[1] The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to
1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary of
the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, _Rep. Austral.
Assoc. Adv. Sci._ vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the chief
sources of information regarding the states is given under each of
them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of 50 m.
to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in six
sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.
[2] The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which
is a member of the Australian Commonwealth.
[3] In his _Discoveries in Central Australia_, E.T. Eyre has
ingeniously attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the
Australians in their advance across the continent. He has relied,
however, in his efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the
prevalence or absence of such customs as circumcision--always very
treacherous evidences--to allow of his hypothetical distribution
being regarded very seriously. The migrations must have always been
dependent upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or
mountain barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements,
such as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom
between tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of
tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the
first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for some
offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as to
clan-marriages.
[4] _The Languages of India_ (1875).
[5] The existence of "Group Marriage" is a much-controverted point.
This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of actual
marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to a special
set of tribes.
[6] Australia, it may be noted, has woman's suffrage in all the
states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for
the federal assembly.
AUSTRASIA. The word _Austria_ signifies the realm of the east (Ger. _Ost
Reich_). In Gregory of Tours this word is still used vaguely, but the
sense of it is gradually defined, and finally the name of _Austria_ or
_Austrasia_ was given to the easternmost part of the Frankish kingdom.
It usually had Metz for its capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom
were known as the _Austrasii_. Retrospectively, later historians have
given this name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son
Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555); then,
after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of Sigebert (561-575),
and of his son Childebert (575-597). They have even tried to interpret
the long struggle between Fredegond and Brunhilda as a rivalry between
the two kings of Neustria and Austrasia. When these two words are at
last found in the texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is
applied to that part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II.
entrusted to his son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and
Arnulf (623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son
Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop of
Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death of
Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate kings, with
their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose a real rivalry
between these two provinces, which ended in the triumph of Austrasia.
The Austrasian mayors of the palace succeeded in enforcing their
authority in the western as well as in the eastern part, and in
re-establishing to their own advantage the unity of the Frankish
kingdom. The mayor Pippin the Short was even powerful enough to take the
title of king over the whole.
At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent a change of
meaning and became synonymous with _Francia orientalis_, and was applied
to the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia
was in 843 included in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then
increased by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms,
on the right bank of the river.
See A. Huguenin, _Histoire du royaume merovingien d'Austrasie_ (Paris,
1857); Aug. Digot, _Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie_, 4 vols. (Nancy,
1863); L. Drapeyron, _Essai sur l'origine, le developpement et les
resultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l'Austrasie_ (Paris, 1867);
Auguste Longnon, _Atlas historique_, 1st and 2nd parts. (C. Pf.)
AUSTRIA. (Ger. _Osterreich_), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by
Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by
Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by
the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of
115,533 sq. m., or about twice the size of England and Wales together.
Austria is one of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian
(Habsburg) monarchy (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_), and is also called
Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that
monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria does not
form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts of this empire
belong to different geographical regions. Thus, Tirol, Styria and
Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the system of the Alps, but these
provinces together with those lying in the basin of the Danube form,
nevertheless, a compact stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia,
extending on the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great
plain of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany; while
Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces, belongs to
the Balkan Peninsula.
_Coasts._--Austria has amongst all the great European countries the
most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly
land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land. The
Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m., is
greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf of
Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula of
Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of Quarnero are the
Quarnero islands, of which the most important are Cherso, Veglia and
Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the Isonzo is fringed by
lagoons, and has the same character as the Venetian coast, while the
Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula have a steep coast with many
bays and safe harbours. The principal ports are Trieste, Capodistria,
Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola, the great naval harbour and arsenal
of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia also possesses many safe bays, the
principal being those of Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places
it is very steep and inaccessible. On the other hand a string of
islands extends along this coast, which offer many safe and easily
accessible places of anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales
which rage in the Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola
Lunga and Isola Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda.
The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part, so
closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account of the
physical features, natural resources and the movement of the
population has been given under those separate headings. In this
general article the geography of Austria--physical, economical and
political--has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points
insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole.
_Mountains._--Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe after
Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more than 600
ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria belong to
three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (q.v.), the
Carpathians (q.v.), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains. The Danube,
which is the principal river of Austria, divides the Alpine region,
which occupies the whole country lying at its south, from the
Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying at its north;
while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate the last-named
mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three principal divisions of
the Alps--the western, the central and the eastern Alps--Austria is
traversed by several groups of the central Alps, while the eastern
Alps lie entirely within its territory. The eastern Alps are continued
by the Karst mountains, which in their turn are continued by the
Dinaric Alps, which stretch through Croatia and Dalmatia. The second
great mountain-system of Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern
and north-eastern portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through
Moravia, Silesia, Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards
Hungary, within which territory they principally extend. Finally, the
Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and
form the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of
the Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the
_Mittelgebirge_) of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area
of Austria is occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia,
which is part of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south,
along the Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the
Lombardo-Venetian plain. Several smaller plains are found along the
Danube, as the Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken,
the plain on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube
this plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of
the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmutz. Along the other
principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude, some
of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.
_Rivers._--Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty
equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of
Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even
the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the
Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige or
Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great watershed of
Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward into the North Sea
or the Baltic from those flowing southward or eastward into the
Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow in three different
directions--northward, southward and eastward. With the exception of
the small streams belonging to it which fall into the Adriatic, all
its rivers have their mouths in other countries, and its principal
river, the Danube, has also its source in another country. When it
enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it receives the Inn, a
river which has as large a body of water as itself, the Danube is
already navigable. Till it leaves the country at Hainburg, just before
Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed by the Alps, and the
river passes through a succession of narrow defiles. But the finest
part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness of the
scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna. Where it enters
Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of the sea, and where it
leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within the country of
498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming latterly much
slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m., and it drains an
area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria, besides the
Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The Dniester, which, like
the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its source in the
Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very winding course
towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has in Austria a
course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains an area of
12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into the Baltic. The
former rises in Moravia, flows first north through Austrian Silesia,
then takes an easterly direction along the borders of Prussian
Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating Galicia from
Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from Sandomir. Its course
in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500 sq. m. It is
navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents are the
Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source in Moravia,
flows first east and then north-east through Austrian Silesia into
Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only about 55 m.,
no part of which is navigable. The only river of this country which
flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source in the
Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south, then
west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then enters
Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger, and,
most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course within the
Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is navigable.
It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine, though
scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about 25 m.
of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river of
Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch. It rises
in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and afterwards
south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a course of 138
m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal affluent is the
Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely within the
country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the Isonzo, 75
m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from its mouth.
_Lakes._--Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous
small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most renowned
for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg,
Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned the
periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest of them
being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large marshes, found now
mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been greatly reduced in the other
provinces through the canalization of the rivers, and other works of
sanitation.
_Mineral Springs._--No other European country equals Austria in the
number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly to be found
in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented watering-places in the
world. The most important are, the alkaline springs of Carlsbad,
Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline acidulated waters of
Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the iron springs of
Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower Austria; the bitter
waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the saline waters of Ischl
and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters of Hall in Upper Austria;
the different waters of Gastein; and lastly the thermal waters of
Teplitz-Schonau, Johannisbad, and of Romerbad in Styria. Altogether
there are reckoned to exist over 1500 mineral springs, of which many
are not used. (O. Br.)
_Geology._--The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the great
belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians; a
secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs along the Adriatic
coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In the space which is
thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian plain; and
outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region which,
geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the Carpathian
folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the folded belt--the
gap between the Alps and the Carpathians--has formed a connexion
between these two regions since the early part of the Miocene period.
On its outer or convex side the folded belt is clearly defined by a
depression which is generally filled by modern deposits. Beyond this,
in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive plateau, much of which is
covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene beds; but in the deep
valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the ancient rocks which
form the foundation of the plateau are laid bare. Archaean granite is
thus exposed at Yampol and other places in Russia, and this is
followed towards the west by Silurian and Devonian beds in regular
succession--the Devonian being of the Old Red Sandstone type
characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern Russia.
Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected by the
Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south. After
Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until the
commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was overspread by
the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea lie flat upon the
older sediments.
Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester from the
margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the Palaeozoic floor
sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the deep-cut valley of
the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than Miocene. Towards the
north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation falls beneath an
increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies buried far below the
surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth did not reach the base
of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous beds are underlaid by
Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general dip being eastward. It is
not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations again rise to the
surface. Here is the margin, often concealed by very modern deposits,
of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks which forms nearly
the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie
flat and undisturbed, as in the Polish plain. They are faulted and
folded. But the folds are altogether independent of those of the
Carpathians; they are of much earlier date, and are commonly different
in direction. The principal biding took place towards the close of the
Carboniferous period, and the _massif_ is a fragment of an ancient
mountain chain, the _Variscische Gebirge_ of E. Suess, which in
Permian and Triassic times stretched across the European area from
west to east.
In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian to the
Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the Carboniferous
period the area appears to have been dry land until the beginning of
the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread over it. The
deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin of Upper
Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward through
Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period the Bohemian
_massif_ has remained above the sea; but the depression which lies
immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times been covered by
an arm of the sea and at other times has been occupied by a chain of
salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of Wieliczka and numerous brine
springs owe their origin.
[Illustration: GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.]
The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians
is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other modern
deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its borders. In
the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of more ancient
rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all the Mesozoic
systems have been recognized here, and granite and volcanic rocks
occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises above the plain,
striking from the Platten See towards the north-east, where it merges
into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain. These hills are largely
formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age; but near the Platten
See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed. The Tertiary
eruptions were not confined to this line of hills. They were most
extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians, and they occurred
also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions took place during
the Miocene and Pliocene periods.
The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are in
many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds.
Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of
Erzgebirge and of Pribram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria and
Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts of
Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines of Idria in
Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of northern
Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the Tertiary volcanic
rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia and Bohemia are of the
greatest importance; while Jurassic coal is worked at Steyerdorf and
Funfkirchen in Hungary, and lignite at many places in the Tertiary
beds. The great salt mines of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but
salt is also worked largely in the Trias of the Alps. (See also ALPS;
CARPATHIANS; HUNGARY and TIROL.) (P. La.)
_Climate._--The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great
extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is
very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The
most southern extends to 46 deg. N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and
the country along the coast, together with the southern portions of
Tirol and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the
winters are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five
months. The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as
olives and other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical
plants flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46 deg.
and 49 deg. N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg,
Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern
Moravia and a part of Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than
in the preceding. The winters are longer and more severe, and the
summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in favourable
situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain are generally grown.
The northern zone embraces the territory lying north of 49 deg. N.
lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The
winters are here long and cold; the vine and maize are no longer
cultivated, the principal crops being wheat, barley, oats, rye, hemp
and flax. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 59 deg. in the
south to 48 deg. in the north. In some parts of the country, however,
it is as low as 46 deg. 40' and even 36 deg. In Vienna the average
annual temperature is 50 deg., the highest temperature being 94 deg.,
the lowest 2 deg. Fahr. In general the eastern part of the country
receives less rain than the western. In the south the rains prevail
chiefly in spring and autumn, and in the north and central parts
during summer. Storms are frequent in the region of the south Alps and
along the coast. In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the
rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in. It is less among the
Carpathians, where it usually varies from 30 to 40 in. In other parts
the rainfall usually averages from 20 to 24 in.
_Flora._--From the varied character of its climate and soil the
vegetable productions of Austria are very diverse. It has floras of
the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an
arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras
peculiar to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate
formations. The number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of
which one-third are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds
cryptogamous, or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far
surpasses in this respect the other divisions of the country, having
about four-ninths of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of
flowering plants. As stated above, Austria is a very mountainous
country and the mountains are frequently covered with vegetation to a
great elevation. At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower
slopes are green pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn;
above are often forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the
yew and the fir may be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn
grows to between 3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the
forests extend to 5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is
from 7800 to 8200 ft.
_Fauna._--The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual domestic
animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), wild
boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes,
foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels
and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of singing
birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, which
are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee and the
silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article of trade. In
all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 species of birds,
377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects.
_Divisions._--Austria is composed of seventeen "lands," called also
"crown lands." Of these, three--namely, Bohemia, Galicia and
Lodomeria, and Dalmatia--are kingdoms; two--Lower and Upper
Austria--archduchies; six--Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola,
Silesia and Bukovina--duchies; two--Gorz-Gradisca and
Tirol--countships of princely rank (_gefurstete Grafschaften_);
two--Moravia and Istria--margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg
bears the title simply of "land." Trieste, with its district, is a
town treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes
Trieste, with Gorz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Kustenland
(the Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as
one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each an
administrative territory by itself.
_Population._--Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304
inhabitants,[1] which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m. As
seen from the table below, the density of the population is unequal in
the various crown lands. The most thickly populated province is Lower
Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely populated, while Salzburg is
the most thinly populated crown land of Austria. As regards sex, for
every 1000 men there were 1035 women, the female element being the most
numerous in every crown land, except the Kustenland, Bukovina and
Dalmatia. Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows
an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The increase
between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890 was of 1,750,093
inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population. A very important factor in
the movement of the population is the large over-sea emigration, mostly
to the United States of America, which has grown very much during the
last quarter of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become
still larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants was
387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown in the other vital
statistics--births, marriages, deaths--are mostly satisfactory, and show
a steady and normal progress. The annual rate per thousand of population
in 1900 was: births, 37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages,
8.2. The only unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate
births, and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of
Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities with less
than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was distributed in 1742
communities with a population of 2000-5000; in 260 communities with a
population of 5000-10,000; in 96 towns with a population of
10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6
towns with a population of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a
population of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria
are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879), Lemberg
(159,618), Graz (138,370), Brunn (108,944), Cracow (91,310), Czernowitz
(67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778).
+-----------------+----------+-------------------------+------------+
| | | | Density of |
| Administrative | Areas in | Population. | Population |
| Territories. | Square +------------+------------+ per sq. m. |
| | Miles. | 1890. | 1900. | in 1900. |
+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
| AUSTRIA-- |
| Lower Austria | 7,654 | 2,661,799 | 3,100,493 | 405 |
| Upper Austria | 4,617 | 785,831 | 809,918 | 175 |
| Salzburg | 2,757 | 173,510 | 193,247 | 69 |
| Styria | 8,642 | 1,282,708 | 1,350,058 | 156 |
| Carinthia | 3,992 | 361,008 | 367,344 | 91 |
| Carniola | 3,844 | 498,958 | 508,348 | 132 |
| Kustenland | 3,074 | 695,384 | 755,183 | 245 |
| Tirol and | | | | |
| Vorarlberg | 11,287 | 928,769 | 979,878 | 86 |
| Bohemia | 19,997 | 5,843,094 | 6,318,280 | 315 |
| Moravia | 8,555 | 2,276,870 | 2,435,081 | 284 |
| Silesia | 1,981 | 605,649 | 680,529 | 342 |
| Galicia | 30,212 | 6,607,816 | 7,295,538 | 241 |
| Bukovina | 4,022 | 646,591 | 729,921 | 181 |
| Dalmatia | 4,923 | 527,426 | 591,597 | 120 |
| +----------+------------+------------+------------+
| Total | 115,533 | 23,895,413 | 26,107,304 | 226 |
+-----------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
[Illustration: Austria-Hungary Distribution of Races.]
_Races._--From an ethnographical point of view Austria contains a
diversity of races; in fact no other European state contains within its
borders so many nationalities as the Austrian empire. The three
principal races of Europe--the Latin, the Teutonic and the Slavonic--are
all represented in Austria. The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is
numerically the principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a
number of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion,
culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess a
national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are geographically
separated from one another by other races, and are divided into two
groups. The northern group includes the Czechs, the Moravians, the
Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the Poles; while the southern group contains
the Slovenes, the Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical
traditions are different, so are also the aspirations of these various
peoples of the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them,
as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have prevented
them from enjoying the full political advantage due to their number. The
Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute the most numerous nationality
in Austria, and have played and still play the principal role in the
political life of the country. The Germans are in a relative majority
over the other peoples in the empire, their language is the vehicle of
communication between all the other peoples both in official life and in
the press; they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and
they are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have
contributed most to the foundation and to the development of the
Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned reasons
they are entitled to the principal position amongst the various
nationalities of Austria. The Latin race is represented by the Italians,
Ladini and Rumanians.
The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as
determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:--
Germans 9,171,614
Czechs and Slovaks 5,955,397
Poles 4,252,483
Ruthenians 3,381,570
Slovenes 1,192,780
Italians and Ladini 727,102
Servians and Croats 711,380
Rumanians 230,963
Magyars 9,516
The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg,
and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north and central part
of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia, and the north and
central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are concentrated round the
borders, in the vicinity of the mountains, and they form nearly half
the population of Silesia; besides they are found in every part of the
monarchy. The Czechs occupy the central and eastern parts of Bohemia,
the greatest part of Moravia and a part of Silesia. The Poles are
concentrated in western Galicia, and in a part of Silesia; the
Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in
Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca, Istria, the south of Styria, and the
Trieste territory. The Servians and Croats are found in Istria and
Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini in southern Tirol, Gorz and
Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria, and in the towns of Dalmatia;
while the Rumanians live mostly in Bukovina.
_Agriculture._--Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made by
Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture still
forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. In 1900
over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their income from
agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, although there
is a great difference in the productivity of the various crown-lands
owing to their geographical situation. The productive land of Austria
covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, which is
74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds,
making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder is
unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The area
of the productive land has been steadily increasing--it was estimated
to cover about 89% in 1875,--and great improvements in the
agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% in
woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, 0.9% in
vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The provinces having
the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia
and Lower Austria. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley,
oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle turnip. The produce of
the ploughed land does not, on the whole, suffice for the home
requirements. Large quantities in particular of wheat and maize are
imported from Hungary for home consumption. Only barley and oats are
usually reaped in quantity for export. The provinces which have the
lowest proportion of arable land are Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these
principal crops, other crops of considerable magnitude are: buckwheat
in Styria, Galicia, Carniola and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in
Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia,
Moravia, Styria and Galicia; hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia;
tobacco, which is a state monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and
Tirol; fuller's thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia,
including the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice
in the Kustenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and
Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit
districts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol
for apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
south--chiefly in Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Tirol; while in the
south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.
The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, the
provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, the
Kustenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The wines of Dalmatia
are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be kept for long periods,
while those of the other provinces are not so sweet, but improve with
age.
_Forests._--The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In the
forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and consists of
conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the proportion of
seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total forests laid out
in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of the Karst region,
where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy 80%, and of Dalmatia,
where underwood occupies 92.6% of the whole forest land. The Alpine
region is well wooded, and amongst the other provinces Bukovina is the
most densely wooded, having 43.2% of its area under forests, while
Galicia with 25.9% is the most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria.
The forests are chiefly composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and
the like, and constitute one of the great sources of wealth of the
country. Forestry is carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner.
Large works of afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia,
Carniola and Tirol with a view of checking the periodical inundations,
while similar works have been successfully carried out in the Karst
region.
_Landed Property._--Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001
acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is
disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property is
most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of the
whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. To the
state belongs 4-1/2% of the total territory. The Church, the
communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large
areas of land; 4% (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria is
held on the tenure of _fidei-commissum_. Of the entire property in
large landed estates, 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in
_fidei-commissum_, 66% is woodland; of the entire forest land, about
10% is the property of the state; 14.5% is communal property; and 3.8%
is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory in large
landed estates includes 52% of the entire forest land. The forest land
held under _fidei-commissum_ amounts to over 9% of the entire forest
land.
_Live Stock._--Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot be
said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in
certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
years along with the census of the population.
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Horses | 1,463,282 | 1,548,197 | 1,711,077 |
| Mules and asses | 49,618 | 57,952 | 66,638 |
| Cattle | 8,584,077 | 8,643,936 | 9,506,626 |
| Goats | 1,006,675 | 1,035,832 | 1,015,682 |
| Sheep | 3,841,340 | 3,186,787 | 2,621,026 |
| Pigs | 2,721,541 | 3,549,700 | 4,682,734 |
| Beehives | 926,312 | 920,640 | 996,139 |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its horses,
for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over the
country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest to the
lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses
are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; those of
Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are also famous.
In Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Southern Tirol, horses are less
numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. The
finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine region; of the Austrian
provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria contain the largest proportion
of cattle. The number of sheep has greatly diminished, but much has
been done in the way of improving the breeds, more particularly in
Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Upper and Lower Austria. The main object
has been the improvement of the wool, and with this object the merino
and other fine-woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound
mostly in Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried
on most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
Southern Tirol and in the Kustenland, and the average annual yield is
5,000,000 lb. of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source
of revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.
_Fisheries._--The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are
divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old
standing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of
Dalmatia and of the Kustenland constitute an important source of
wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, with
a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the average annual
catch realizes L240,000.
In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
constitutes a large source of income.
_Minerals._--In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception
of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides the noble
metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness
in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both pit coal
and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins of
petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are found
zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium,
uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. There are also
marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, potter's clay, and
precious stones. It is therefore natural that mining operations should
have been carried out in Austria from the earliest times, as, for
instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, which had
already been worked during the Celtic and Romanic period. Famous
through the middle ages were also the works, especially for the
extraction of gold and silver, carried out in Bohemia and Moravia,
whose early mining regulations, for instance those of Iglau, were
adopted in other countries. But the great industrial development of
the 19th century, with its growing necessity for fuel, has brought
about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields of the country, and
to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output of any mineral
products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction of coal, it
is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was about 150,000 tons; in
1875, or only after half a century, the output has become 100 times
greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while in 1900 it was 32,500,000
tons. Coal is found in nearly every province of Austria, with the
exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the richest coal-fields are in
Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and Carniola in the order named.
Iron ores are found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper
Austria, the Kustenland and Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in
Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found
in Bohemia, Salzburg and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in
Carniola, which after Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe.
Lead is extracted in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for
tin in the whole of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in
Galicia, Tirol and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia
and Salzburg. Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also
raised. Rock-salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is
produced in Salzburg, Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted
in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and
antimony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured marbles
exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry products
throughout Austria in 1875 was L5,000,000. The number of persons
employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting works in the
same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining products
throughout Austria in 1902 was L10,500,000, and the value of the
product of the foundries was L3,795,000. Of this amount L3,150,000
represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. The increase
in the value of the mining products during the period 1892-1902 was
40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces in the same
period was 35%. The number of persons employed in 1902 in mining was
140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the extraction of salt, 7963.
The value of the chief mining products of Austria in 1903 was: Brown
coal (21,808,583 tons), L4,182,516; coal (12,145,000 tons),
L4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), L615,273; lead ores, L135,965;
silver ores, L119,637; quicksilver ores, L92,049; graphite, L78,437;
tin ores, L78,275; copper ores, L22,119; manganese ores, L5368; gold
ores, L4407; asphalt, L2250; alum and vitriol slate, L992. The
production of petroleum was 660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons.
The value of the principal products of the smelting furnaces in 1903
was: Iron (955,543 tons), L2,970,866; coke, L862,137; zinc (metallic),
L174,344; silver, L141,594; copper, L57,542; sulphuric acid, L8488;
copper vitriol, L5710; mineral colours, L5565; lead, L5067; tin,
L4566; gold, L878; iron vitriol, L603; litharge, L384; quicksilver,
L218; coal briquettes, L92,000.
_Industry._--The manufactures of Austria were much developed during
the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a whole
cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses many
favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It possesses an
abundance of raw materials, of fuel--both mineral and wood,--of metals
and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great and nourishing
industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as producers of motive
power. It is besides densely populated, and has an adequate supply of
cheap labour, while the undeveloped industries of the Balkan states
also offer a ready market for its products. The glass manufacture in
Bohemia is very old, and has kept up its leading position in the
markets of the world up to the present day. Industrial activity is
greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Silesia, Moravia and
Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and Bukovina it is almost non-existent.
The principal branches of manufactures are, the textile industry, the
metallurgic industries; brewing and distilling; leather, paper and
sugar; glass, porcelain and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and
musical instruments.
The textile industry in all its branches--cotton, woollen, linen,
silk, flax and hemp--is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia,
Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which has
made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical looms
increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered in 1902
about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at work was
about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile factories with
337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture of cotton goods
is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, which can be
considered as the Lancashire of Austria, Lower Austria between the
Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are
manufactured in the above places, and besides in Moravia, at Brunn and
at Iglau; in Silesia; and at Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also
distinguished for its manufacture of shawls. The coarser kind of
woollen goods are manufactured all over the country, principally in
the people's houses as a home industry. The most important places for
the linen industry are in Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and
Silesia, while the commoner kinds of linen are mostly produced as a
home industry by the peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The
manufacture of ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being
carried on principally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the
Bohemian Erzgebirge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is
especially developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes and
oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and
Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in Vienna,
while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern Tirol,
and to a smaller extent in the Kustenland.
The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches of
industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually
in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel
manufactures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower
Austria, Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The
most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files,
wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails,
iron furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its
iron manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of
machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway
engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague,
Brunn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways
is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for
sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the
largest yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the
principal are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and
in Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially
_Packfong_ or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at
Berndorf in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are
principally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and
Prague. Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical
instruments. In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a
leading part amongst European states, the principal places of
production being Vienna, Prague, Koniggratz, Graslitz and Schonbach.
The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, and
is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the best
quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture of
earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain
industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a
world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, and is
principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna
and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, and the
gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. The
manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and is
very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production of
ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The industry in
paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal seats being in
Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of food-stuffs, besides
milling, and other flour products, the principal industry is the
manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry is almost
exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. It
has attained such large proportions that large districts in those
provinces have been converted from wheat-growing districts into fields
for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively carried on,
and the beer produced is of a good quality. The largest brewing
establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, and large breweries are
also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, whose products enjoy a
great reputation abroad. There were in Austria 1341 breweries, which
produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. in 1902-1903. Distilling is
carried on on a large scale in Galicia, Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and
Lower Austria; the number of distilleries being 1257, which produced
30,435,812 gallons of spirit. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs
are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture as well as the
growth of tobacco is a government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco
factories with over 40,000 work-people, the largest establishment
being at Hainburg in Lower Austria. Other important branches of
industry are the manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia;
petroleum refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various
petroleum products; the manufacture of buttons; printing,
lithographing, engraving, and map-making, especially in Vienna, &c.
In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 were
labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little over
7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.
_Commerce._--Austria forms together with Hungary one customs and
commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Owing to its situation, the bulk of the
Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland navigable
rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the commercial
interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic coast is very
small.
_Commercial Navy._--The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company is
the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers of
165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged in the
foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was 1,448,764
tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under foreign flags;
the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same period was
1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 866,591 under
foreign flags.
_Government._--Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional (limited)
monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. The succession to
the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male
line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; and failing this, in the
female line. The monarch must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church.
The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary, but except for having
the same monarch and a few common affairs (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two
states are quite independent of one another. The emperor has the supreme
command over the armed forces of the country, has the right to confer
degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives of pardon for criminals.
He is the head of the executive power, and shares the legislative power
with the Reichsrat; and justice is administered in his name. The
constitution of Austria is based upon the following statutes:--(1) the
Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the
19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; (2)
the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the 1st of August
1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of Austria; (3) the Diploma
of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, by which
the constitutional form of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of
the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the
provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws of the 21st
of December 1867, which contain the exposition and guarantee of the
civil and political rights of the citizen, the organization of justice,
the organization and method of election for the Reichsrat, &c.
The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, at whose head
is the minister-president. There are eight ministries, namely, the
ministry of the interior, of national defence, of worship and
instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, of justice, and of
railways. There are, further, two ministries, without portfolio, for
Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration in the different provinces
is carried out by governors or stadtholders (_Statthalter_), to whom are
subordinate the heads of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided
in 1900, and of the 33 towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns
which have also the management of the civil administration. Local
self-government of the provinces, districts and communities is also
granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, the
autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the provincial
committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of the
communities are discharged by an elected communal council.
The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which constitute
Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of two Houses: an Upper
House (the _Herrenhaus_), and a Lower House (the _Abgeordnetenhaus_).
The Upper House is composed of (1) princes of the imperial house, who
are of age (14 in 1907); (2) of the members of the large landed
nobility, to which the emperor had conferred this right, and which is
hereditary in their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8
prince-bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for
distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has undergone
considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by the various
modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, 1873, 1892, 1896 and
1907. The general spirit of those modifications was to broaden the
electoral basis, and to extend the franchise to a larger number of
citizens. The law of the 26th of January 1907 granted universal
franchise to Austrian male citizens over twenty-four years of age, who
have resided for a year in the place of election. The Lower House
consists of 516 members, elected for a period of six years. The members
receive payment for their services, as well as an indemnity for
travelling expenses. A bill to become law must pass through both Houses,
and must receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to
summon the Reichsrat annually.
According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February 1861, local diets
have been created for the legislation of matters of local interest.
These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, and their membership
varies from 22 members, which compose the diet of Gorz and Gradisca to
the 242 members which constitute that of Bohemia. They assemble annually
and are composed of members elected for a period of six years, and of
members _ex-officio_, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the
respective provinces, and the rector of the local university.
_Religion._--Religious toleration was secured throughout the Habsburg
dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but Protestants
were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
_Protestantenpatent_ of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation
of the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
religious bodies _recognized by law_ of freedom of worship, the
management of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and
disposal of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense,
"established," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the extreme
claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.'s time resulted,
under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), in what was practically
a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right to tax church
property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the circulation of
papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat of August 18,
1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent reversed; but this
agreement soon became a dead letter and was formally denounced by the
Austrian government after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
infallibility.
Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were Roman
Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities,
606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly in Bukovina and
Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in Bukovina. The Protestants,
who in the 16th century comprised 90% of the population, are now only
1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them were returned as belonging to the
Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), 128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed).
Other Christian Confessions in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian
Brethren) in Bohemia, Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the
Russian Skoptsi) in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of
the population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into eight
provinces, seven of the Latin rite--Vienna, Prague, Lemberg, Salzburg,
Olmutz, Gorz and Zara--with 23 bishoprics, and one of the Greek rite
(Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian bishopric of Lemberg and
the Austrian part of the archdiocese of Breslau are under the
immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The Greek Orthodox Church has
one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and two bishoprics. There are 559
communities of the Jewish religion (253 in Galicia, and 255 in
Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church,
541 monasteries with 7775 monks, and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns;
while the Greek Orthodox Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members.
The Evangelical Church, according to the constitution granted by
imperial decree on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January
6, 1866 and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis,
being administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn,
subject to the Supreme Church Council (_K.K. Oberkirchenrat_) at
Vienna, the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction of
the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.
_Education._--The system of elementary schools dates from the time of
Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law the
control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect and
maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
_Volksschulen_ (national or primary schools) and _Burgerschulen_
(higher elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the
age of six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious
instruction is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a
special grant is made or a teacher _ad hoc_ appointed in the higher
classes (law of June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed
which, if fulfilling the legal requirements, may be accorded the
validity of public primary schools. The language of instruction is
that of the nationality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the
schools the instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in
other Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools with
78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares
favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were 14,257
elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by 2,050,808
pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age actually
attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and Salzburg
nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the monarchy
the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total population of
Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only read. In the number
of illiterates are included children under seven years of age. For the
training of teachers of elementary schools there were in 1900 54
institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. In these training
colleges, as also in the secondary or "middle" schools
(_Mittelschulen_), religious instruction is also in the hands of the
Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, the state
must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant pupils
numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually refuse to take
more than 19 Protestants in consequence).
Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational
establishments exist in Austria: "middle" schools (_Mittelschulen_);
"high" schools (_Hochschulen_); professional and technical schools
(_Fachlehranstalten_ and _Gewerbeschulen_). The "middle" schools
include the classical schools (_Gymnasien_), "modern" schools with
some Latin teaching (_Realgymnasien_), and modern schools simply
(Realschulen)--In 1903 there were 202 _Gymnasien_, 19 _Realgymnasien_
and 117 _Realschulen_, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
"high" schools include the universities and the technical high schools
(_Technische Hochschulen_). Of state universities there are
eight:--Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and Czernowitz, in
which German is the language of instruction; Prague (Bohemian) with
Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as the language of
instruction. Each university has four faculties--theology, law and
political science, medicine, and philosophy. In Czernowitz, however,
the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since 1905 an Italian faculty of
law has been added to the university of Innsbruck. The theological
faculties are all Roman Catholic, except Czernowitz, where the
theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. All the universities are
maintained by the state. The number of professors and lecturers was
about 1596 in 1903; while the number of students was 17,498.
_Justice._--The judicial authorities in Austria are:--(1) the county
courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, 74 in
number, to which are attached the jury courts,--both these courts are
courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial courts, 9 in
number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, Zara, Prague,
Brunn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours of appeal from the lower
courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts in their
jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of justice and court of cassation
in Vienna. The judicial organization is independent of the executive
power. There are also special courts for commercial, industrial,
shipping, military and other matters. There is also the court of the
Empire at Vienna, which has the power to decide in case of conflict
between different authorities.
_Finance._--The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the
following figures:--
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| | 1885 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| Expenditure | L44,121,600 | L55,396,916 | L66,003,494 | L74,013,000 |
| Revenue | L43,714,666 | L57,446,091 | L66,020,475 | L74,079,000 |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs
duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks receipts,
railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains and
mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and
personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and the
latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial and
industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly audited
accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on
investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly,
stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt
monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and
cattle for slaughtering.
The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general
national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly
borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone.
The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions
sterling:--
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 1885 | 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 45. | 88.23 | 119.60 | 140.68 | 167.91 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was L156,724,000, an increase
since 1900 of L16,044,000. This large increase is due to the great
expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, harbour
works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.
_Railways._--As regards internal communications, Austria is provided
with an extensive network of railways, the industrial provinces being
specially favoured. This has been accomplished in spite of the
engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature of the
country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. The
construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, for instance,
was the first mountain railway built in the European continent, and
marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first railway laid down in
Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and Kerschbaum, over a distance of
40 m., and was at first used for horse tramway. The first steam
railway was opened in 1837 over a distance of about 10 m. between
Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. From the first, the policy of
the Austrian government was to construct and to work the railways
itself; and in granting concessions to private companies it stipulated
among its conditions the reversionary right of the state, whereby the
line becomes the property of the state without compensation after the
lapse of the period of concession. With various modifications,
according to its financial means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by
both building railways itself, and encouraging private companies to
build. In 1905 the total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m.,
of which 5017 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m.
belonged to private companies, but were worked by the state.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und
Bild_ (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), _Die osterreichisch-ungarische
Monarchic_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), _Die osterreichische Monarchic in
Wort und Bild_ (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and _Die Volker
Osterreich-Ungarns_ (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan,
"Osterreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Landerkunde von
Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalities en
Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Osterreich-ungarisches
Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., _Ban und
Bild Osterreichs_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, _Die
Geologie_ (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the
central statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of
the ministry of commerce, appearing annually. (O. Br.)