text-books on chemistry, beginning about 1770 and continuing down to
1830. There would arise a picture before one's mind of the successive
steps in the development of chemical apparatus, and again, the
knowledge derived from the presentation of chemical theory and data
would be refreshing and inspirational. It is to be hoped that the time
is not far distant when some library, public or university library,
will go to the trouble of gathering the American texts on Chemistry
for the period just alluded to. It is not likely that an alcove
filled with this literature would be largely patronized, yet it would
be possible for the enthusiast on the development of chemistry in this
country to collect from such a source a great deal of valuable
material which might be presented with profit to the rising generation
of American chemists.
Cutbush had little leisure during the year 1813, as he was engaged
with the duties of the College and was conducting popular lectures on
an extended scale. It was necessary for him to invite his friend, Dr.
George F. Lehman, to assist in the various demonstrations. They
emphasized not only the theory but the practice of chemistry with its
application to the useful arts. Their experiments were numerous and
were of such a character as to appeal to the general public. The
course offered by Professor Cutbush and Dr. Lehman was remunerative.
It is said the cost of tickets for ladies was $5.00 and those for
gentlemen $8.00.
In addition to the devotion of Cutbush to these didactic courses in
chemistry, he spent much time in a literary way. One of the best-known
publishers of the city announced the purpose of printing the _American
Artist's Manual_ under the editorship of Cutbush. The advertisement
stated--
"To manufacturers, however, who are presumed to be interested
in practical knowledge the value of such works is greatly
diminished by the multiplicity of theories, technical terms
and complicated processes which they in general contain. It
is, therefore, unnecessary to expatiate on the advantages to
be derived from such a publication as is now proposed in the
present work. While it is intended to embrace most of the
Arts and Manufactures, particular attention will be paid to
those of agriculture, brewing, bleaching, dyeing in its
various branches, the manufacture of glass, pottery and all
others which the situation of our country renders obviously
of primary concern and importance."
This extensive and helpful publication appeared in 1814 in two octavo
volumes of more than 600 pages each. The reader should note that
"The price to subscribers will be $7.00 in boards or $8.00
substantially bound, payable on delivery. Those who procure
subscriptions of nine copies and become accountable for their
payment shall be entitled to one copy for their trouble."
The book was dedicated to Benjamin Smith Barton. No title of any kind
appears after the author's name, indicating that he had probably by
the year 1814 severed his connection with all his educational projects
in Philadelphia. In the preface the author speaks of
"Having devoted the greater part of his life to chemical
pursuits."
Glancing through these volumes the impression made upon the reader was
that the author had read widely in the sciences, but particularly in
his favorite science, chemistry. The book is really a popular
dictionary of chemical technology. While it is sparsely illustrated,
early forms of chemical glassware are pictured. From these may be
gathered the story of the gradual development of very useful
apparatus, for example, such as is used in various kinds of
distillation.
That Cutbush had probably ceased his professional duties by the year
1814, as has just been hinted, is further emphasized on noting that he
was appointed Assistant Apothecary General in the U. S. Army on the
twelfth day of August in the year 1814. What his duties as such may
have been has not been discovered. It would not be fair to call it a
radical change in position, but it was a change which necessitated
Cutbush giving more thought and attention to pharmacy, which in his
earlier career was a secondary subject, but in which he was so
proficient that he attracted to himself the attention of leading men
in medical circles. He was in Philadelphia, prosecuting his duties as
late as the year 1819. It is known that during this period he was
attached to the Northern Division of the Army.
In 1820 Dr. James Lovell, Surgeon General of the Army, suggested to
General Thayer, Superintendent of the Military Academy at West Point,
that Cutbush be appointed Chief Medical Officer at the Academy and
Post of West Point. In this capacity he served for seventeen months,
when he became Acting Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the
Academy. The first lecture in his new position was delivered October
9, 1820. In a sense, it marked the beginning of a new career for
Cutbush. He resumed teaching duties, but gave himself more
particularly to the study, not only of gunpowder, which never ceased
to be interesting to him, but to explosives of higher character, and
in this latter field he reached his greatest eminence and may
confidently be regarded as a pioneer in it.
Just before leaving Philadelphia, in the year 1820, Cutbush wrote
Benjamin Silliman at some length on an improvement of the Voltaic
electrical lamp. It was an ingenious modification and constituted the
first contribution made by Cutbush to the _American Journal of
Science_.
But, returning to his life at West Point, it may be observed that in
1822 he contributed his second article to the _Journal of Science_,
which did not appear in print, however, until 1824. This article
related to the composition and properties of the Chinese fire and the
so-called brilliant fires. It was very interesting. It displayed a
thorough and wide knowledge of pyrotechnics with which Cutbush, in
previous years, had been gradually familiarizing himself. At one point
he said:
"Most if not all the compositions used in fireworks,
including military fireworks, were more the result of the
labours of the artisan who was neither controlled by fixed
principles nor by a knowledge of the effects and properties
of bodies and of the systematic experiments of the chemist,
and yet in consequence of some fortuitous and repeated trials
we find that he has been successful, and moreover has amassed
a body of facts which we may reasonably infer may either be
rendered more perfect by knowledge or improved upon by the
exact aid of chemical science."
Here is every proof of his purpose to apply his understanding of
chemical principles and his own experience to the solution of
pyrotechnic problems, for he continues:
"Pyrotechnics is at present considered under two heads,
namely, fireworks for exhibition and military fireworks. The
latter is undoubtedly the most useful, as it embraces a
variety of propositions calculated for attack and defence
both for naval and land service."
Almost simultaneously there appeared in the same _Journal of Arts and
Science_ another contribution by Cutbush, entitled
REMARKS CONCERNING THE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE
GREEK FIRE
In the light of recent events and the use of all sorts of chemical
bodies for warfare and destruction it will not be uninteresting to
introduce here a few paragraphs from this remarkable contribution. He
says:
"The Greek fire was invented by Callinicus of Heliopolis, a
town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect
during a naval engagement that he destroyed a whole fleet of
the enemy, in which were embarked 30,000 men.
"It appears that in the reign of Louis XV, a chemist of
Grenoble, Dupre de Mayen, discovered a composition similar in
effect to the Greek fire of Callinicus, which was exhibited
at Brest, and proved successful, but the preparation was kept
secret. The original Greek fire was used in 1291, and also in
1679.... Writers have defined it to be a sort of artificial
fire, which burns with increased violence when it mixes with
water.... That it was a liquid composition, we may infer from
the modes of using it, which were several. It was employed
chiefly on board of ships, and thrown on the vessels of the
enemy by large engines. It was sometimes kindled in
particular vessels, which might be called fire ships, and
which were introduced among a hostile fleet. Sometimes it
was put into jars and other vessels, and thrown at the enemy
by means of projectile machines, and sometimes it was
_squirted_ by soldiers from hand engines, or blown through
pipes. This fire was also discharged from the _foreparts of
ships_ by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the
extremity of which is said to have resembled the _open mouth_
and _jaws_ of a lion or other animal. They were painted, and
even gilded, and were capable of projecting the liquid fire
to a great distance.
"... John Cameniata, speaking of his native city,
Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year
904, says that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of
the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes,
and thrown from other vessels.... This proves that the
Greeks, in the beginning of the Tenth Century, were no
longer the only people acquainted with the art of preparing
this fire, the _precursor of our gunpowder_. The Emperor Leo,
who about the same period wrote his _Art of War_, recommends
such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the
foreparts of ships, and he twice afterwards mentions engines
for throwing out Greek fire.... For many centuries the method
of making this dreadful article of destruction was lost; but
it has just been discovered by the librarian of the elector
of Bavaria, who has found a very old Latin manuscript which
contains directions for preparing it.
"... On the subject of incendiary and other military
fireworks, the French have certainly laid the foundation for
the very preparations now used by the British, for the
formulæ for such preparations may be traced to the French
service....
"The Moors were in possession of the secret for preparing the
Greek fire in 1432, according to the testimony of Brocquire.
Bertrandon de la Brocquire was in Palestine in 1432 as
counsellor to the Duke of Burgundy. He was present at Barrat
during one of the Moorish celebrations. 'It began,' he
remarks, 'in the evening at sunset. Numerous companies
scattered here and there were singing, and uttering loud
cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle was
fired, and the people of the town launched into the air
"_bein haut et bein loin, une maniere de fue plus gros fellot
que je veisse oncques allume_." They told me they made use of
such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel.
It seems to me that it is a thing easy to be made, and at a
little expense it may be equally well employed to burn a
camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry
to frighten their horses. Curious to know its composition, I
sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire,
and requested him to teach me his method. He returned for
answer, that he dare not, for that he should run great danger
were it known; but there is nothing a man will not do for
money. I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and he
taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood,
with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France.'
... When Constantinople was attacked, the Emperor Leo burnt
the vessels or boats, to the number of one thousand eight
hundred, by means of the Greek fire.... Its composition was
kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge
of it came from an angel to the first and greatest of the
Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it
under any pretext, etc. It ... was kept secret above 400
years ... was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it
against the Crusaders. A knight, it appears, who despised the
swords and lances of the Saracens, relates, with heartfelt
sincerity, his own fears at the sight and sound of the
mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of fire. 'It
came flying through the air, like a winged, long-tailed
dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of
thunder, and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of
the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use
of the Greek, or as it might now be called the Saracen fire,
was continued to the middle of the Fourteenth Century, when
the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur and
charcoal effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the
history of mankind.' ... We do not know of any imitation of
the original Greek fire having been used in modern warfare,
but have no hesitation in believing that naphtha prepared as
already stated would in many cases prove advantageous. It
seems to be well calculated for close naval combat, if the
object be to destroy the sails and rigging of an enemy's
ship. The rapidity and extent of its combustion, added to the
circumstances of its peculiar properties, that of resisting
the action of water in particular, contribute altogether to
this opinion."
The entire article from which these excerpts have been made is worthy
of study, even at this late date. It is suggestive and carries with it
many historical references of value. The enthusiasm of Cutbush for
pyrotechnic bodies is manifest in every line of this publication.
About a year later (1823) Cutbush discussed the formation of cyanogen
in processes not previously noticed. He spoke of the appearance of
this gas in the putrefaction of animal and vegetable matter, making
the following remarkable and in some respects startling statement:
"I believe it would be found that the compound (carburet of
azote) is the basis of the miasmata which produces malignant,
bilious diseases.... Marsh miasmata are generally the cause
of intermittent fevers. Now under particular circumstances of
action may we not admit the generation of carburet of azote
or cyanogen, and if so, as it readily unites with hydrogen,
may it not be the miasma which produces malignant bilious
fevers, since it is known that hydrocyanic acid is
destructive to animal life and a most virulent poison?...
Miasmata of some kind are the cause of yellow fever. For our
part we believe it to be carburet of azote, or of some of its
combinations, and of these that with hydrogen, from its
deleterious character, seems to be the one."
Another observation made in this connection was that cyanogen is
produced when charcoal is heated with nitric acid. Cutbush stated that
he placed charcoal and nitric acid together in a retort and subjected
them to distillation, collecting the product in Woulfe's bottles,
after which the resulting solutions were impregnated with potash, and
"common sulphate and persulphate of iron introduced. The
colour instantly changed and became more or less blue,
proving the existence of the perferrocyanite of iron and,
consequently, of cyanogen."
Having never met this method of preparing cyanogen, experiments were
made in the writer's laboratory to verify the statement. A blue, or
what had the semblance of a blue color, could be obtained at the point
given by Cutbush, but just as soon as the solution was acidulated, as
is always done, the precipitate disappeared and there was not the
slightest indication that Prussian blue had been formed. Even after
hours of rest there was not a sign of it.
Association on the part of Cutbush with the men of science in
Philadelphia during the first decade of the Nineteenth Century led to
an extension of his interest in science circles, so that during
leisure moments at West Point (1824) he wrote of the following
minerals observed by him in and near that place:
"Molybdenite, kaolin, tremolite, schorl, adularia, garnet,
actinolite, precious serpentine (remarkably elegant), epidote
and diallage."
Recently, attention has been called to a volume by Cutbush entitled
"Lectures on the Adulteration of Food and Culinary Poisons.... With a
Means of Discovering Them and Rules for Determining the Purity of
Substances." It was published at Newburgh, N. Y., in 1823. The writer
has never seen this volume. His search for it has been unsuccessful.
Another publication was "A Synopsis of Chemistry, Arranged
Alphabetically, Comprehending the Names, Synonyms, and Definitions in
that Science." New York: E. Lewis, 1821. This book is also exceedingly
rare.
The real magnum opus of Cutbush resulted in "A System of Pyrotechny"
(1825), which voluminous publication did not appear until after his
decease, and then largely through the efforts of his wife and former
students in the Cadet Corps, for, in _Silliman's Journal_, this note
appeared:
"Mrs. Cutbush, widow of the late Dr. Cutbush, of West Point,
proposes to publish by subscription a Treatise on Pyrotechny
by her husband, Dr. James Cutbush.... By the reputation which
Dr. Cutbush sustained, as well as by the ability which his
elaborate treatises on these subjects already published in
this journal display, there can be no doubt that this
posthumous work will be worthy of the public patronage, which
we hope will be liberally bestowed."
Even to-day this publication stands out preëminently and for years has
been referred to by artisans and by scientists. Chapters dealing with
military fireworks have been seriously studied. In the light of the
violent fires, grenades, etc., used in the late war the writings of
Cutbush become very fascinating. They show that he truly blazed the
way in this field. In the introduction to this splendid volume he
wrote:
"On this head, that of the application of chemistry to
pyrotechny, we claim so much originality, as, so far as we
know, to have been the first, who applied the principles of
chemistry.... As this subject, however interesting to the
theoretical pyrotechnist, cannot be understood without a
knowledge of chemistry, it is obvious that that science is a
powerful aid to pyrotechny.... Viewing pyrotechny either as a
science or an art, there is undoubtedly required in its
prosecution much skill and practice. The mere artificer or
fireworker by constant habit may understand, it is true, how
to mix minerals, prepare composition, charge cases, etc., ...
but without a knowledge of chemistry he cannot understand the
theory.... Indeed, chemistry is indispensable to pyrotechny."
Much time and thought were given by Cutbush in the experimental
development of this particular subject in his own laboratory. In
reading upon the subject he had collected a vast material which was
then put to crucial experimental tests. These, outside of his
teaching hours, occupied his whole attention.
An outline of how the work in the chemical department of the United
States Military Academy was conducted will not be devoid of interest.
_First Year_
Theory and Experimental Chemistry.
_Second Year_
Application of Chemistry to the Arts, Manufactures and
Domestic Economy, constituting along with Mineralogy the
second course.
Pyrotechny naturally was developed quite extensively. Teachers of
chemistry will note with pleasure the questions which Cutbush arranged
for his student corps, particularly those questions which had to do
with pyrotechny:
"What is saltpetre? What is nitric acid? What are the sources
of saltpetre, and how it is obtained? How is it formed in
nitre beds, extracted, and refined? What circumstances are
necessary to produce nitre, and how does animal matter act in
its production? What is the difference between the old and
new process for refining saltpetre? What reagents are used to
discover the presence of foreign substances in nitre? What
are nitre caves? Where do they exist? What are the nitre
caves of the western country, and how is nitre extracted from
the earth? What proportion of nitre does the saltpetre of the
nitrate caves afford? What is the theory of the process for
extracting saltpetre from nitrous earth, or nitrate of lime?
What is sulphur? How is it obtained, and how is it purified
for the manufacture of gunpowder? Of what use is sulphur in
the composition of gunpowder? Does it add to the effective
force of gunpowder? What is charcoal? What is the best mode
of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder? What woods
are preferred for this purpose? In the charring of wood, what
part is converted into coal, and what gas and acid are
disengaged? What is the use of charcoal in gunpowder? What is
gunpowder? What are considered the best proportions for
forming it, and what constitutes the difference between
powder for war, for gunning, and for mining? How does the
combustion of gunpowder take place? Can you explain why
combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous
supporter of combustion, as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo?
What are the products of the combustion of gunpowder? What
gases are generated? To what is the force of fired gunpowder
owing? What are the experiments of Mr. Robins on the force of
gunpowder? How would you separate the component parts of
gunpowder so as to determine their proportions? What are
gunpowder proofs? What is understood by the comparative force
of gunpowder? What are eprouvettes, etc.? In noticing in the
same manner the preparations used for fireworks, and for war,
as the rocket, for instance, the following questions were
propounded; viz., What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the
case always made of paper? What is the war rocket? What is
the composition for rockets, and how does it act? What
particular care is required in charging a rocket? What is the
cause of the ascension of rockets? What is the use of the
conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is charged,
or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with
composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of
fireworks? What is understood by the rocket principle? What
is the rocket stick and its use? Is the centre of gravity
fixed, or is it shifting in the flight of rockets? How are
rockets discharged? What is the head of a rocket? What is
usually put in the head? Are all rockets furnished with a
head? What is understood by the furniture of a rocket? How
are the serpents, stars, fire-rain, etc., forming the
furniture of a rocket, discharged into the air, when the
rocket has terminated its flight, or arrived at its maximum
of ascension? What forms the difference between a balloon, in
fireworks, and a rocket? As the balloon contains also
furniture, and is projected vertically from a mortar, how is
fire communicated to it, so as to burst it in the air? Is
the fuse used, in this case, the same as that for bombs,
howitzers, and grenades? What is the Asiatic rocket? The
fougette of the French? In what siege were they employed with
success by the native troops of India? What was the nature of
their war-rocket? What is the murdering rocket of the French?
Is the conical head hollow, solid, blunt, or pointed? Why is
it called the murdering rocket? What is the Congreve rocket?
Is Congreve the inventor or improver of this rocket? What are
Congreve rockets loaded or armed with? In what part is the
load placed? Is the case made up of paper or sheet-iron? What
are the sizes of Congreve rockets?"
In the introduction to "Pyrotechnics" Cutbush remarked that he had
consulted many authorities without much advantage, finding the French
the most helpful. Of the English he said:
"As respects the turtle torpedo and catamarin submarine
machines, it appears that Bushnel claims the originality of
the discovery from the date of his invention, although
similar contrivances had long ago been suggested. Fulton's
improvements, in the torpedo, are deserving of particular
attention, but it is plain that the Catamarin of the English
is the same in principle and application as Fulton's torpedo
and that Fulton deserves the merit of it."
The "System of Pyrotechny" bears the ear-marks of much careful
experimental study. It is a most worthy contribution, and is strong
proof of the dominating force in the mind of Cutbush, namely, to make
his science as widely useful as possible. Chemists may justly take
pride in this early contribution in the application of chemical
principles.