FULLER QUOTATIONS FROM THE 'ZOONOMIA.'
The following are the passages in the 'Zoonomia' which have the most
important bearing on evolution:--
"The ingenious Dr. Hartley, in his work on man, and some other
philosophers have been of opinion, that our immortal part acquires
during this life certain habits of action or of sentiment which become
for ever indissoluble, continuing after death in a future state of
existence; and add that if these habits are of the malevolent kind, they
must render their possessor miserable even in Heaven. I would apply this
ingenious idea to the generation or production of the embryon or new
animal, which partakes so much of the form and propensities of its
parent.
"_Owing to the imperfection of language the offspring is termed a new
animal, but is in truth a branch or elongation of the parent, since a
part of the embryon-animal is, or was, a part of the parent, and
therefore in strict language, cannot be said to be entirely new at the
time of its production; and, therefore, it may retain some of the habits
of the parent system._
"At the earliest period of its existence the embryon would seem to
consist of a living filament with certain capabilities of irritation,
sensation, volition, and association, and also with some acquired
habits or propensities peculiar to the parents; the former of these are
in common with other animals; the latter seem to distinguish or produce
the kind of animal, whether man or quadruped, with the similarity of
feature or form to the parent."[169]
* * * * *
Going on to describe the gradual development of the embryo, Dr. Darwin
continues:--
"As the want of this oxygenation of the blood is perpetual (as appears
from the incessant necessity of breathing by lungs or gills), the
vessels become extended by the efforts of pain or desire to seek this
necessary object of oxygenation, and to remove the disagreeable
sensations which this want occasions."[170]
. . . . . .
"The lateral production of plants by wires, while each new plant is thus
chained to its parent, and continues to put forth another and another as
the wire creeps onward on the ground, is exactly resembled by the
tape-worm or taenia, so often found in the bowels, stretching itself in a
chain quite from the stomach to the rectum. Linnaeus asserts 'that it
grows old at one extremity, while it continues to generate younger ones
at the other, proceeding _ad infinitum_ like a sort of grass; the
separate joints are called gourd worms, and propagate new joints like
the parent without end, each joint being furnished with its proper mouth
and organs of digestion.'"[171]
. . . . . .
"Many ingenious philosophers have found so great difficulty in
conceiving the manner of the reproduction of animals, that they have
supposed all the numerous progeny to have existed in miniature in the
animal originally created; and that these infinitely minute forms are
only evolved or distended, as the embryon increases in the womb. This
idea, besides its being unsupported by any analogy we are acquainted
with, ascribes a greater tenuity to organized matter than we can readily
admit; as these included embryons are supposed each of them to consist
of the various and complicate parts of animal bodies, they must possess
a much greater degree of minuteness than that which was ascribed to the
devils which tempted St. Anthony, of whom 20,000 were said to have been
able to dance a saraband on the point of the finest needle without
incommoding one another."[172]
. . . . . .
"I conceive the primordium or rudiment of the embryon as secreted from
the blood of the parent to consist of a simple living filament as a
muscular fibre; which I suppose to be an extremity of a nerve of
locomotion, as a fibre of the retina is an extremity of a nerve of
sensation; as, for instance, one of the fibrils which compose the mouth
of an absorbent vessel. I suppose this living filament of whatever form
it may be, whether sphere, cube, or cylinder, to be endued with the
capability of being excited into action by certain kinds of stimulus. By
the stimulus of the surrounding fluid in which it is received from the
male it may bend into a ring, and thus form the beginning of a tube.
Such moving filaments and such rings are described by those who have
attended to microscopic animalculae. This living ring may now embrace or
absorb a nutritive particle of the fluid in which it swims; and by
drawing it into its pores, or joining it by compression to its
extremities, may increase its own length or crassitude, and by degrees
the living ring may become a living tube.
"With this new organization, or accretion of parts, new kinds of
irritability may commence; for so long as there was but one living organ
it could only be supposed to possess irritability; since sensibility may
be conceived to be an extension of the effect of irritability over the
rest of the system. These new kinds of irritability and of sensibility
in consequence of new organization appear from variety of facts in the
more mature animals; thus ... the lungs must be previously formed before
their exertions to obtain fresh air can exist; the throat, or
oesophagus, must be formed previous to the sensation or appetites of
hunger and thirst, one of which seems to reside at the upper end and the
other at the lower end of that canal."[173]
It seems to me Dr. Darwin is wrong in supposing that the organ must have
preceded the power to use it. The organ and its use--the desire to do
and the power to do--have always gone hand in hand, the organism finding
itself able to do more according as it advanced its desires, and
desiring to do more simultaneously with any increase in power, so that
neither appetency nor organism can claim precedence, but power and
desire must be considered as Siamese twins begotten together, conceived
together, born together, and inseparable always from each other. At the
same time they are torn by mutual jealousy; each claims, with some vain
show of reason, to have been the elder brother; each intrigues
incessantly from the beginning to the end of time to prevent the other
from outstripping him; each is in turn successful, but each is doomed to
death with the extinction of the other.
"So inflamed tendons and membranes, and even bones, acquire new
sensations; and the parts of mutilated animals, as of wounded snails and
polypi and crabs, are reproduced; and at the same time acquire
sensations adapted to their situation. Thus when the head of a snail is
reproduced after decollation with a sharp razor, those curious
telescopic eyes are also reproduced, and acquire their sensibility to
light, as well as their adapted muscles for retraction on the approach
of injury.
"With every change, therefore, of organic form or addition of organic
parts, I suppose a new kind of irritability or of sensibility to be
produced; such varieties of irritability or of sensibility exist in our
adult state in the glands; every one of which is furnished with an
irritability or a taste or appetency, and a consequent mode of action
peculiar to itself.
"In this manner I conceive the vessels of the jaws to produce those of
the teeth; those of the fingers to produce the nails; those of the skin
to produce the hair; in the same manner as afterwards, about the age of
puberty, the beard and other great changes in the form of the body and
disposition of the mind are produced in consequence of new developments;
for, if the animal is deprived of these developments, those changes do
not take place. These changes I believe to be formed not by elongation
or distension of primeval stamina, but by apposition of parts; as the
mature crab fish when deprived of a limb, in a certain space of time,
has power to regenerate it; and the tadpole puts forth its feet after
its long exclusion from the spawn, and the caterpillar in changing into
a butterfly acquires a new form with new powers, new sensations, and new
desires."[174]
. . . . . .
"From hence I conclude that with the acquisition of new parts, new
sensations and new desires, as well as new powers are produced; and this
by accretion to the old ones and not by distension of them. And finally,
that the most essential parts of the system, as the brain for the
purpose of distributing the powers of life, and the placenta for the
purpose of oxygenating the blood, and the additional absorbent vessels,
for the purpose of acquiring aliment, are first formed by the
irritations above mentioned, and by the pleasurable sensations attending
those irritations, and by the exertions in consequence of painful
sensations similar to those of hunger and suffocation. After these an
apparatus of limbs for future uses, or for the purpose of moving the
body in its present natant state, and of lungs for future respiration,
and of _testes_ for future reproduction, are formed by the irritations
and sensations and consequent exertions of the parts previously
existing, and to which the new parts are to be attached.[175]
. . . . . .
"The embryon" must "be supposed to be a living filament, which acquires
or makes new parts, with new irritabilities as it advances in its
growth."[176]
. . . . . .
"From this account of reproduction it appears that all animals have a
similar origin, viz. a single living filament; and that the difference
of their forms and qualities has arisen only from the different
irritabilities and sensibilities, or voluntarities, or associabilities,
of this original living filament, and perhaps in some degree from the
different forms of the particles of the fluids by which it has at first
been stimulated into activity."[177]
. . . . . .
"All animals, therefore, I contend, have a similar cause of their
organization, originating from a single living filament, endued with
different kinds of irritabilities and sensibilities, or of animal
appetencies, which exist in every gland, and in every moving organ of
the body, and are as essential to living organism as chemical affinities
are to certain combinations of inanimate matter.
"If I might be indulged to make a simile in a philosophical work, I
should say that the animal appetencies are not only perhaps less
numerous originally than the chemical affinities, but that, like these
latter, they change with every fresh combination; thus vital air and
azote, when combined, produce nitrous acid, which now acquires the
property of dissolving silver; so that with every new additional part to
the embryon, as of the throat or lungs, I suppose a new animal appetency
to be produced."[178]
* * * * *
Here, again, it should be insisted on that neither can the "additional
part" precede "the appetency," nor the appetency precede the additional
part for long together--the two advance nearly _pari passu_; sometimes
the power a little ahead of the desire, stimulates the desire to an
activity it would not otherwise have known; as those who have more money
than they once had, feel new wants which they would not have known if
they had not obtained the power to gratify them; sometimes, on the other
hand, the desire is a little more active than the power, and pulls the
power up to itself by means of the effort made to gratify the desire--as
those who want a little more of this or that than they have money to pay
for, will try all manner of shifts to earn the additional money they
want, unless it is so much in excess of their present means that they
give up the endeavour as hopeless; but whichever gets ahead, immediately
sets to work to pull the other level with it, the getting ahead either
of power or desire being exclusively the work of external agencies,
while the coming up level of the other is due to agencies that are
incorporate with the organism itself. Thus an unusually abundant supply
of food, due to causes entirely beyond the control of the individual, is
an external agency; it will immediately set power a little ahead of
desire. On this the individual will eat as much as it can--thus learning
_pro tanto_ to be able to eat more, and to want more under ordinary
circumstances--and will also breed rapidly up to the balance of the
abundance. This is the work of the agencies incorporate in the organism,
and will bring desire level with power again. Famine, on the other hand,
puts desire ahead of power, and the incorporate agencies must either
bring power up by resource and invention, or must pull desire back by
eating less, both as individuals, and as the race, that is to say, by
breeding less freely; for breeding is an assimilation of outside matter
so closely akin to feeding, that it is only the feeding of the race, as
against that of the individual.
I do not think the reader will find any clearer manner of picturing to
himself the development of organism than by keeping the normal growth of
wealth continually in his mind. He will find few of the phenomena of
organic development which have not their counterpart in the acquisition
of wealth. Thus a too sudden acquisition, owing to accidental and
external circumstances and due to no internal source of energy, will be
commonly lost in the next few generations. So a sudden sport due to a
lucky accident of soil will not generally be perpetuated if the
offspring plant be restored to its normal soil. Again, if the advance in
power carry power suddenly far beyond any past desire, or be far greater
than any past-remembered advance of power beyond desire--then desire
will not come up level easily, but only with difficulty and all manner
of extravagance, such as is likely to destroy the power itself. Demand
and Supply are also good illustrations.
But to return to Dr. Darwin.
"When we revolve in our minds," he writes, "first the great changes
which we see naturally produced in animals after their nativity, as in
the production of the butterfly with painted wings from the crawling
caterpillar; or of the respiring frog from the subnatant tadpole; from
the boy to the bearded man, from the infant girl to the woman,--in both
which cases mutilation will prevent due development.
"Secondly, when we think over the great changes introduced into various
animals by artificial or accidental cultivation, as in horses, which we
have exercised for the different purposes of strength or swiftness, in
carrying burthens or in running races, or in dogs which have been
cultivated for strength and courage, as the bull-dog; or for acuteness
of his sense of smell, as the hound or spaniel; or for the swiftness of
his foot, as the greyhound; or for his swimming in the water or for
drawing snow sledges, as the rough-haired dogs of the north; or, lastly,
as a play dog for children, as the lapdog; with the changes of the forms
of the cattle which have been domesticated from the greatest antiquity,
as camels and sheep, which have undergone so total a transformation that
we are now ignorant from what species of wild animal they had their
origin. Add to these the great changes of shape and colour which we
daily see produced in smaller animals from our domestication of them, as
rabbits or pigeons, or from the difference of climates and even of
seasons; thus the sheep of warm climates are covered with hair instead
of wool; and the hares and partridges of the latitudes which are long
buried in snow become white during the winter months; add to these the
various changes produced in the forms of mankind by their early modes of
exertion, or by the diseases occasioned by their habits of life, both of
which become hereditary, and that through many generations. Those who
labour at the anvil, the oar, or the loom, as well as those who carry
sedan chairs or who have been educated to dance upon the rope, are
distinguishable by the shape of their limbs; and the diseases occasioned
by intoxication deform the countenance with leprous eruptions, or the
body with tumid viscera, or the joints with knots and distortions.
"Thirdly, when we enumerate the great changes produced in the species of
animals before their nativity, as, for example, when the offspring
reproduces the effects produced upon the parent by accident or
cultivation; or the changes produced by the mixture of species, as in
mules; or the changes produced probably by the exuberance of nourishment
supplied to the fetus, as in monstrous births with additional limbs;
many of these enormities of shape are propagated and continued as a
variety at least, if not as a new species of animal. I have seen a breed
of cats with an additional claw on every foot; of poultry also with an
additional claw, and with wings to their feet; and of others without
rumps. Mr. Buffon mentions a breed of dogs without tails which are
common at Rome and Naples--which he supposes to have been produced by a
custom long established of cutting their tails close off. There are many
kinds of pigeons admired for their peculiarities which are more or less
thus produced and propagated.[179]
. . . . . .
"When we consider all these changes of animal form and innumerable
others which may be collected from the books of natural history, we
cannot but be convinced that the fetus or embryon is formed by
apposition of new parts, and not by the distention of a primordial nest
of germs included one within another like the cups of a conjurer.
"Fourthly, when we revolve in our minds the great similarity of
structure which obtains in all the warm-blooded animals, as well
quadrupeds, birds, and amphibious animals, as in mankind; from the mouse
and bat to the elephant and whale; one is led to conclude that they have
alike been produced from a similar living filament. In some this
filament in its advance to maturity has acquired hands and fingers with
a fine sense of touch, as in mankind. In others it has acquired claws or
talons, as in tigers and eagles. In others, toes with an intervening web
or membrane, as in seals and geese. In others it has acquired cloven
hoofs, as in cows and swine; and whole hoofs in others, as in the horse:
while in the bird kind this original living filament has put forth wings
instead of arms or legs, and feathers instead of hair. In some it has
protruded horns on the forehead instead of teeth in the fore part of the
upper jaw; in others, tusks instead of horns; and in the others, beaks
instead of either. And all this exactly as is seen daily in the
transmutation of the tadpole, which acquires legs and lungs when he
wants them, and loses his tail when it is no longer of service to him.
"Fifthly, from their first rudiment or primordium to the termination of
their lives, all animals undergo perpetual transformations; _which are
in part produced by their own exertions in consequence of their desires
and aversions, of their pleasures and their pains, or of irritations or
of associations; and many of these acquired forms or propensities are
transmitted to their posterity_.
"As air and water are supplied to animals in sufficient profusion, the
three great objects of desire which have changed the forms of many
animals by their desires to gratify them are those of lust, hunger, and
security. A great want of one part of the animal world has consisted in
the desire of the exclusive possession of the females; and these have
acquired weapons to combat each other for this purpose, as the very
thick, shield-like, horny skin on the shoulder of the boar is a defence
only against animals of his own species who strike obliquely upwards,
nor are his tusks for other purposes except to defend himself, as he is
not naturally a carnivorous animal. So the horns of the stag are sharp
to offend his adversary, but are branched for the purpose of parrying or
receiving the thrust of horns similar to his own, and have therefore
been formed for the purpose of combating other stags, for the exclusive
possession of the females; who are observed like the ladies in the times
of chivalry to attend the car of the victor.
"The birds which do not carry food to their young, and do not therefore
marry, are armed with spurs for the purpose of fighting for the
exclusive possession of the females, as cocks and quails. It is certain
that these weapons are not provided for their defence against other
adversaries, because the females of these species are without this
armour. The final cause of this contest among the males seems to be
_that the strongest and most active animal should propagate the species,
which should thence become improved_."[180]
Dr. Darwin would have been on stronger ground if he had said that the
_effect_ of the contest among the males was that the fittest should
survive, and hence transmit any fit modifications which had occurred to
them as vitally true, rather than that the desire to attain this end had
caused the contest; but either way the sentence just given is sufficient
to show that he was not blind to the fact that the fittest commonly
survive, and to the consequences of this fact. The use, however, of the
word "thence," as well as of the expression "final cause," is loose, as
Dr. Darwin would no doubt readily have admitted. Improvement in the
species is due quite as much, by Dr. Darwin's own showing, to the causes
which have led to such and such an animal's making itself the fittest,
as to the fact that if fittest it will be more likely to survive and
transmit its improvement. There have been two factors in modification;
the one provides variations, the other accumulates them; neither can
claim exclusive right to the word "thence," as though the modification
was due to it and to it only. Dr. Darwin's use of the word "thence"
here is clearly a slip, and nothing else; but it is one which brings him
for the moment into the very error into which his grandson has fallen
more disastrously.
"Another great want," he continues, "consists in the means of procuring
food, which has diversified the forms of all species of animals. Thus
the nose of the swine has become hard for the purpose of turning up the
soil in search of insects and of roots. The trunk of the elephant is an
elongation of the nose for the purpose of pulling down the branches of
trees for his food, and for taking up water without bending his knees.
Beasts of prey have acquired strong jaws or talons. Cattle have acquired
a rough tongue and a rough palate to pull off the blades of grass, as
cows and sheep. Some birds have acquired harder beaks to crack nuts, as
the parrot. Others have acquired beaks to break the harder seeds, as
sparrows. Others for the softer kinds of flowers, or the buds of trees,
as the finches. Other birds have acquired long beaks to penetrate the
moister soils in search of insects or roots, as woodcocks, and others
broad ones to filtrate the water of lakes and to retain aquatic insects.
All which seem to have been gradually produced during many generations
_by the perpetual endeavour of the creature to supply the want of food,
and to have been delivered to their posterity with constant improvement
of them for the purposes required_.
"The third great want among animals is that of security, which seems to
have diversified the forms of their bodies and the colour of them; these
consist in the means of escaping other animals more powerful than
themselves. Hence some animals have acquired wings instead of legs, as
the smaller birds, for purposes of escape. Others, great length of fin
or of membrane, as the flying fish and the bat. Others have acquired
hard or armed shells, as the tortoise and the _Echinus marinus_.
"Mr. Osbeck, a pupil of Linnaeus, mentions the American frog-fish,
_Lophius Histrio_, which inhabits the large floating islands of sea-weed
about the Cape of Good Hope, and has fulcra resembling leaves, that the
fishes of prey may mistake it for the sea-weed, which it inhabits.[181]
"The contrivances for the purposes of security extend even to
vegetables, as is seen in the wonderful and various means of their
concealing or defending their honey from insects and their seeds from
birds. On the other hand, swiftness of wing has been acquired by hawks
and swallows to pursue their prey; and a proboscis of admirable
structure has been acquired by the bee, the moth, and the humming bird
for the purpose of plundering the nectaries of flowers. _All which seem
to have been formed by the original living filament, excited into action
by the necessities of the creatures which possess them_, and on which
their existence depends.
"From thus meditating on the great similarity of the structure of the
warm-blooded animals, and at the same time of the great changes they
undergo both before and after their nativity; and by considering in how
minute a portion of time many of the changes of animals above described
have been produced; would it be too bold to imagine that in the great
length of time since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages
before the commencement of the history of mankind--would it be too bold
to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living
filament, which the Great First Cause endued with animality, with the
power of attaining new parts, attended with new propensities, directed
by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus
possessing the faculty of continuing to improve, by its own inherent
activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its
posterity world without end!
"Sixthly, the cold-blooded animals, as the fish tribes, which are
furnished with but one ventricle of the heart, and with gills instead of
lungs, and with fins instead of feet or wings, bear a great similarity
to each other; but they differ nevertheless so much in their general
structure from the warm-blooded animals, that it may not seem probable
at first view that the same living filament could have given origin to
this kingdom of animals, as to the former. Yet are there some creatures
which unite or partake of both these orders of animation, as the whales
and seals; and more particularly the frog, who changes from an aquatic
animal furnished with gills to an aerial one furnished with lungs.
"The numerous tribes of insects without wings, from the spider to the
scorpion, from the flea to the lobster; or with wings, from the gnat or
the ant to the wasp and the dragon-fly, differ so totally from each
other, and from the red-blooded classes above described, both in the
forms of their bodies and in their modes of life; besides the organ of
sense, which they seem to possess in their antennae or horns, to which
it has been thought by some naturalists that other creatures have
nothing similar; that it can scarcely be supposed that this nature of
animals could have been produced by the same kind of living filament as
the red-blooded classes above mentioned. And yet the changes which many
of them undergo in their early state to that of their maturity, are as
different as one animal can be from another. As those of the gnat, which
passes his early state in water, and then stretching out his new wings
and expanding his new lungs, rises in the air; as of the caterpillar and
bee-nymph, which feed on vegetable leaves or farina, and at length
bursting from their self-formed graves, become beautiful winged
inhabitants of the skies, journeying from flower to flower, and
nourished by the ambrosial food of honey.
"There is still another class of animals which are termed vermes by
Linnaeus, which are without feet or brain, and are hermaphrodites, as
worms, leeches, snails, shell-fish, coralline insects, and sponges,
which possess the simplest structure of all animals, and appear totally
different from those already described. The simplicity of their
structure, however, can afford no argument against their having been
produced from a single living filament, as above contended.
"Last of all, the various tribes of vegetables are to be enumerated
amongst the inferior orders of animals. Of these the anthers and stigmas
have already been shown to possess some organs of sense, to be nourished
by honey, and to have the power of generation like insects, and have
thence been announced amongst the animal kingdom in Section XIII.; and
to these must be added the buds and bulbs, which constitute the
viviparous offspring of vegetation. The former I suppose to be beholden
to a single living filament for their seminal or amatorial procreation;
and the latter to the same cause for their lateral or branching
generation, which they possess in common with the polypus, taenia, and
volvox, and the simplicity of which is an argument in favour of the
similarity of its cause.
"Linnaeus supposes, in the introduction to his natural orders, that very
few vegetables were at first created, and that their numbers were
increased by their intermarriages, and adds, 'Suaderet haec Creatoris
leges a simplicibus ad composita.' Many other changes appear to have
arisen in them by their perpetual contest for light and air above
ground, and for food or moisture beneath the soil. As noted in the
'Botanic Garden,' Part II., note on Cuscuta. Other changes of vegetables
from climate or other causes are remarked in the note on Curcuma in the
same work. From these one might be led to imagine that each plant at
first consisted of a single bulb or flower to each root, as the
gentianella and daisy, and that in the contest for air and light, new
buds grew on the old decaying flower-stem, shooting down their elongated
roots to the ground, and that in process of ages tall trees were thus
formed, and an individual bulb became a swarm of vegetables. Other
plants which in this contest for light and air were too slender to rise
by their own strength, learned by degrees to adhere to their neighbours,
either by putting forth roots like the ivy, or by tendrils like the
vine, or by spiral contortions like the honeysuckle, or by growing upon
them like the mistleto, and taking nourishment from their barks, or by
only lodging or adhering on them and deriving nourishment from the air
as tillandsia.
"Shall we then say that the vegetable living filament was originally
different from that of each tribe of animals above described? And that
the productive living filament of each of those tribes was different
from the other? Or as the earth and ocean were probably peopled with
vegetable productions long before the existence of animals; and many
families of these animals, long before other families of them, shall we
conjecture _that one and the same kind of living filament is and has
been the cause of all organic life_?[182]
. . . . . .
"The late Mr. David Hume in his posthumous works places the powers of
generation much above those of our boasted reason, and adds, that reason
can only make a machine, as a clock or a ship, but the power of
generation makes the maker of the machine; and probably from having
observed that the greatest part of the earth has been formed out of
organic recrements, as the immense beds of limestone, chalk, marble,
from the shells of fish; and the extensive provinces of clay, sandstone,
ironstone, coals, from decomposed vegetables; all of which have been
first produced by generation, or by the secretion of organic life; he
concludes that the world itself might have been generated rather than
created; that it might have been gradually produced from very small
beginnings, increasing by the activity of its inherent principles,
rather than by a sudden evolution of the whole by the Almighty fire.
What a magnificent idea of the infinite power of the great Architect!
The Cause of causes! Parent of parents! Ens entium!"[183]
FOOTNOTES:
[169] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 484.
[170] Ibid. p. 485.
[171] Ibid. p. 493.
[172] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 494.
[173] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 497.
[174] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 498.
[175] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 500.
[176] Ibid. p. 501.
[177] Ibid. p. 502.
[178] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 503.
[179] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 505.
[180] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 507.
[181] 'Voyage to China,' p. 113.
[182] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 511.
[183] 'Zoonomia,' vol. i. p. 513.