LITERATURE: HEBREW AND ENGLISH. PERIODICALS.
Curiosities of early American Jewish literature which belong
to the domain of bibliography――Rabbinical works: Responses,
commentaries and Homiletics――Hebrew works of a modern
character――Ehrlich’s Mikra Ki-Peshuto and Eisenstein’s Ozar
Israel――Neo-Hebrew Poets and literati――Jewish writers in the
vernacular――“Ghetto Stories”――Writers on non-Jewish subjects――
Scientific works――Writers on Jewish subjects and contributors
to the “Jewish Encyclopedia”――A. S. Freidus――Non-Jewish writers
about Jews――Daly――Frederic, Davitt and Hapgood――Journalists,
editors and publishers――The Ochs brothers; the Rosewaters――
Pulitzer and de Young of Jewish descent――The Jewish
denominational press in English――The “Sanatorium.”
Jewish literature in the New World, as in almost all countries of the
Old World, begins with Hebrew works of a religious nature, and branches
out on one side into the special dialect which is spoken by the Jews
among themselves, and on the other――into the vernacular. The strictly
religious work is not the only one written in Hebrew for any length
of time, for there is always a movement towards secular knowledge,
which usually begins with a tendency to study Hebrew for its scientific
value rather than for its sacredness. In modern times this process
of development can be traced clearly in Germany, Holland, Poland and
Russia, as well as in America, although here we are yet at the very
beginning of our literary activity, and what has been accomplished
until the present time may in the future be of more interest to the
bibliographer than to the historian of literature. All that was written
here by Jews for Jews in Hebrew, Judeo-Spanish and English until
about the middle of the nineteenth century, including the works and
periodicals that have been mentioned in the preceding chapters, while
the authors or editors were under consideration, mostly belongs to the
domain of curiosities.[62] It was only in the second half of the last
century, when the number of Orthodox Jews and of those able to read
modern Hebrew was fast increasing, that a serious attempt to write
books for them was made in this country.
The strictly rabbinical works, like “responses” on disputed points of
religious law or practice, commentaries on parts of the Talmud, and
homiletic works, represent the continuation of the most ancient form
of Jewish literature, and deserve to be treated first. According to Mr.
Eisenstein, the honor of being the author of the first book of American
“responsa” belongs to Rabbi ♦Joseph Moses Aronson (d. in New York,
1874), author of _Matai Moshe_, a work which, like numerous others
by orthodox rabbis of this country, was printed in Jerusalem. Other
rabbinical works, of which there were written in this country a
larger number than is generally supposed, include _Heker Halakah_ (New
York, 1886), by Rabbi Aaron Spivak, formerly of Omsk, Russia; _Sefer
Har-El_ on tractate Bikkurim of the Jerusalem Talmud by Rabbi Abraham
Eliezer Alperstein (Chicago, 1886); _Shoel Ke-Inyan_ (Jerusalem,
1895), by Rabbi Shalom Elhanan Joffe (b. in Russia, 1845); _ha-poteah,
we-hahotem_, by Rabbi Benjamin Gitelson of Cleveland (New York,
1898); _Torat Meir_ on Rashi’s Talmudical commentary, by Meir Freiman
(New York, 1904); _Yegiot Mordecai_ on the Talmud by Mordecai Garfil
(Piotrkow, 1907); _Bet Abraham_, by Rabbi Abraham Eber Hirshowitz
(Jerusalem, 1908). The venerable Rabbi A. J. G. Lesser is the author of
Bet ha-Midrash (Chicago, 1897), which contains homiletics and halaka,
and Rabbi Moses Simon Sivitz of Pittsburg (b. 1855) is the author of
four books on various rabbinical subjects, all printed in Jerusalem.
The number of works on “derush” or homiletics is still larger, and
includes ha-Emet ha-Ibriah (Chicago, 1877) and _Or Haye Lebabot_ (New
York, 1885), by Jehiel Judah Levinsohn (d. in New York, 1895); _Ateret
Zebi_, by Rabbi Zebi Lass (New York, 1902); _Nehmad le-Mare_, by Zeeb
Dob Wittenstein (Cleveland, 1903); _Shebil ha-Zohab_, by Rabbi Baruch
Kohen (New York, 1903); _Maaseh Hosheb_, by Rabbi H. S. Brodsky of
Newark (New York, 1907). _Teome Zebiah_ (Chicago, 1891), by Baruch
Ettelson (1815–91), on some difficult passages in Agadah, and _Shaare
Deah_ (New York, 1899), by Rabbi Shabbetai Sofer, belong to the same
class, though of a somewhat different nature.
The first substantial Hebrew book printed in America, _Abne Joshua_
(New York, 1860), by Joshua Falk ben Mordecai ha-Kohen, though
nominally a rabbinical book, actually belongs to the more secular class
of literature, which borders on _Haskalah_. The same can also be said
of Holzman’s _Emek Rephaim_ (New York, 1865), and perhaps also of _Tub
Taam_ in defense of the Jewish method of slaughtering cattle for Kosher
food, by Aaron Zebi Friedman of Stavisk (1822–66), which is said to
have been translated into English, German and French.[63] _Ha-Mahnaim_
(New York, 1888), by Mayer Rabinowitz, and Wolf Schur’s _Nezah Israel_
come nearer to the spirit of modernity or “enlightenment,” while
works like _ha-Dat we-ha-Torah_ (New York, 1887) and _Meziat ha-Shem
we-ha-Olam_ (ibid, 1893), by Shalom Joseph Silberstein (b. in Kovno,
1846; a. 1881), go far in the direction of free thinking. Valuable
contributions to the Science of Judaism were made by Nehemiah Samuel
Libowitz (b. in Kalna, 1862; a. 1881), author of a biography of Leon
Modena (New York, 1901) and other works; by Benzion Eisenstadt, author
of _Hakme Israel be-America_ (ibid, 1903); by Arnold B. Ehrlich (b. in
Wlodowka, Russia, 1848), author of a remarkable commentary on the Bible
which he calls _Mikra Ki-Peshuto_ (Berlin); by Abraham H. Rosenberg
(b. in Pinsk, 1838; a. 1891), of whose _Ozar he-Shemot_, a Cyclopedia
of Biblical literature, four volumes were issued in New York; and by
Judah David Eisenstein, a prolific writer in Hebrew and English, who
is now editing the _Ozar Israel_, a Hebrew Encyclopedia, of which seven
volumes have appeared, and to which the editor is himself the principal
contributor of articles. Rabbi Mordecai Zeeb (Max) Raisin (b. 1879) is
the author of a short “History of the Jews in America” in Hebrew, which
appeared in Warsaw, Poland, in 1902.
Of literature in the restricted sense, or fiction, hardly anything
worth mentioning was written in Hebrew in America. But the study and
writing of neo-Hebrew cannot be thought of without the production of
poetry, and some collection of Hebrew songs possessing considerable
merit were published in this country, mostly by authors who acquired
their reputation abroad before arriving in this country. The poetical
works of Naphtali Hirz Imber, Menahem Mendel Dolitzki and Isaac
Rabinowitz (“Ish Kovno,” d. in New York, 1900, aged 54) belong to
that class, and the same can be said of the quasi-scientific works of
Joseph Loeb Sossnitz (1837–1910) and Ephraim Deinard (b. 1846), who has
recently compiled a list containing about six hundred names of works in
Hebrew and Yiddish which appeared in the United States. There were also
some earlier writers of Hebrew poetry in America, notably Moses Aaron
Schreiber, who composed the Centennial poem _Minhat Yehudah_ in 1876,
and the hazzan Hayyim Weinshel (1834–1900), author of _Nitei Naamonim_
(New York, 1891). Gerson Rosenzweig, the epigramatist and author of the
excellent Talmudical parody, _Maseket America_, who has also translated
the American national songs into Hebrew, came here a young man, and his
talent is more distinctively American.
The Hebrew periodical literature, which begins with Hirsch Bernstein’s
_ha-Zofah be-Erez ha-Hadashah_ (1870–76), which was mentioned in a
former chapter, was never securely established in this country up
to the present time. Most of the Hebrew Journals or magazines, like
Deinard’s weekly _ha-Leomi_ and Rosenzweig’s monthly _Kadimah_, existed
for less than a year. The _Hekal ha-Ibriyah_, edited by N. B. ♦Ettelson
and S. L. Marcus in Chicago, appeared from 1877 to 1879 as a supplement
to their Judeo-German _Israelitische Presse_. Michael Levi Rodkinson
(Frumkin, d. in New York, 1904, aged 59), who later prepared a
translation of parts of the Babylonian Talmud into English, edited his
weekly _ha-Kol_ in New York for about two years (1889–90). Wolf Schur’s
_he-Pisgah_, which was later called _ha-Tehiyah_, appeared irregularly
in New York, later in Baltimore, and still later in Chicago, during
the last decade of the nineteenth century. The monthly _Ner ha-Maarabi_,
edited by Abraham H. Rosenberg and later by Samuel Schwarzberg,
existed less than three years (1895–97), and another monthly, _ha-Modia
la-Hadashim_, edited by Herman Rosenthal and Abraham H. Rosenberg
(1900–1), had a still shorter life. The weekly _ha-Ibri_, which was
founded by K. H. Sarasohn and edited by Gerson Rosenzweig, appeared
regularly from 1892 to 1898. Moses Goldman (b. 1863; a. 1890) began the
publication of his _ha-Leom_ as a monthly in 1901; it later appeared
for several years as a weekly and afterwards for a short time as a
daily. Since its suspension America had no other Hebrew periodical
until the neo-Hebrew litterateur, Reuben Brainin, began to publish
in New York (1911) his weekly _ha-Deror_, of which fifteen numbers
appeared. Rosenzweig’s monthly _ha-Deborah_ and Rabbi T. Isaacson’s
_ha-Rabbani_, also a monthly, are now the Hebrew periodicals appearing
in the United States.
* * * * *
The contribution of Jews to American literature consists mostly of
descriptions of Jewish life, and of what has lately became known as
“ghetto stories.” Emma Lazarus, whose work was described in a preceding
chapter, did not confine herself to Jewish themes, and was followed in
this respect by other Jewish writers of her sex, like Mary Moss, the
critic; Martha Morton, the playwright, and Emily Gerson Goldsmith, the
author of Juvenile stories. Annie Nathan Meyer, the founder of Barnard
College (Columbia University, New York), also belongs to this class
of writers; while Martha Wolfenstein (1869–1906) of Cleveland, O.,
belongs to the front rank of the other class of writers who attempted
to depict Jewish life in this country or abroad. To the latter class
belong Herman Bernstein (b. 1876; a. 1893), who writes on Russian
as well as on Jewish subjects; Rudolph Block (b. in New York, 1870),
the journalist, who writes of Jewish life under the pen-name “Bruno
Lessing”; Ezra S. Brudno (b. 1877); Abraham Cahan, the labor leader
and Yiddish journalist; Isaac K. Friedman (b. in Chicago, 1870), and
James Oppenheim (b. in St. Paul, Minn., 1882), who has also written on
other than Jewish subjects. To the same class may be added Rabbi Henry
Iliowizi (b. in Russia, 1850; d. in London, Eng., 1911), who has lived
in the United States more than twenty years and has written poetical
and prose works, mostly on Jewish and Oriental subjects. Bret Harte,
the poet and novelist, was of Jewish descent, but he cannot be
considered a Jewish author.
Illustration: Martha Wolfenstein.
Photo by Elton, Cleveland, O.
The works written on scientific subjects by Jews who have attained
eminence in various branches of knowledge, some of whom were mentioned
in the preceding chapter, are of a comparatively high standard of
value. To these may be added the works of the art critic, Bernhard
Berenson (b. in Wilna, Russia, 1865), who now resides in Italy; of
the anthropologist, Franz Boas (b. in Germany, 1858), of Columbia
University, and of the statistician, Isaac A. Hourwich (b. in Wilna,
1860; a. 1891), who is also an occasional contributor to the Jewish
press. Morris Hillquit (b. in Riga, Russia, 1869; a. 1886), the
Socialist leader and historian of Socialism in the United States,
has likewise often written for various radical periodicals. Arnold W.
Brunner (b. in New York, 1857), the architect, has written works on
“Cottages” and on “Interior Decorations.”
A considerable number of works on a variety of Jewish subjects
were written by American-Jewish scholars. David Werner Amram (b. in
Philadelphia, 1866) wrote _The Jewish Law of Divorce_ (1896); Maurice
Fishberg (b. in Russia, 1872; a. 1890) is the author of _The Jews:
a study of Race and Environment_ (1911); Julius H. Greenstone (b. in
Russia, 1873) wrote on _The Messiah Idea in Jewish History_ (1906);
while Max J. Kohler, Geo. A. Kohut, Henry S. Morais and numerous
others wrote on American-Jewish history in separate works, in the
“Publications” and in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_. Isaac Markens (b.
in New York, 1846) is the author of _The Hebrews in America_ (1888),
whose valuable material, like that contained in the works of the others
mentioned here and in the notes, was utilized in the preparation of
the present work. Abraham Solomon Freidus (b. in Riga, Russia, 1867;
a. 1889), the eminent Jewish bibliographer at the head of the Jewish
department in the New York Public Library, which contains one of
the most valuable collections of Hebraica and Judaica in the world
(donated by Mr. Jacob H. Schiff), is the author of bibliographical
lists of Jewish subjects and of “A Scheme of Classification for
Jewish Literature,” which is of great value to Jewish bibliophiles and
librarians. Alois Kaiser (1840–1908) and William Sparger are authors
of _A Collection of the Principal Melodies of the Synagogue_ (Chicago,
1893), and Platon G. Brounoff (b. in Russia, 1863), the composer, has
published, among other works, a volume of Jewish folk-songs.
The most notable of the books on Jewish subjects written by Gentiles in
the United States is _The Settlement of the Jews in North America_, by
Charles P. Daly (1816–99), which was one of the sources of the present
work. Dr. Madison C. Peters has written several popular and sympathetic
works about the Jews; while Harold Frederic’s _The New Exodus_ (New
York, 1892) gives a vivid description of the conditions in Russia at
the time of the renewed expulsions from Moscow and other places in 1891.
Hutchins Hapgood, author of _The Spirit of the Ghetto_, and Myra Kelly
(Mrs. Allan Macnaughton; d. 1910) are among those who attempted to
describe the Jewish immigrant in his new surroundings in the thickly
settled quarters in the first period after his arrival, when he was in
many respects unintelligible to himself, as well as to others.
As journalists, editors and publishers of newspapers, a number of Jews
have occupied, and still occupy, prominent positions. Mordecai Manuel
Noah was one of the influential newspaper men of New York in his time
(see above p. 162). Edwin de Leon, who has also been mentioned in a
former chapter, was the editor of the _Southern Press_ of Washington,
which was at that time considered the representative organ of the
southern people at the national capital. Barnet Phillips (b. in
Philadelphia, 1828; d. 1905) was for more than thirty years connected
with the _New York Times_, which is now published by Adolph S. Ochs
(b. in Cincinnati, 1858), who married a daughter of Rabbi Isaac M.
Wise. A younger brother, George Washington Ochs (b. in Cincinnati,
1861), is now at the head of the _Public Ledger_ of Philadelphia, and
still another brother, Milton Barlow Ochs (b. in Cincinnati, 1864) was
managing editor of the _Chattanooga Times_ and is now the publisher
of the _Nashville American_. Morris Phillips (1834–1904) was the chief
editor and proprietor of _The New York Home Journal_ for a generation.
Edward Rosewater (b. in Bohemia, 1841; a. 1854; died in ♦Omaha, Neb.,
1906) was for many years the editor of the _Omaha Bee_, which became
under him one of the great newspapers of the Middle West, and is now
edited by his son, Victor Rosewater (b. in Omaha, 1871), who was a
member of the Republican National Committee for the State of Nebraska.
Philip Rapoport (b. in Germany, 1845) was for nearly twenty years
editor of the _Indianapolis Tribune_. Samuel Strauss, of Des Moines,
Ia., owned the _Register and Leader_ there, and was later publisher of
the _New York Globe_. Joseph Pulitzer (b. in Hungary, 1847; a. 1864; d.
1911) of the _New York World_ was of Jewish descent, and so is Michael
Harry de Young (b. in St. Louis, 1848), who owns and edits the _San
Francisco Chronicle_. Solomon Solis Carvalho (b. in Baltimore, 1856),
the son of the artist, Solomon N. Carvalho, is the general manager
of W. R. Hearst’s newspapers. A large number of Jews hold various
positions on the staffs of newspapers and magazines all over the
country, from editors, literary, dramatic and musical critics down to
reporters. Many are also engaged in the business parts of the work, as
publishers, advertising managers, etc.
Illustration: Mordecai Manuel Noah.
The most important of the older Jewish periodicals in the vernacular
were mentioned in former chapters. The _Menorah Monthly_, which was
for many years edited by Moritz Ellinger (b. in Bavaria, 1830; d. in
New York, 1907), was the best Jewish magazine in America, as well as
the one which existed for the longest time. _The New Era Illustrated
♦Magazine_, which was published for several years by Isidor Lewi
(b. in Albany, N. Y., 1850), of the editorial staff of the _New York
Tribune_, was an other valuable periodical. The Zionist _Maccabean_
is now the only Jewish monthly magazine published in America. There is
one semi-monthly, the _B’nai B’rith Messenger_, of Los Angeles, Cal.
(established 1897), and over twenty weeklies, most of which are of only
local interest. The more important are: The _American Hebrew_ of New
York, established 1879, by Philip Cowen (b. in New York, 1853); the
_American Israelite_ and its Chicago edition, founded by Isaac M. Wise
in 1854; The _Emanuel_ of San Francisco, Cal., which was founded in
1895 by Rabbi Jacob Voorsanger (b. in Amsterdam Holland, 1852; d. 1908);
_The Hebrew Standard_ of New York, established 1883 by Jacob P. Solomon
(b. in Manchester, Eng., 1838; d. in New York, 1909); _The Jewish
Comment_ of Baltimore, established 1895, of which Louis H. Levin (b. in
Baltimore, 1866) is the editor; _The Jewish Exponent_ of Philadelphia,
established 1886; _The Jewish Voice_ of St. Louis, established, in
1884, and still edited by Rabbi Moritz Spitz (b. in Hungary, 1848); the
_Reform Advocate_ of Chicago, established, in 1891, and still edited
by Dr. Emil G. Hirsch. One bi-monthly which deserves to be mentioned
is the _Sanatorium_, edited since 1907 by Dr. C. D. Spivak (b. in
Kremenchug, Russia, 1861) and published as the organ of the Jewish
Consumptives’ Relief Society of Denver, Colorado.