These motors are in construction somewhat similar to steam engines,
having a cylinder and piston, crank, flywheel, governor, &c.; the
gas is utilised by leading it to a combustion chamber (one end of
the cylinder) and at a proper moment igniting it, the expansion (or
explosion) impelling the piston forward; the piston is brought back
by the momentum of the flywheel, and on its return journey passes
off the products of combustion; most gas engines are worked with one
ignition or impulse to every 2 or 3 strokes, or they can be regulated
to an impulse for every stroke for high speeds; the cylinders of
these motors usually have water jackets, as the temperature naturally
becomes very high, a small pump circulating the water which is
supplied from a small water tank at the side, or the engine may have
a water tank base, the same water being used over and over again.
A desirable feature in a gas engine is that it be “noiseless,” they
are now made that even the exhaust pipe is noiseless. Speaking of the
exhaust pipe, this should be carried into the open air, as if carried
into a flue or chamber, a leakage of gas up this pipe would be a
source of danger, and this pipe must be kept clear of woodwork some 6
or 10 in., according to size.
Large motors are provided with a self-starting apparatus, but small
motors require a turn or two given to the flywheel by hand at
starting.
The consumption of gas with these motors costs from 1_d._ to 2_d._
per horse-power per hour, varying with the size; a 1 horse-power
costs about 1¾_d._ The following are a few gas engines by reliable
makers. Fig. 206 shows an “Otto” vertical gas engine (Crossley
Bros., Limited, 24 Poultry, London), made in sizes from 5 man to 5
horse-power (nominal), giving from 1 to 9 indicated horse-power; a
medium size, 1½ nominal horse-power (3 indicated horse-power), costs
103_l._, with water vessel, 4 ft flywheel, 180 revolutions a minute.
[Illustration: 207. Horizontal Otto.]
[Illustration: 208. Stockport Gas Engine. 209. Bisschop Gas Engine.]
Fig. 207 shows an “Otto” horizontal, made in sizes from ½ to 16
nominal horse-power, giving 2 to 40 indicated horse-power (the larger
sizes have 2 flywheels); the cost of a 2 nominal horse-power (4
indicated horse-power) is 138_l._, with water vessel, 4 ft. 6 in.
flywheel, 160 revolutions a minute. The Otto is at present receiving
the greatest share of favour, and it certainly is a good one.
Fig. 208 shows a “Stockport” horizontal gas engine (J. E. Andrew &
Co., Limited, 80 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from
6 man to 8 nominal horse-power, giving from 1½ to 15½ indicated
horse-power; a medium size, 2 nominal horse-power (4 indicated
horse-power), costs 128_l._, with water tank complete.
Fig. 209 shows a “Bisschop” vertical gas engine (J. E. Andrew & Co.,
as above), made in sizes from 1 man to 4 man power, costing from
28_l._ to 40_l._ This small engine requires no water tank.
Fig. 210 is the “Hercules” vertical gas engine (Turner Bros., St.
Albans), sizes 1 man to 3 horse-power, costing from 18_l._ 15_s._ to
105_l._, with water tank complete. This is about the cheapest engine
in the market.
[Illustration: 210. Hercules Gas Engine. 211. Atkinson’s Gas Engine.]
Fig. 211 is an Atkinson’s differential compression gas engine
(British Gas Engine Co., 11 Queen Victoria Street, London), made
in sizes from ¾ to 8 nominal horse-power, costing from 62_l._, to
210_l._, with water tank complete. The chief feature and novelty in
this engine is its having a piston at each end of the cylinder, as
will be seen by the illustration. This engine is somewhat new, but
the principle is good, and it has, no doubt, a good future.
[Illustration: 212. Atkinson’s Horizontal Gas Engine.]
Fig. 212 is a 6 horse-power Atkinson’s horizontal gas engine. This
engine is made in sizes from 3½ to 16 nominal horse-power, costing
from 153_l._ upwards, with water tank complete.
A disadvantage which all gas engines very naturally have is the
inability to use them in rural districts, where no gas supply exists.
_Petroleum_ engines are now gaining favour, as they are equal to gas
engines in cleanliness and results, and need as little attention,
and they can be used anywhere, as a supply of fuel is so easily
attainable. The ordinary and common petroleum of commerce is the
fuel used, and the various makers contend that these motors are more
economical than gas engines, the cost of fuel varying from ¾_d._ to
1¼_d._ per horse-power per hour, according to size. The construction
of this motor is very similar to a gas engine, ignition and expansion
(explosion) of petroleum taking the place of gas.
[Illustration: 213. Spiel’s Petroleum Engine.]
Fig. 213 is a “Spiel’s” vertical petroleum engine (Shawlaw & Co.,
Suffolk Works, Birmingham), made in one size only, 3 man nominal
power (1 horse-power indicated), price 46_l._ 8_s._, with water tank.
“Spiel’s” horizontal petroleum engine, made in sizes from ½ to 8
nominal horse-power (1½ to 17 indicated horse-power), with 3 ft. 9
in. to 5 ft. 9 in. flywheels, and costing from 59_l._ to 246_l._,
with water tank complete. The extra cost of a centrifugal oil pump
attached is from 50_s._ to 70_s._
[Illustration: 214. Etéve Petroleum Engine.]
Fig. 214 is the “Etéve” horizontal petroleum engine (Priestmann
Bros., 52 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from ½ to 10
nominal horse-power (1¼ to 20 indicated horse-power), with from 3 ft.
4 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. flywheels, and costing from 60_l._ to 275_l._,
with water tank complete. This motor is also made mounted on a truck
for agricultural purposes.
A petroleum motor is especially suited for launches and small yachts,
on account of its cleanliness, and dispensing with the roomy and
dirty coal bunker, the store of oil being in tanks under the seats,
&c.; what is most important is that there is no smoke, and the engine
requires but a few minutes to start and attain full speed.
A high authority gave his opinion to the writer that the small motor
of the future will be undoubtedly the petroleum engine.
_Hot-air or Caloric Engine._--This motor is worked by the expansion
of atmospheric air when subjected to heat. Fig. 215 is a sectional
drawing of the “Rider” hot-air pumping engine (Hayward, Tyler & Co.,
39 Queen Victoria Street, London), and we cannot do better than copy
the makers’ description of its working parts. “The compression piston
C first compresses the cold air in the lower part of the compression
cylinder A, into about one-third its normal volume, when by the
advancing of the power piston D and the completion of the down stroke
of piston C, the air is transferred from the cylinder A through the
regenerator H and into the heater F, without appreciable change of
volume. The result is a further increase of pressure, and this impels
the power piston up to the end of its stroke. The pressure still
remaining in the power cylinder and reacting on the piston C, forces
the latter upwards till it reaches nearly the top of its stroke,
when, by the cooling of the charge of air, the pressure falls to
its minimum, the power piston descends, and the compression again
begins, the same air being used continuously. E is a water jacket
for cooling the air more effectually, K K are leather packings, L
is a check valve which remedies any leakage of air.” This engine
is made in three sizes, ¼, ½, and 1 horse-power, costing 40_l._ to
100_l._ including lift and force pump, as at Fig. 216, the higher
prices being fitted with driving pulley for power. These engines
are especially well adapted for pumping, a ¼ horse-power with 2 in.
pump delivering 500 gal. per hour 40 ft. high, the engine costing
42_l._ complete. There is no skill required in working them, the only
labour needed being to start and stop the engine, to replenish the
fire (coke fuel), and the necessary attention to lubricators. The
consumption of coke is 2½ lb., 4 lb. and 9 lb. per hour for the three
sizes respectively; this represents a cost of about one halfpenny
per 1000 gal. of water raised 30 ft. high; it will be understood that
all pumping engines can be fitted with gear for deep-well work when
necessary.
[Illustration: 215. Rider Hot-air Engine. 217. Horizontal Hot-air
Engine.]
[Illustration: 216. Engine with Lift and Force Pump. 218. Vertical
Hot-air Engine.]
Fig. 217 is “Bailey’s” horizontal hot-air engine (W. H. Bailey & Co.,
Albion Works, Salford, Manchester) with pulley for driving, made
in sizes from ¼ to 3½ horse-power, costing from 35_l._ to 150_l._
complete, but requiring a brick stove to be built in connection with
it.
Fig. 218 is a “Bailey’s” vertical hot-air driving engine, made in
sizes from ⅛ to ½ horse-power, costing from 80_l._ to 42_l._ This
engine, it will be noticed, has the stove or furnace complete. These
engines are also made with pump attached for domestic and other
water supply, similar to the “Rider.” Coke fuel is the best, but any
combustible can be used, such as wood, peat, cinders, or common coal.
The cost of working the “Bailey” engines is about the same as the
“Rider.”
_Electricity._--Electric motors are not of practical use except in
residences, &c., where an electrical installation (worked by an
engine) already exists or is going to be fitted; as, to attempt to
propel an electric motor by a battery would, though possible, be
very expensive, and the battery would have to be of enormous size
to obtain any power of importance,--to work a sewing machine, for
instance.
In buildings that are lighted by electricity or have an electric
apparatus of any description that is worked by an engine and dynamo,
an electric motor can be used with success and good results. This
form of motor has several advantages, foremost amongst which is
its portability and the absence of shaft and belting to transmit
the power, and the power can be transmitted long distances, the
connection between the dynamo (which is always near the engine) and
the motor being by two wires only; thus the power generated by the
engine can be carried throughout a building into the most obscure
nooks or attics if desired, or one engine of good size will provide
power for a neighbourhood, or in other words, the electric power for
motive purposes can be transmitted anywhere and everywhere, the same
as for lighting.
[Illustration: 219. Immisch’s Electric Motor.]
Fig. 219 is an Immisch electric motor (Mr. M. Immisch, Malden
Crescent, Kentish Town), made in sizes up to 30 and 40 horse-power.
The price of 1 horse-power is 24_l._ Fig. 219 shows the motor
as applied to domestic purposes, driving a knife-cleaner and
coffee-grinding machine: the same motor can of course be applied to
other purposes where rotary motion is applicable.
The Electrical Power Storage Company, Limited, 4 Great Winchester
Street, London, E.C., also make electric motors in various powers;
Fig. 220 is their smallest pattern, made in sizes from ⅓ to 7
horse-power (effective), costing from 10_l._ to 90_l._ The cost of
working with power transmitted from the engine (gas or steam, &c.)
by means of dynamo and electric motor can be computed as being but
little in excess of working direct from the engine itself, but with
the advantages already stated; this especially applies where the
engine and dynamo are already in existence, as before stated.
[Illustration: 220. Electric Motor.]
_Clockwork._--Motors with the mechanism propelled by a spring have
not yet been brought to any degree of perfection or efficiency. A
self-acting motor of this description was being manufactured and
attached to sewing machines by a company formed in London, but it is
to be regretted that for some reason the company has now ceased to
exist: their motor could be adapted to any make of sewing machine,
and their efforts were worthy of success, for they were applied to
the domestic machine, which, although a grand institution, entails
labour both trying and harmful.
See also p. 1012.
_HOUSEHOLD LAW._
The wants of modern society are so various, and the relations
consequently created are so far-reaching, that it is absolutely
impossible, within the space that can be spared to the subject in
this manual, to fully explain the position in law of a householder
or head of a family. The reader of the following remarks must never
forget that they attempt to state a few general rules merely, and
that there are few, if any, households which are not in some respects
under the sway of some special Act of Parliament or some special
agreement with somebody. The chapter will, it is hoped, keep its
reader, with these limitations, clear of _some_ litigation, and show
him _some_ of his rights; but it has been written on the principle
that silence is far better than a misleading statement.
=The House.= _Renting and Letting._--_Agreement._--In all cases have
a memorandum of agreement written in duplicate, stamped, and signed
by both parties, each keeping a copy. This should state clearly the
commencement of the tenancy and its duration (quarterly, yearly, or
for a term of years), the rental, the share of repairs to be borne
by the landlord and the share to be done by the tenant, and attached
to it should be a schedule detailing the dilapidations (if any) on
entering on the tenancy, and any fixtures, such as gaseliers, blinds,
&c., which may be intended to be included in the letting, and to
remain the property of the landlord. An agreement for a tenancy for
three years or less, which, of course, includes a yearly or monthly
tenancy, may be made verbally if the rent is two-thirds or more of
the full yearly value, which may be assumed to be the rateable value
as appearing in the parish books.
_Insanitary Houses._--The mere letting of a furnished house implies
a contract on the part of the landlord that the house is “fit for
human habitation.” What constitutes “fitness” is a matter of degree.
The presence of bugs, infection from measles, or defective drains,
has each in turn been held to justify the tenant in declaring his
tenancy at an end. But with regard to an unfurnished house the
law has been in the habit of taking a different view. In such a
case the old maxim of “caveat emptor” applies, and the tenant is
presumed, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, to have taken
the house as he found it. More especially when there is a lease or
a written agreement, such a document is presumed to embody all the
covenants, on either side, which are required for the protection of
the interests of either landlord or tenant; and in such a case no
tacit or implied covenant of a conflicting nature can be inferred.
The house may be defective in sundry details, but the tenant is
presumed to have informed himself beforehand on these points, and
to have taken them into consideration when he agreed to the rent.
Therefore, every one who is about to take a house should have it
properly surveyed before committing himself by signing an agreement
even for a yearly tenancy, or should have inserted in the lease an
undertaking by the landlord that the drainage of the premises is in
perfect order, which possibly would be the better way, as defects in
drains are not found out at once. It is possible that the landlord
would object to putting a clause of this kind in. It is unusual, but
that is no reason why it should not be made usual and universal.
In the case of a house or lodgings in which there has been any
dangerous infectious disorder, any person letting the same without a
medical man’s certificate as to the satisfactory disinfection thereof
is liable to a penalty of 20_l._; and any person who lets or shows
a house or lodgings, and on being asked whether there has been there
any dangerous infectious disorder knowingly makes a false answer, is
liable to the same penalty or to a month’s hard labour.
_Repairs._--Apart from express agreement, there is no obligation on
the landlord to do any repairs whatever, but the tenant is liable
to make good any damage done to the premises by his own wilful or
negligent conduct, or by his having suffered the house to become
ruinous or in decay for want of necessary repairs. If the house
is accidentally burnt down, however, the tenant cannot be made to
rebuild unless he has agreed to repair and leave in repair, but he
will not be relieved from payment of rent.
_Possession._--The landlord must give possession at the time
mentioned for the commencement of the tenancy, and the tenant’s
failure to enter will make no difference as to rent, which commences
to accrue due at the time specified.
_Rent._--Rent accrues due throughout the whole of the specified term,
and is payable on the appointed days, even though the premises may
have been burnt down without any fault of the tenant, unless there
is provision in the lease for such an event. The tenant cannot be
required to pay rent, or a portion of it, before the appointed day,
and he has the whole of that day in which to make the payment, and
until it has expired no distress can be put in.
_Distress._--If the rent is not duly paid as above mentioned the
landlord may himself, or by an agent or bailiff, seize all the goods
on the premises, with certain exceptions stated below, and may hold
them until the rent is paid, or sell them as hereinafter mentioned.
The landlord will be liable to an action if goods are seized beyond
such a quantity as may be reasonably expected by him to satisfy the
rent and expenses, or if the seizure is proceeded with after such
a sum has been tendered to him; and if he distrains where no rent
is due, and sells the goods, he is liable for double their value.
A distress cannot be made between sunset and sunrise, nor can the
person distraining break into the house or get in through a chimney,
but he may enter through an open window or door, or through a door
which he can open from the outside by turning the handle or raising
the latch in the ordinary way, and once he has lawfully entered he
may break open inner doors. He may not distrain fixtures, gas or
water fittings let by the companies to the tenant, goods of strangers
which have been delivered to the tenant to be worked upon or taken
care of in the way of the tenant’s business, perishable commodities,
such as butcher’s meat, or things in actual use at the time of the
distress, or perhaps dogs; nor, if there be other things liable and
of sufficient value, may he seize the instruments of the trade or
profession carried on by any member of the household. Property of
the tenant removed fraudulently to avoid distress after sunrise of
the rent-day may be followed by the bailiff, and seized at any time
within 30 days after removal.
The tenant is entitled to 5 days of grace after seizure in which
to pay the rent and expenses, thereby dismissing the bailiff, and
recovering all his property. Failing this, the bailiff will call in
two appraisers to value the goods, putting a memorandum of the value
upon the inventory; the goods may then be sold for the best price
that can be got.
When the distraint is for an amount not exceeding 20_l._, the costs
are thus limited--levying distress, 3_s._; man in possession, 2_s._
6_d._ a day; advertisements, if any, 10_s._; appraisement, 6_d._ in
the £, and for the stamp, 1_s._, expenses of sale, 1_s._ in the £ on
the net proceeds. In case of excess charges, apply to a justice of
the peace. When the rent due is more than 20_l._ there are no defined
rules as to costs, which must, however, be reasonable in amount,
being usually one or two guineas for the levy, and 3_s._ 6_d._ a day
for the man in possession.
It will be seen that the goods of undertenants are liable to distress
for rent due by the middleman to the head landlord. Lodgers, however,
are specially favoured by Act of Parliament in such a case, but the
proceedings necessary to protect their goods are very troublesome.
The lodger must deliver to the bailiff a written and signed inventory
of his property, with a declaration that he is in lawful possession
of it, and that the tenant has no right or interest in any of it;
also stating what amount of rent is due from the lodger to the
tenant. If the lodger owes any rent he must pay it to the bailiff
or landlord instead of to the tenant. If the bailiff or landlord
still proceeds with the seizure, the lodger should at once apply to
a magistrate for an order for restoration of the property. If the
lodger is absent, and leaves no person authorised to act for him
during the seizure and succeeding 5 days, his goods are liable to be
seized and sold.
Lodgers are liable to distress by their own landlord like other
tenants; but in furnished lodgings with attendance, the distress must
be limited to the rent of the rooms, and not include the charges for
attendance or “extras,” or for food supplied.
_Rates and Taxes._--These are almost invariably, if not always,
payable in the first instance by the tenant, but he may always deduct
any property-tax which he has paid from the next payment of rent, and
he may also, unless he has agreed to the contrary, deduct any payment
for land-tax or sewers rate, or for tithe rent-charge. If payment is
not made on demand, the ratepayer must take or send the amount to the
collector. In case of non-payment, the ratepayer is liable without
notice to be summoned before the magistrates. If the rates are then
paid before the time appointed to hear the case, the expense is
trifling, but otherwise it is considerable. Magistrates have power to
authorise an immediate distraint on goods to the amount of rates and
costs; and if sufficient goods cannot be found on the premises of the
ratepayer, he is liable to imprisonment.
_Determination of Tenancy._--All tenancies may of course be put an
end to at any time by mutual consent, though the consent should be
declared in a deed if the tenancy was by deed. But without such
consent a tenancy for a fixed period must continue according and
subject to the special terms, if any, of the lease until the period
expire when the tenancy comes to an end, and the tenant must give up
possession, and may leave without any notice. Subject to any special
agreement, a tenancy from year to year can be determined by one party
only at the day of the year corresponding to that from which it was
agreed that the tenancy should run by giving to the other a half
year’s previous notice of his intention. If the tenancy runs from
one of the usual quarter-days, then the necessary and sufficient
notice is that which is given on or before the quarter-day next but
one preceding that from which the tenancy runs. A quarter’s notice
in a quarterly tenancy, a month’s notice in a monthly tenancy, and
a week’s notice in a weekly tenancy are undoubtedly sufficient, and
should be given so as to expire at the end of the current quarter,
month, or week respectively of the tenancy. In the metropolis there
seems to be a general custom as to weekly tenancies which renders a
week’s notice necessary, and County Court judges usually so hold.
_Fixtures._--A tenant may during his occupation remove fixtures
which he has put up at his own expense for ornament or domestic
convenience, in such a way that they have not become a permanent part
of the house. But if, on giving up possession of the house, he leaves
any behind by mistake, he cannot re-enter to recover them; and if
the incoming tenant once obtains possession, including the fixtures,
he is entitled to detain and use them, unless he has expressly
agreed to pay for them or deliver them up. Tenants may not pull down
buildings or permanent structures which they have erected on their
own responsibility, and must make good any damage done to the house
by the removal of such fixtures as they are entitled to remove.