, if they are supplied, they are ruined
all the same. For each man is his own worst enemy, and has no foe more
deadly than his own intemperance, which is sure to kill him, if the
enemy be not quick. It makes me shudder to think of what the result
of a struggle between such different systems must be; one of us must
prevail and the other be destroyed, at any rate we cannot both exist in
safety. On their side is the vast wealth of their empire, unimpaired
resources, experience and practice in arms, a veteran soldiery, an
uninterrupted series of victories, readiness to endure hardships,
union, order, discipline, thrift, and watchfulness. On ours are found
an empty exchequer, luxurious habits, exhausted resources, broken
spirits, a raw and insubordinate soldiery, and greedy generals; there
is no regard for discipline, license runs riot, the men indulge in
drunkenness and debauchery, and, worst of all, the enemy are accustomed
to victory, we, to defeat. Can we doubt what the result must be? The
only obstacle is Persia, whose position on his rear forces the invader
to take precautions. The fear of Persia gives us a respite, but it is
only for a time. When he has secured himself in that quarter, he will
fall upon us with all the resources of the East. How ill prepared we
are to meet such an attack it is not for me to say.
I now return to the point from which I made this digression. I
mentioned that baggage animals are used in a campaign for carrying
armour and tents. These for the most part belong to the Janissaries.
The Turks take great care to have their soldiers in good health and
protected against the inclemency of the weather. They must defend
themselves from the enemy, for their health the State will undertake to
provide. Therefore you may see a Turk better clad than armed. They are
especially afraid of cold, and even in summer time wear three garments,
of which the innermost one, or shirt, is woven of coarse thread and
gives a great deal of warmth. For protection against cold and rain they
are furnished with tents, in which each man is given just room enough
for his body, so that one tent holds twenty-five or thirty Janissaries.
The cloth for the clothes I referred to is supplied by the State, and
is distributed after the following fashion. The soldiers at nightfall
are summoned by companies to the office for the distribution of such
stores, where parcels of cloth are ready in separate packets according
to the number of men in each company. They march in, and take their
chance in the dark, so that if any soldier’s cloth is of inferior
quality to that of his comrades, he has nought to grumble at save his
own bad luck. For the same reason their pay is not given them by tale,
but by weight, to prevent anyone accusing the paymaster of giving him
light or clipped coins. Moreover, their pay is always given them the
day before it is actually due.
The convoy of armour, of which I spoke, is intended chiefly for the use
of the royal horse-guards, as the Janissaries are lightly equipped,
and generally do not fight at close quarters, but at a distance with
muskets. Well, when the enemy is near, and a battle is expected, the
stock of armour is produced, consisting for the most part of antiquated
pieces picked up on the fields which have been the scene of Turkish
victories; they are distributed to the royal horse guards, who at other
times have only their light shield to protect them. Where so little
pains is taken to provide each man with a suit that fits him, I need
hardly tell you that they are but clumsily equipped. One man’s cuirass
is too tight, another’s helmet too big; a third gets a coat of mail too
heavy for him to bear; one way or another no one is properly accoutred.
Yet they never grumble, holding that a man who quarrels with his armour
must needs be a cowardly fellow, and are confident that they will make
a stout fight of it themselves whatever their equipment may be. This
feeling is the result of their great successes and military experience.
In the same spirit they do not hesitate to turn their veteran infantry,
who never have fought on horseback, into cavalry, for they are firmly
convinced that a man who has courage and military experience will do
brave service in whatever kind of fighting he may be engaged.
I think the Romans were of the same opinion, especially Julius Cæsar,
who they relate was wont to say, ‘his soldiers even when perfumed
would fight well.’[176] For what should we consider to have been his
intention, when, before he went to his conference with Ariovistus, he
mounted the tenth legion? In my opinion it was that they might fight
on horseback if necessary, a kind of fighting to which they were by
no means accustomed. For we know that among the Romans the drill of
the infantry was quite different from that of the cavalry. But if, in
your opinion, Cæsar’s design was to transport the legion on horses
and employ them on foot, we are driven to the conclusion that Cæsar
involved his troops in a most hazardous operation. For the highly
trained cavalry of Ariovistus were so close that they could annoy
the Romans with stones; consequently, if they had suddenly charged,
the legion would have had no time to dismount, send their horses to
the rear, and form line of battle. According to our notions, such an
arrangement would have been the height of folly. But, whichever of
these explanations is the correct one, it was by confidence in their
experience of arms, though with a training quite different from our
system, that the Romans in ancient times brought their wars to a
triumphant conclusion, and the same reason will account for the uniform
successes of the Turks in modern days. But enough of this.
I now return to what I mentioned, namely, that the Turks behave kindly
to every sort of animal. The dog among them is considered a foul and
unclean animal, and therefore they keep it out of their houses; its
place is taken by the cat, a creature endowed, as they think, with far
more correct notions of propriety than the dog. For this preference
they quote the example of Mahomet their lawgiver, who was so fond
of his cat, that when she had fallen asleep on his sleeve as he sat
at table, and the hour summoned him to the mosque to his devotions,
he preferred to cut off his sleeve rather than disturb her sleep.
Notwithstanding that such is their feeling about dogs, and though they
are public property, not having masters, and watching special streets
and wards rather than particular houses, and though they live on the
refuse which is thrown out into the highways, yet if there should be
in the neighbourhood a bitch with young, they go to her and pile round
her bones and scraps of cakes and porridge, and this they think a
charitable action. If, in conversation on this topic, I accused them
of giving to a brute what they probably would not give to a rational
being of their own nation, or at any rate would refuse to a Christian,
they replied, that inasmuch as God has endowed man with reason, a noble
organ for every purpose, so that no misfortune befalls him, which he
has not brought on himself by his own misconduct, he therefore deserves
less compassion; but that nothing has been granted to brutes by God
except certain natural instincts and appetites, which they cannot help
following, and, therefore, they have a claim upon us for sympathy and
assistance. For this reason they are indignant if any beast be put
to death by torture, or pleasure be sought in its slaughter, as a
Venetian goldsmith lately found to his cost. He was amusing himself
with bird-catching, and had taken among others a bird the size of
a cuckoo, and almost the same colour; its beak was not large, but
its throat could be expanded by force so as to receive the fist of a
full-grown man. As he was naturally fond of a joke, and was struck by
the strangeness of the phenomenon, he fastened the bird to the lintel
of his door with its wings outspread and with its throat forced open by
a peg, so as to show a huge orifice. The Turks who were passing by in
crowds kept stopping and looking up, but when they perceived the bird
was alive and moving, struck with compassion they exclaimed, it was a
shame that a harmless bird should be so tortured, called the goldsmith
out, seized him by the neck, and dragged him before the judge who tries
capital charges, and he was near being bastinadoed, when a messenger
came from the gentleman, who administers the law to the Venetians at
Constantinople, and is called the Venetian Baily,[177] to demand his
release; the application was favourably received by the judge, and the
goldsmith was dismissed, to the great indignation of the Turks who were
present. Thus was he preserved. This goldsmith was a frequent visitor
at my house, and I had a hearty laugh when he told me the whole story,
and what a fright he had had. Moreover he brought the bird for my
inspection. I have described its appearance, and it is said to fly at
night and suck cows’ udders. I fancy it is the same as the goat-sucker
of the ancients. This story will show you how merciful the Turks are
to all kinds of animals, and especially to birds.[178]
Opposite our lodging there is a lofty plane tree remarkable for the
extent of ground its branches cover, and the thickness of its foliage;
here bird-catchers sometimes station themselves with a great number
of small birds. Many people go to them and ransom their prisoners for
a trifle, and then release them from their hands one by one. They
generally fly up into the plane tree, where they clean themselves
from the dirt of their cages, chirping all the while. Then the Turks
who ransomed them say to each other: ‘Do you hear how yon bird
congratulates himself on his freedom, and is thanking me for it?’
You will ask then, are the Turks such Pythagoreans that every animal
is considered sacred among them, and that they eat no flesh? Far from
it; on the contrary they usually abstain from nothing that may be set
before them, whether boiled or roast. Indeed they say that sheep were
born for slaughter, but they think it atrocious that people should seek
to find pleasure in their agonies and torments. As for the smaller
birds, who make the country places and fields resound with their song,
some of the Turks cannot be induced to kill them, or even to keep them
shut up in cages, thinking it a shame to rob them of their liberty.
There are different opinions, however, among them on this subject.
Some at any rate keep in their houses nightingales, that sing very
sweetly, and make a profit by hiring them out in the spring-time. I
have seen people carrying about goldfinches so well trained, that, when
a coin was shown them from a window above, they would fly to almost any
distance to get it; and, if the holder did not let it be pulled away,
they would perch on his hand and go with him from room to room, trying
all the time to wrest the coin out of his hand; the moment they got it,
they would fly back by the way they had come to their master, who was
standing in the street and calling them back by ringing a bell, and
would give him the coin, receiving some hemp-seed as a reward. But I
must stop, or you will think that I wish to imitate Pliny or Ælian, and
compose a history of animals.
Passing on to other topics, I will tell you about Turkish women and the
manner in which they are guarded. The Turks are the most careful people
in the world of the modesty of their wives, and therefore keep them
shut up at home and hide them away, so that they scarce see the light
of day.[179] But if they have to go into the streets, they are sent out
so covered and wrapt up in veils that they seem to those who meet them
mere gliding ghosts. They have the means of seeing men through their
linen or silken veils, while no part of their own body is exposed to
men’s view. For it is a received opinion among them, that no woman who
is distinguished in the very smallest degree by her figure or youth,
can be seen by a man without his desiring her, and therefore without
her receiving some contamination; and so it is the universal practice
to confine the women to the harem. Their brothers are allowed to see
them, but not their brothers-in-law. Men of the richer classes, or of
higher rank, make it a condition when they marry, that their wives
shall never set foot outside the threshold, and that no man or woman
shall be admitted to see them for any reason whatever, not even their
nearest relations, except their fathers and mothers, who are allowed to
pay a visit to their daughters at the Turkish Easter.[180]