busy life. Probably at no previous period of human history has
the nervous system generally, and more particularly, have the
sense-organs been so severely taxed as they are now, but never
have they been less carefully cultivated. This is, in part, if not
wholly the cause of the progressive degeneracy of the faculties of
special-sense which is evidenced by the increasing frequency of
the recourse to spectacles, ear-trumpets, and the like apparatus,
designed to aid the sense-organs. The mere use of faculties will
not develop strength--it is more likely to exhaust energy. Special
training is required, and this essential element of education
is wholly neglected in our schools, with the result we daily
witness--namely, early weakness or defect in the organs by which the
consciousness is brought into relation with the outer world. It is
not necessary to adduce proofs, or to argue at length or in detail.
The truth of the proposition laid down is self-evident. On the one
hand we see the neglect of training, and on the other the increasing
defect of sense-power. The matter is well worthy of the attention
of the professional educators of youth. Muscular exercise wisely
regulated and apportioned to the bodily strength is felt to be a part
of education. Sense-culture, by appropriate exercises in seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling, would, if commenced sufficiently early
in life, not merely prevent weakness of sight, deafness, loss of the
sense of feeling, and impairment of the sense of smell, long before
old age; but by its reflected influence on the nutrition of the brain
and upper portion of the spinal cord, would do much to reduce the
growing tendency to paralytic diseases, which are very decidedly on
the increase. (_Lancet._)
_Physical Comfort and Training._--Attention should be directed more
than at present to the physical side of school life in its relations
to the ordinary bodily wants and processes. Many children suffer much
from a fear or dislike of asking for temporary leave of absence from
their classes. They suffer pain, and often cause serious illness,
by this somewhat natural aversion to “asking out.” Foolish teachers
have sharply reproved pupils because they appeared to demand absence
from the class-room too frequently. The teacher evidently imagined
there was some attempt at malingering; whereas the pupil was really
in pain, suffering from an irritable digestive system, which demanded
rest. Such pupils should not be sent to school, it is true; but
if they are allowed to take their place in a class, they should
not be treated as if their demands were dictated by foolishness or
frivolity. The wise teacher is one who, seeing a pupil evidently
suffering, will investigate the cause of the discomfort, and set the
child’s mind and body at rest. Education under physical suffering is,
at its best, the merest farce. You need not be prudish; nor fear any
rebuke from common sense, when you think that children have bodies
which, as well as minds, are placed temporarily under the teacher’s
care. (Wakeham.)
There is a risk at the present day that the claims of intellectual
education, which are being so strongly put forward, may have the
effect of postponing, or causing to be neglected, the care and
cultivation of the bodily powers. In some respects we have rushed
from a state in which too little care was given to mental development
into one where intellectual work predominates. Children must have
several hours’ play daily in the open air; this is much better than
calisthenics or gymnastics for the generality of children; and girls
should be allowed to play as vigorously as boys do.
One exercise which will give permanent strength, which will build up
healthy bodies for girls and ultimately for women, is the swimming
bath, which brings into play all the muscles of the body; another
is the gymnastic class, where, in suitable dresses and under the
direction of competent instructors, exercises fitted for the strength
of girls are set for them to do; and a third is the playground, where
such games as fives, rackets, and lawn tennis give amusement and
ample exercise. The benefits arising from trained muscular activity
are not confined to development of the muscles of the arms and legs,
but all the functions of nutrition of the body are helped to become
effective by means of exercise. Much of the weakness and suffering of
women would be spared if early physical training had been allowed to
them.
_Punishments._--Such brutal punishments as boxing the ears, pulling
the ears, knocking heads together, rapping knuckles with rulers,
&c., belong to a past ignorant age. For corporal punishment nature
has provided a muscular cushion on which the cane may be applied
without fear of serious consequences. “Impositions” mean ruin to the
handwriting, and being closeted in the foul air of the class-rooms
during hours that ought to be spent in getting fresh air. Double
tasks are a still worse form of the same evil. The plan of “keeping
in” boys for breaches of school discipline is objectionable, and it
is infinitely better to require some loss of recreation time in more
healthy ways. In large public schools, where the drill-sergeant is an
institution, there will probably be found no more efficacious mode of
dealing with forgetfulness and petty turbulences than by calling in
the aid of this functionary, who exercises a wholesome influence over
the boys, and inflicts punishments without impairing their physical
condition in any way, while at the same time lending “tone” to their
bodily exercises.
_Foreign Schools._--The only good to be gained by sending children
to foreign schools is acquiring facility in speaking foreign
languages, with more chance of good accent than can be usually
gained at home. Against this there are many things to set off; and
even this advantage itself is often rendered nugatory by one or two
circumstances. In a school where there are many English children
there is very often as much English spoken as French or German--there
are schools in which an idle child might speak English all day long,
and in which the well-paying “Anglais” is not brought too sharply to
task for faults of omission. Again, the acquisition of good accent is
a matter of ear, and no amount of hearing others speak well will make
a child who has no imitative power reproduce an accent with purity.
Scotch or Irish children in English schools do not always lose their
distinctive accent, nor do Lancashire and Yorkshire tongues always
lose their special characteristics. The advantages of foreign schools
are thus shown to be less than they at first seem to be.
But there are also positive disadvantages; and one of the most
evident and most disastrous in its results, as far as the health is
concerned, is that, in matters of food and of arrangements conducive
to health, the ways of foreigners are not our ways. English children,
brought up to the age of 15 or 16 upon English meat and bread, with
plenty of both, cannot accommodate themselves to the diet which
suffices for Frenchmen or Germans; and English children in foreign
schools not unfrequently know what it is to be hungry from sheer
inability to obtain a sufficiently nutritive meal. Many instances
have occurred in which long and troublesome illnesses have been
distinctly traceable to living in schools abroad, and others in which
a life has been cut short through the same agency.
A few words must be said as to the comparative uncertainty regarding
the kind of agencies which may be brought to bear in the moral
training of a girl, and the little power which a parent has of
ascertaining the real nature of these in a foreign, especially a
French school. Nor again, is it to be forgotten that, for those
parents who are desirous that their children should receive religious
training, and should not lose their hold of home habits in that
important matter, there are innumerable anxieties in store in sending
children abroad.
For those who desire to give their children the advantages of foreign
education, there are only two really good courses open. One of these
is to establish the home abroad for a certain time. In that case the
children are under home influence as to training, are under home care
as to food, cleanliness, and personal habits, and do not form a set
of associations distinct from those of other members of the family.
If the family life is considered important, and if it is desired that
the children should early acquire a knowledge of foreign languages,
this is the most advisable plan. In case this is not possible, it
would be advisable to postpone the foreign residence until girls have
reached maturer years--till they have sense to look after themselves,
and until their characters are somewhat formed. There would be then
the additional advantage that home ties would be strong enough to
resist the weakening influence of living apart from the rest of
the family, the foundations of a good English education (too often
entirely neglected in the cases of those reared in foreign schools)
might have been securely laid; and, what is perhaps not the least
recommendation, the children themselves would have their minds more
advanced, and would be more intelligent and ready recipients of the
instruction given to them. (_Queen._)
SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE.
John H. Howard: ‘Gymnasts and Gymnastics.’ London, 1873.
C. Löfving: ‘Home Gymnastics, for the preservation and restoration
of health in children and young and old people of both sexes, with a
short method of acquiring the art of Swimming.’ London, 1883. 1_s._
Archibald Maclaren: ‘A System of Physical Education, theoretical and
practical.’ Oxford, 1869. 7_s._ 6_d._
_THE PLAYGROUND._
_Aim of Exercise._--The aim of exercise is not solely to _work_
the organism which is thrown into activity, though that is a very
important part of the object in view, because as the living body
works it feeds, and as it feeds it is replenished; but there is
another purpose, and that is to call into action and stimulate the
_faculty of recuperation_. Those who believe in the existence of
a special system, or series, of trophic nerves, will not object
to this designation of the recuperative function as a separate
“faculty,” and those who believe nutrition to be effected in and by
the ordinary innervation will recognise the sense in which we employ
the terms in italics. It is through defect or deficiency in the
vigour of this faculty that unaccustomed feats of strength, whether
of mind or muscle, are exhausting. The task is performed, but the
underlying faculty of restorative energy, or power of recuperative
nutrition, located in the particular part exceptionally exercised,
is not in a condition to respond to the unusual call made upon it.
When a man goes into training, or, which is practically the same
thing, when he habituates himself to the performance of a special
class of work, he so develops this recuperative power or function
that the repair or replenishing necessary to restore the integrity,
and replace the strength of the tissue “used up” in the exercise,
is instantly performed. The difference between being accustomed to
exercise and able to work “without feeling it,” and being barely able
to accomplish a special task, and having it “taken out” of one by
the exploit, whether mental or physical, is the difference between
possessing the power of rapid repair by nutrition, and not having
that power in working order--so that some time must elapse before
recovery takes place, and during the interval there will be “fatigue”
and more or less exhaustion. The practical value of a recognition of
this commonplace fact in physiology will be found in the guidance it
affords as to the best and most direct way of developing the power or
faculty of recuperation by exercise. Many persons make the mistake of
doing too much. Exercise with a view to recuperation should never so
much exceed the capacity of the recuperative faculty as to prostrate
the nervous energy. The work done ought not to produce any great
sense of fatigue. If “exhaustion” be experienced, the exercise has
been excessive in amount. The best plan to pursue is to begin with
a very moderate amount of work, continued during a brief period,
and to make the length of the interval between the cessation of the
exercise and the recovery of a feeling of “freshness” the guide as
to the increase of exercise. We do not mean that false sense of
revival which is sometimes derived from the recourse to stimulants,
but genuine recovery after a brief period of rest and the use of
plain nutritious food. If this very simple rule were carried into
practice by those who desire “to grow strong,” there would be less
disappointment, and a generally better result, than often attends the
endeavour to profit by exercise unintelligently employed. (_Lancet._)
_Training._--There are few subjects on which it is more difficult to
lay down exact laws than that of training, and yet, notwithstanding
this, there is no lack of books by writers who profess to be
thoroughly acquainted with every detail of the course an athlete must
go through in order to be at his best. Nearly every writer agrees as
to the end to be obtained by training. As to how this end is to be
obtained, however, these doctors sadly disagree. For instance, one
author says, very properly, that the harder a man works physically
the more food he requires. “Amator,” on the other hand, lays down
this law, “the less food, the more work.” In books a regular dietary
is laid down for the man in training, in which some kinds of food are
recommended and others condemned. These vary so much, that were the
unfortunate athlete to avoid everything that he is warned against,
he would be more likely to die of starvation than to win a race.
It is quite impossible to lay down exact rules for everybody. No
two men are of the same physique or temperament, and no one but an
experienced trainer who has his eye continually on his man, can tell
him what to eat and drink, or what exercise to take. A book of the
kind cannot be perfect; but the best we have yet come across is that
published at the _Sportsman_ office. We can recommend it to those who
cannot secure a really good trainer. Such men are rare; but a month
or two under the care of a man who really understands his business
will do more for a beginner than all the books ever published.
Experienced trainers like Bob Rogers, Nat. Perry, or Jack White,
can tell at a glance whether a man wants hard or light exercise, or
whether he ought to put on flesh, or the contrary. These are subjects
that books are powerless upon, and with which no athlete can be
familiar till he has had considerable experience. (_Field._)
_Regulation of Exercise._--Dr. Cathcart gives the following rules
for the regulation of physical exercise. (1) It should be conducted
in an abundance of fresh air, and in costumes allowing free play
to the lungs, and of a material which will absorb the moisture,
and which, therefore, should be afterwards changed--flannel. (2)
There should always be a pleasant variety in the exercise, and an
active mental stimulus, to give interest at the same time. (3) The
exercises should, as far as possible, involve all parts of the body
and both sides equally. (4) When severe in character, the exercises
should be begun gradually and pursued systematically, leaving off
at first as soon as fatigue is felt; and when any real delicacy of
constitution exists, the exercise should be regulated under medical
advice. (5) For young people the times of physical and mental work
should alternate, and for the former the best part of the day should
be selected. (6) Active exertion should be neither immediately before
nor immediately after a full meal.
A fact of paramount importance is to bear in mind that exercise
demands an _abundance of fresh air_, without which it is injurious.
The same man who when naked is capable of inspiring (taking in)
196 cub. in. of air at a breath, can only inspire 130 cub. in.
when dressed. Dr. Parkes points out that during exercise, whether
directly involving the use of the shoulders or not, the lungs should
have the freest possible play; therefore there should be no tightly
contracting garments round the chest which would interfere with
its expansion, and thus tend to neutralise the very benefit it is
destined to bestow; and it follows further from this, that where
exercise has to be taken in such ill-designed garments, the amount
of work done must be in proportion diminished. Hence the miscalled
“constitutional” walk is about the worst form of exercise (next to
dancing), and deserving of actual condemnation, except in the case
of people whose age precludes their enjoying any outdoor game; it
is very apt to become monotonous, can never be really enlivening,
often is reduced to a crawl, is liable to be interrupted by meeting
friends (when chills are easily caught), and always entails wearing
the least suitable garments. Running, on the other hand, when dressed
in athletic costume, is one of the best forms of exercise and an
essential accompaniment of our most popular outdoor games. Among
the means which nature has bestowed on animals in general for the
preservation and enjoyment of life, running is the most important.
Since, then, it is pointed out to us by nature, it must be in a high
degree innocent.
Negroes and Indians in a state of nature run daily in pursuit of
game for food with a facility at which we are astonished, but they
are not more liable to consumption on this account than those beasts
that are so famed for swiftness. The body of no animal seems better
adapted to running than man’s. The nobler parts, which might be
injured by an immoderate reflux of blood, are uppermost, and the
laws of gravitation assist in propelling the runner forward. He has
little to do but to strengthen his limbs by practice and concentrate
his mind on the effort, and there is nothing severe in this, as
experience has shown. Indeed, running may be made very beneficial
to the lungs, and perhaps there is nothing better calculated to
strengthen these organs, in those who are shortwinded, than gradual,
careful training in running. It should only be practised in cool
weather. The clothing should be light, the head bare, and the neck
uncovered. As soon as the exercise is finished, warm clothing should
be put on and gentle exercise continued for some time. It is not
necessary to have a race-course. The teacher of a school may take
his pupils into the fields and find suitable ground for them. Care
must be taken not to overdo, and thus, perhaps for life, weaken or
injure the heart. The race, at first, should be short and frequently
repeated, rather than long, and full speed should not be attempted
for some time. Running is well adapted to young and middle-aged
persons, but not to those who are fat. Sedentary persons may find
great benefit in it after the day’s work. If they live in cities, a
quiet spot may be selected, and short trials adapted to the strength
entered into. Invalids may do the same thing, only they must be more
careful than the robust never to over-exert themselves. Girls may
run as well as boys, from 10 to 12 years of age. After puberty, the
change in the formation of the bones of the pelvis in girls renders
running less easy and graceful. The modern style of dress for girls
after puberty is also entirely unsuited to running.
=Games.=--It would be impossible here to enter into a description of
all our outdoor games, nor is it necessary to do so. The following
remarks embody information which cannot readily be found elsewhere,
and which is therefore more useful than would be a repetition of the
already well-known rules of the chief games.
[Illustration: 157. Badminton Court. 158. Badminton Net.]
_Badminton._--A level bit of turf is the most pleasant ground, though
any level surface will do. The dimensions may be varied according
to the number playing on each side, and to whether a shuttlecock or
a ball is used, the latter not requiring so small a ground as the
former. The sizes recommended vary from 40 ft. long by 20 ft. broad,
to 30 ft. long by 15 ft. broad. The ground is divided into courts, as
in Fig. 157, which represents the full-size.
The boundaries should be clearly defined by a white line; chalk
or whiting and water, laid on with a straight-edge and brush,
makes the best line. At the spots marked “pole,” which are just
half-way from the boundaries taken lengthways, and 2½ ft. within
the boundary measured across, poles should be erected, about 7
ft. high, to hang the net to. This, of course, is for the outdoor
game; indoors, the net may be suspended from nails, or hung to any
convenient projection. The net should be tightly stretched across
from pole to pole, at a height of 5 ft. from the ground. The depth
of the net varies from 9 in. to 3 ft., but the best is a medium
depth, 12-15 in. The poles should be supported with guy ropes. When
the net and poles are fixed, they present the appearance shown in
Fig 158. If shuttlecocks are used, the ordinary toy ones do very
well for indoors; but for outdoors a loaded shuttlecock is not so
much disturbed by the wind, and can be made to fly farther. Common
battledores will answer indoors; for outdoor games small racquet
bats are preferred, about 2 ft. long, with a widish face, and rather
more elliptical in the handle than the full-sized bat. Balls for the
outdoor game should be made of hollow indiarubber, about the size of
a tennis ball.
The outdoor game by 4 persons, played with a ball, is with slight
modifications the same as lawn tennis. The courts being marked out,
the players take their stand one in each court, and toss for first
“service.” The player winning the toss has choice of courts, and
places himself in the right-hand court of his side and serves first.
Serving is done by holding the ball in the left hand, the bat in
the right, and then, when in the act of dropping the ball from the
hand, but without allowing it to touch the ground, driving it with
the bat diagonally clean over the net into the opposite right-hand
court. When serving, the player may stand in any part of his court
he pleases, but he must have both feet within the boundary line.
The “servee” (i.e. the player served), who stands in the opposite
right-hand court, has to “take the service,” i.e. he has to hit
the ball back clean over the net, either before it touches the
ground or on its first bound. If he succeeds in doing either, his
adversaries have to return the ball again, clean over the net, and so
on alternately forwards and backwards until one side fails to comply
with the necessary conditions, when that round is over, and certain
scores accrue, as will be explained. After the first service in each
round, no distinction is made between right and left courts, nor as
to the player who may take the ball. On the first return the ball may
be sent into either court of the opposite side, and taken by either
player of that side, and so on in all subsequent returns of that
round.
If the ball touches the boundary line, it is out of the court. If
the conditions are complied with, it is a “good” service, and if the
servee fails to return the ball clean over the net, the server’s
side scores one point, called an “ace.” If the conditions are not
complied with, and the servee takes or attempts to take the serve,
it counts as a good service. But if the server does not comply with
the conditions, and the servee does not attempt to take the serve,
the server’s “hand is out.” There is, however, one exception to this,
viz. if the ball falls on the neutral ground short of the court, in
which case it is a “let”--that is, the server is let or allowed to
have another serve. Two consecutive lets put the server’s hand out.
Some players consider it a let if the ball is served into the wrong
court. This is perhaps the best rule for beginners, but for more
experienced performers serving into the wrong court should put the
server’s hand out. The server’s hand is also out if after the first
return either he or his partner fails to return the ball again clean
over the net by hitting it once only, or returns it so that it does
not fall into one of the opposite courts. If, however, the opponents
attempt to return the ball, notwithstanding that it falls out of the
court, the return is “good,” and it counts just the same as though
the ball had fallen within the court.