IMMIGRATION
In every other section of the United States the element of the population
descended from English colonists is flanked by, and in some places
submerged by, a body of European immigrants; and every state is penetrated
by great numbers of people from other states. Considering that the South
has contributed to other sections of the Union about two and a half
millions of people, the return current from the North has been
comparatively small. "Why is it," asks the Louisville _Courier Journal_,
"that so few of these home-seekers come South where the lands are cheaper
and better, where the climate is more congenial, and where it is much
easier to live and become independent from the soil?" Among the
inhabitants of the Southern States were enumerated in 1900 only 400,000
people born in the North, of whom 250,000 originated in the Northeastern
states from Maine to Pennsylvania, and 150,000 came from the Middle
Western group extending from Ohio to Kansas; but this 400,000 people are
so widely scattered that outside of Texas and Florida there are few groups
of Northern people. Some farmers are said to be coming from the
Northwestern states into tide-water Virginia; others to Baldwin County, in
southern Alabama; others to northern Mississippi; and to Lake Charles,
Louisiana; chiefly with a view to the trucking industry. Two or three
communities made up wholly of Northern people can be mentioned, such as
Thorsby in Alabama and Fitzgerald in Georgia, which last is apparently the
only flourishing experiment of the kind.
Of the 400,000 Northerners in the South the greater number are in the
cities and manufacturing towns, as business men, bosses and skilled
laborers in the mills, in professions and mechanical trades. As a rule
they do not adhere to each other, and many of them seem to wish to hide
their origin. Why is it that there is a flourishing Southern Club in New
York, and smaller ones in other cities, yet no Northern club anywhere in
the South? The Southern explanation is that the Northerner who settles in
the South, within a few weeks discovers that the convictions of a lifetime
on all Southern questions are without foundation; and he takes on the
color of the soil upon which he lives. If it be true that the Southern man
and woman in the North continues to feel himself Southern to the end of
his days, while the Northern man in the South tries to identify himself
completely with the community in which he means to stay permanently,
perhaps there is some explanation other than the impregnability of the
Southern position.
The Southern emigrant to the North finds no door shut to him because he
comes from elsewhere; his origin is interesting to the people he meets;
and unless very violent in temper and abusive to the section of his
adoption, he may criticise his home and set forth the superiority of the
Southland without making enemies. The South, on the contrary, expects
people who are to be elected to clubs and become full members of the
community to agree with the majority; and on the negro question insists
that all Whites stand together. While courteous to the occasional
visitor, notwithstanding his presumed difference of view, the South is not
hospitable to those who plume themselves upon being Northern; and as a
community has shown decided hostility to the Northern teachers and
organizers of negro schools, and even of schools for the Poor Whites. The
Northerner who stands out on the question of the Negro's rights not only
has seven evenings of hot discussion upon his hands every week, but finds
himself put into the category of the "nigger lover," which includes not
only the white teachers of Negroes, but a President of the United States.
Nevertheless, there is a strong Northern influence in the South, exercised
partly through Southern men who have, either as students or as business
men, become familiar with the North; partly through the Northern drummers;
partly through Northern business and professional men, including many
Northern teachers and college professors, who are scattered through the
South, and who in general support the principle of the right of discussion
and the privilege of differing from the majority, for which the best
element in the South contests with vigor.
Small as is the number of Northerners in the South, the number of aliens
is not much larger. In the whole United States there were in 1900,
10,500,000 foreign-born, of whom only 727,000 were in the whole South;
while the lower South from North Carolina to Texas contained 303,000, and
the five states from South Carolina to Mississippi only 45,000. Of the
16,000,000 additional persons of foreign parentage in the Union the South
had again 1,500,000. That is, with a third of the total population of the
country, the South contains about one eleventh of the foreigners and
children of foreigners. These general figures may be enforced by the
statistics of particular cities. Baltimore and Boston have each a
population rising 600,000; but in 1900 there were 69,000 foreigners in
Baltimore against 197,000 in the Northern city. New Orleans and Milwaukee
are not far apart in total numbers, but Milwaukee had 90,000 foreigners to
30,000 in New Orleans. Atlanta, with a population of near 100,000, had
only about 3,000 foreign-born people; Saint Paul with a similar population
had 47,000.
This condition and its causes go very far back. When immigration began on
a large scale about 1820 the Northern states were nearer to the old world,
had better and more direct communication, and populous cities were already
established; hence the foreign current set that way. No doubt the
immigrant disliked to go to a region where labor with the hands was
thought to be menial, but his real objection to the South was not so much
slavery as the lack of opportunity for progressive white people. After the
Civil War cleared the way and the South began to develop its resources
there was a demand for just such people as the foreign immigrants to work
in sawmills and shops; and in addition they were eagerly coveted as a
source of field labor to compete with and perhaps supplant the Negro. All
the Northern states have encouraged and some have fostered immigration;
and the South has recently reached out in the same direction, though with
caution. As Senator Williams, of Mississippi, puts it: "Nor, last, would I
neglect foreigners of the right types. Resort would have to be had to them
very largely because of the fact that our own country could not furnish
immigrants in sufficient numbers."
During the last twenty years some systematic effort has been made to
attract foreigners to the South; some of the Southern railroads, notably
the Illinois Central, have attempted to stimulate immigration, in order
to fill up the vacant lands and increase railroad business. Private
agencies are at work in Northern cities, which try to direct immigrants
southward. Immigration societies have been formed, and a great effort was
made in 1907 to induce a current of immigration. A Southern State
Immigration Commission was established under the chairmanship of the late
Samuel Spencer, President of the Southern Railroad, and there are several
similar local societies. Following an example originally set by some of
the Northwestern states seventy years ago, several states appointed
commissioners or bureaus of immigration, particularly North Carolina,
South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The most active of all these
bodies is the State Immigration Bureau of Louisiana, which has busily
distributed Italians and Bulgarians through the State. The Federal
Government has taken a hand in steering foreigners southward, through a
bureau in New York which puts before newly arrived immigrants the
opportunities of the South. By this bureau and by liberal and even
strained construction of the statutes the Federal authorities have aided
in the effort to bring the South to the attention of the incomer and to
facilitate his distribution.
In 1906 South Carolina took a part in the process by agreeing practically
to act as the agent of the planters and mill owners of the state, who
raised a fund of twenty thousand dollars which, to avoid the Federal
statute against the coming in of immigrants under contract to find them
work, was turned over to the State authorities. They thereupon made a
contract with the North German Lloyd Steamship Company to import several
immigrants whose passage was paid out of the fund. In consequence, in
November, 1906, appeared in the harbor of Charleston the steamer
_Wittekind_, having on board 450 steerage passengers, an arrival which was
declared to be the first successful undertaking to promote foreign
immigration from Europe to the South Atlantic section of the United States
in half a century. These immigrants--137 Belgians, 140 Austrians, and 160
Galicians--were fêted by the Charleston people and triumphantly
distributed throughout the State. Part of them were not mill hands at all;
others had been misinformed as to the scale of wages and conditions; one
of them thought it monstrous that he should have been a week in South
Carolina without ever seeing a bottle of beer. They wrote home such
accounts of their unhappiness that the steamship company declined to
forward any more immigrants, and Mr. Gadsden was sent by the State as a
special commissioner to Europe to investigate. He reported in 1907 that
the people were writing home to say that they did not like their work or
housing. He diagnosed the trouble as follows: "Our efforts have been
almost entirely expended in inducing immigrants to come to the South, and
we have thought little or nothing of how the immigrant is to be treated
after he has come in our midst; ... it seems to me that we have entirely
overlooked our industrial conditions, namely, that the wage scale
throughout the South is based on negro labor, which means cheap labor ...
our attitude throughout the South to the white laborer will have to be
materially altered before we can expect to have the immigrant satisfied to
remain as a laborer with us."
The only considerable groups of foreigners living together in the South
are a small German colony in Charleston and a larger one in New Orleans, a
body of Germans in central Texas (a settlement dating back to the Civil
War), and a few thousand Italian laborers in the lower Mississippi valley
who have been brought there chiefly through private agencies in New
Orleans and New York. Some Slavs have been introduced into the lower South
where they are collectively known as "Bohunks"; and a few efforts have
been made to bring in the Chinese.
For the slenderness of the immigrant movement there are two principal
reasons: the first is that the South does not like immigrants, and the
second is that the immigrants do not like the South. One constantly
encounters a sharp hostility to foreigners of every kind. The Georgia
Farmers' Union in 1907 unanimously voted against foreign immigration,
because it would bring undesirable people who would compete with the
Georgians for factory labor and would raise so much cotton that it would
lower the price. A Texan lawyer in a Pullman car painted for the writer a
gloomy picture of the unhappy condition of the North, which is obliged to
accept "the scum of the earth" from foreign countries and is thereby
overrun with Syrians, Russian Jews, and Sicilians, who are not capable of
becoming American citizens and fill the slums of the cities; the South, in
his judgment, was free from such difficulties. The _Manufacturers' Record_
of Baltimore is fearful of "masses of elements living largely unto
themselves, speaking foreign tongues and kept alien to the country through
having no contact with its people and its institutions save only through
their own leaders. Such an immigration, it is easily understood from
experience in other parts of the country, might become a dangerous fester
upon the body politic." A correspondent of the _Richmond Times Despatch_
objects to immigrants because they will prevent the reëstablishment of the
labor conditions which existed before the war, and will interfere with the
plantation system; and he especially deprecates any effort "to try any of
the races that have become inoculated with union notions, and who are so
quick to overestimate their contributions to the success of the
enterprises upon which they work and demand wages accordingly."
Another argument is that of competition. As a Southern writer puts it:
"The temptation of cheap alien labor from abroad is obvious as one of the
ways in which a home population may be dispossessed. When it ceases to
fill the rank and file with its own sons ... it ceases to be master or
possessor of the country." From another source the Negro is warned that:
"When the European who has been used to hard work begins to make a bale
and a half of cotton to where the negro makes but half a bale, ... then
the farm labor will pass from the hands of the negro forever."
On this question of immigration, as on many other matters, there is a
divergence between the responsible and the irresponsible Whites, or rather
between the large property owners and people who look to the development
of the whole section, and the small farmers and white laborers. The
criticism of the foreigner comes chiefly from the people who hardly know
him; from the town loafer or the small plantation manager who "hates the
Dago worse than a nigger." Between such people and the few foreigners
occasional "scraps" occur, and there have been instances of Italians or
Bohunks who have been driven out by main force because their neighbors did
not like them.
To be sure the foreigner in the North is not unacquainted with brickbats;
but the real question is not whether the Southerner likes him, but whether
he likes the South. He is under no such restraint as, for instance, in
Buenos Ayres, where, if he is not satisfied, he must steam back six
thousand miles to Europe; trains leave every part of the South every day
bound for the North. Hence, as soon as the problem of getting the
immigrant to the South is solved, the next point is how to keep him there.
Of the immigrants brought over by the _Wittekind_ in 1906, at the end of a
year the larger part had left South Carolina. The authorities of the State
were guiltless of holding out untrue inducements; but the immigrants did
not expect to be charged their rail fares from Charleston to the place of
labor; they found the wages less than they had supposed; sometimes less
than they had received at home; they were obliged to deal with the
company's store, instead of being paid in cash. Especially they complained
that farm hands were not so "intimately received by their employers" as
their cousins were in the Northwest. When the _Wittekind_ was ready to
sail from Bremen two hundred people who expected to join her refused to
go, because they had just heard of the race riot in Atlanta and thought
the South could not be a pleasant place. Rumors of peonage, and a few
actual cases, had also a deterring effect.
Nevertheless, there are a score or more of little agricultural communities
in which a considerable part of the people are foreigners. Most of these
people are Italians, that being an immigrating race accustomed to field
labor in a warm climate, and traditionally inured to the peasant system.
As these people bring little capital, most of them are assembled on some
plantation which undertakes on the usual terms to advance them necessities
until their crop can be made. It costs in central Louisiana about $60 per
head to get Italians, and that is deducted out of their first year's
earnings. In some cases the Italians come out as railroad and levee hands
and afterward bring over their families. At Alexandria, La., in the
neighborhood of Shreveport, at Valdese, N. C., and elsewhere, are
independent Italian villages.
The most successful plantation worked by Italian labor is undoubtedly
Sunny Side, founded by the late Austin Corbin on very rich land in
southeastern Arkansas. It dates back to 1898; the original plan was to
subdivide the estate and sell it to the immigrants; and at one time there
were perhaps fifteen hundred to two thousand Italians there, many of whom
were not farmers and soon grew tired of the place. At one time they were
reduced to less than forty families, but people have drifted back and new
ones have come in, until in 1908 there were over one hundred and twenty
families. They are sober, industrious, and profitable both to themselves
and to the plantation owners, who have placed the same kind of labor on
other plantations and would gladly extend the system if they could get the
people.
Some other race elements are to be found in the South; a few Greeks have
made their appearance; Bulgarians, Hungarians, and "Austrians" (probably
Slavs) may be found in Louisiana; but the greater number of recent
accessions are laborers or small business men, who play a very small part
in the economic and social development of the region.
This whole question of the foreigner is in close relation to the negro
problem. Even where the "Dagoes" are brought into close contact with the
Negroes, they neither make nor meddle with them; but the main reason for
interest in their coming is the scarcity and the ineffectiveness of negro
labor. If the number of foreigners should largely increase, there is
little doubt that they would join in the combination of the white race
against the Negro. On the other hand they furnish a more regular field
labor than the planter is otherwise able to employ, and when put alongside
the Negro sometimes they stimulate him to unwonted effort, as witness the
experience of an old cotton hand related to A. H. Stone: "I 'lowed to
Marthy, when I heered dem Dagoes had done bought the jinin' tract, dat I
was gwine ter show de white folks dat here was one nigger what wouldn' lay
down in front er no man livin', when it come to makin' cotton. En I done
it, too, plumb till pickin' time. It blowed me, too, sho's you bawn,
blowed me mightily. But jis ez I thought I had um bested, what you reckon
happened? I'z a natchel-bawn cotton picker, myself, and so is Marthy, and
right dar is whar I 'lowed I had um. But 'tother night when me and de old
'oman 'uz drivin' back fum church, long erbout 12 o'clock, en er full
moon, what you reckon I seen, boss? Fo' Gawd in Heaven, dat Dago en his
wife en fo' chillum wuz pickin' cotton by de moonlight. I do' 'no how it
looks to you, but I calls dat er underhanded trick myself!"