slightly open, so as to maintain a constant current through the
pipe. This plan is wasteful, and is not always successful. Perhaps
the safest course is to empty the pipes and cisterns, and only to
allow water to flow in from the main as it is wanted for consumption.
To do this an outside stop-cock is required on the service pipe,
and a drawing-off cock at the lowest point in the course of the
pipe inside the building. It also requires more intelligence and
attention than domestic servants usually display. Another way is to
empty the pipes only. For this, a valve of special make is screwed
to the end of the house main service pipe in the cistern, and a
piece of wire is connected with it to any convenient place. When
frost is expected, the spring must be unhooked, when the valve falls
into its seat, and air being admitted through the small pipe which
rises above the surface of the water, the pipes can be emptied
by turning on the taps in the usual manner, and the water in the
cistern is thus saved. To prevent the effects of forgetfulness on
the part of servants, electricity has been employed. Again, a means
of emptying the pipes as soon as the water is turned off at the
main, so as to leave none to freeze, is to perforate the supply
pipe by a mere pin-hole aperture just behind the ball-cock of the
lowest cistern on the premises, so as to allow the water contained
in the pipe to drain into the cistern when the supply ceases. It
is obvious that the puncture must be in the most dependent part of
the pipes, otherwise the water would not entirely escape, and that
other punctures will be required if the lowest one does not drain
the pipes of other cisterns. This plan can only be adopted where
the supply is intermittent. Where the supply is constant, a small
warming apparatus may be placed at the lowest level the pipe reaches,
so as to circulate a current of warmed water throughout the whole
length of the pipe. This might be either separate from it, as a
cylinder through which the pipe might pass, or simply an enlargement
of the pipe itself, on which the gas flame could play. Considering
the enormous injury done annually by frost bursting the pipes in
houses, the small outlay that would be required would soon be repaid
in security from such disasters; for if the warming apparatus were
placed over a gas flame used for ordinary illumination, a very
small additional consumption of gas would keep the vessel warm when
the light was no longer required. If gas were not available, the
water-pipe might be arranged to pass through a vessel connected with
the kitchen boiler, and so obtain the required heat. But failing
these, the pipes might still be supplied at night after turning off
the water, even where the supply is constant. Thus the chance of its
freezing would be reduced to a minimum.
To thaw a frozen pipe, the simplest and safest way is to pour hot
water upon it, or apply cloths dipped in hot water to those points
where the pipe is most exposed. The freezing will generally be found
to have taken place near a window, or near the eaves of the roof, or
at a bend. If pipes are frozen and a thaw is expected, care should
be taken to close all stop-cocks as a precaution against flooding.
To prevent kitchen boilers exploding, it is necessary to see that
they always contain water, and that there is no stoppage in the pipes
connected with them.
F. Dye.
See also p. 1009.
_THE LAUNDRY._
DOMESTIC WASHING.
The great cost of having household and personal linen washed at a
laundry drives many housewives to have their washing done at home.
The methods of cleansing clothes &c., have been already described in
another chapter; it remains to say a few words about the apparatus.
[Illustration: 135. Washing Copper.]
Certainly the most common form of washing apparatus is the familiar
“copper,” a large metallic pot set in brickwork, as shown in Fig.
135. The point to be aimed at in setting this pot is that the flame
shall pass as nearly as possible all round it. Care must be taken to
cut off all communication with the fire except at the outlet shown,
and to erect a brick-on-edge stop _a_. The flues _b_ should be not
less than 3 in. wide, and 3 courses deep; _c_ is the fire-place, _d_
the ashpit, and _e_ the chimney.
The boiling, scrubbing, and emptying incidental to this plan of
washing should be sufficient to condemn it everywhere; it entails
much labour, is wasteful of fuel and water, and most destructive to
the articles, which are only partially washed after all.
[Illustration: 136. 137. Greenall’s Steam Washing Apparatus.]
A most useful improvement on this crude system is the little steam
washer introduced by J. Greenall, 120 Portland Street, Manchester, of
which two forms are shown in Figs. 136 and 137, heated respectively
by gas and stove. It entirely abolishes all rubbing and brushing of
the clothes, thus saving a great amount of work and wear and tear.
The set copper or boiler is dispensed with, and not half the usual
quantity of soap is required. It will wash a fortnight’s washing
for a family of 8 persons in 2 hours, and can be easily worked by
a child. It improves the colour of the linen, keeps it as white as
snow, and does not injure, or wear in the least, the most delicate
fabric. The cost of gas used is very trifling, being only ½_d._
per hour (16 cub. ft.). Being made of copper throughout (with the
inside parts coated with block tin) it cannot rust and ironmould
the linen; is very strong and durable, cannot get out of order, and
there is no offensive smell from the gas. It may also be heated by
coal or charcoal stove, oil lamp, or in the case of specially large
machines, by steam pipe from boiler if desired. The clothes only
need steeping in water for a few hours, or overnight; then wring
them out, soap well, put them in the cylinder, and when the water
in the machine boils, turn slowly for 10 minutes, then turn them
out and rinse thoroughly, blue, and wring out, and they are ready
for drying,--without any rubbing, brushing, peggying, or boiling
in the ordinary boiler. The water (3 in. deep in machine and 1 in.
in cylinder) is made to boil, and is kept boiling by gas-burner or
coal-stove on which the machine rests; thus steam is continually
rising and passing through the articles which have been placed in
the cylinder; the dirt is carried off by the expansion of the cold
water with which they were saturated, and, as the cylinder revolves,
the clothes are always changing position, and the dirt is washed out
and got rid off. The clothes are washed in steam, and will be found
cleaner, whiter, and purer than when washed by any other process. It
is made in various sizes and at corresponding prices.
[Illustration: 138. Hand Laundry.]
[Illustration: 139. “Vowel A 1.”]
_Bradford’s Domestic Laundry Fittings._--When for economy and
convenience it is desirable to do “washing” at home, the first
consideration is a suitable copper for providing hot water for
washing, and for boiling the clothes in after they are washed. A
copper boiler seated in brickwork is generally adopted, but where
there is no room for seating such a copper, a galvanised iron or
copper pan, self contained in an iron frame and fitted with furnace,
is recommended. This can be easily connected by means of an iron
flue-pipe to an existing flue. After having provided for hot water,
the most important appliance in the laundry is the washing machine,
of which several kinds have been made, but the most popular and the
one that has stood the longest test is Bradford’s “Vowel” machine,
of which, we are told, the sale is increasing every year. It is made
in sizes to suit the various requirements of households. It may be
desirable that we should here state the principle of this machine.
It is an octagonal box, with internal fixed ribs and a midfeather
collecting and delivery board. The machine is turned slowly, so that
the clothes turn from the different ribs and angles, rubbing one
article against the other, and at each revolution collecting them
by the fixed midfeather boards and raising them to a point, when
they slip from the board on to the first rib, where the rubbing is
again taken up. There being no movable internal machinery, it is
obvious there can be no injury to the finest articles washed; in
fact, lace articles, muslin curtains, and delicate fabrics are washed
in this machine without any injury whatever. For a small household
of, say, six or eight persons, and where space is somewhat limited,
the “Vowel A 1” combined washing, wringing, and mangling machine
(Fig. 139) is recommended, and for a larger household of, say, 12
to 16 persons, a “Vowel E” combined washing, wringing, and mangling
machine (Fig. 140). Where, however, in addition to the wash-house
there is a convenient room that may be used for the laundry, separate
machines will be found most desirable, as follows: for the small
household, Bradford’s “Vowel Y” combined washer and wringer (Fig.
141), the washing compartment of which is equal to that of the “Vowel
A 1,” and will wash at one time a quantity of clothes equivalent to
about 8 shirts, 3 or 4 large sheets, or a large double blanket or
counterpane--and a rinsing and blueing trough, fitted with “Acorn
C” or “CC” rubber wringer. The best blue is Keen’s Oxford blue,
which is used in many of the largest laundries, and always gives
satisfaction. The blueing trough is furnished with two compartments,
one for first rinse or “sudding” water, and a second for blueing, a
movable board being provided, which can be placed on either side to
catch the things as they fall from the wringing rollers. This trough
and wringer can be subsequently used for wringing starched goods. In
addition to the above a mangle will be needed, and the “Reciprocal”
is the most popular (Fig. 142). The No. 79 with 21″ rollers, or
No. 80 with 24″ rollers, is a very suitable size for working in
conjunction with the washer and wringer before named.
[Illustration: 140. “Vowel E.” 141. “Vowel Y” Combined.]
[Illustration: 142. Reciprocal Mangle, With Patent Spring and Bar.
143. “Vowel A.” 144. Rinsing and Blueing Trough.]
[Illustration: 145. Lever and Weight Mangle.]
For a large family requiring separate machines, the “Vowel A,”
with “Acorn” rubber wringer, is advised (Fig. 143). The washing
compartment of this machine is equal to that of the “Vowel E”
combined machine, the capacity of which is 12 to 15 shirts, 3 pairs
of sheets, 2 large counterpanes or double blankets, or other articles
in proportion. The rinsing and blueing trough (Fig. 144) is also
required, together with a larger sized mangle--No. 81 “Reciprocal,”
or No. 1 or No. 2 lever and weight machine (Fig. 145). In the larger
sizes of these two-roller mangles the lever and weight machine is
preferable--the advantage is that the pressure is self-regulating.
[Illustration: 146. Pagoda Stove.]
Amongst other articles for the laundry is the ironing stove, and
Messrs. Bradford and Co. have recently introduced a novelty in
this respect, viz. the “Pagoda.” This stove is made in many sizes,
but the No. 12 is large enough for family purposes (Fig. 146). It
requires very little fuel, but every part of it is heated, and in
addition to heating about 12 flat-irons it throws off a regular heat
in the laundry for drying or airing. It is well known that for the
maintenance of good colour in the linen it is always desirable as far
as possible to dry out of doors, but in this uncertain climate of
ours fine weather is not to be depended upon, and for convenience in
drying in wet weather a frame or rack fitted with rails is provided.
This rack is raised to the ceiling or lowered for filling, by means
of lines and pulleys. It should not be fixed immediately over the
stove, but sufficiently aside that, when lowered, articles hung on
the rails will not touch the stove.
This racking is also useful for airing linen after it is mangled or
ironed.
For all other laundry sundries, such as flat-irons and stands,
goffering tongs, clothes baskets, &c., &c., we recommend our readers
to do as we have done, viz. pay a visit to Messrs. Bradford’s
Show-rooms, 140 to 143, High Holborn, where they will find
everything, from a hot-water boiler to a linen press.
[Illustration: 147. Premier Box Mangle. (The most perfect Box Mangle
ever made.) 148. Bradford’s Patent “Radial” Drying Closet.]
Having described the appliances adapted for small and medium sized
families, we now come to larger establishments, such as mansions,
schools, hotels, &c. For such establishments similar machines will
be required, but of larger sizes, and instead of the two-roller
mangle a “Premier” box mangle (Fig. 147) is recommended; and for
drying, a “Radial” or “Draw-out” drying closet (Figs. 148, 149). The
“reversible” stove in these closets is so constructed that it serves
for heating flat-irons as well as for drying or airing the clothes.
Messrs. Bradford have also recently introduced a new ironing machine
(“The Little Marvel”), the price of which is 10_l._ 10_s._ (Fig.
150). This machine consists of a concave heated plate, under which
is fixed gas heating apparatus, or a furnace for fuel. The roller,
obtaining the requisite pressure by means of weights fixed upon the
ends of levers, works in this heated plate, and draws the articles to
be ironed over its surface, producing a finish much superior to that
obtainable by hand, and in considerably less time. The machine can be
worked by a girl.
[Illustration: 149. Bradford’s Improved “Draw-out” Drying Closet.
150. Bradford’s “Little Marvel” Ironing Machine.]
STEAM LAUNDRIES.
In connection with steam laundry machinery for use in large
institutions, hotels, and public steam laundries, we cannot do better
than describe one of the many successful laundries that Messrs.
Bradford have fitted up during the last 25 years, and which contains
every appliance and a system likely to be conducive to good and
successful work.
We cannot, however, pass on without briefly referring to the first
important steam laundry started by Mr. Bradford at Upper Norwood in
1865, and which is still working with the most gratifying results.
Ever since, and especially during the last few years, the development
of this branch of industry has been simply remarkable, adding not
only to the convenience of the public but also to the means of
employment of girls, women, boys, and men in very large numbers.
Reverting to Mr. Bradford’s original laundry, we find that although
some of his latest novelties are worked there, many of the appliances
which were put in the laundry when it first started are still
working--a sufficient evidence of their substantial character.
At the entrance to a steam laundry should be a covered way, for the
vans to stand under when loading and unloading, and the vanmen should
deposit the linen in the hall when they bring it from customers,
keeping each load separate. Space is also here provided for the
storage of empty baskets. On one side of the hall at the laundry in
question is a door, leading to the
_Receiving and Sorting_ room, where a female clerk checks the
customers’ books as the goods are counted by an assistant. Books
are provided by the laundry in which are printed detailed lists of
ladies’, gentlemen’s, children’s, and servants’ washing, blank spaces
being left for the customers to insert number of articles sent, and
for any special instructions.
In several partitioned compartments young women examine the
linen--each family’s being kept distinct--to see whether it is marked
with the customer’s name, and to all articles not so distinguished a
private coloured cotton mark is attached.
Leading from the Receiving Room is a long passage, on one side of
which is a number of clothes bins, each marked with the name of the
class of linen it contains. On the opposite side of this passage is a
small private wash-house, intended for special work.
[Illustration: 151.]
_The General Wash-house_ (Fig. 151) is furnished with 4 Bradford’s
“Vowel” washing machines--2 large size for house linen and large
quantities of work, 2 smaller size for finery, handkerchiefs, and
small quantities of goods. These machines are similar in principle to
those referred to in the paragraphs relating to domestic machines,
but wash at one time any quantity of linen up to, say, 150 men’s
shirts. Each machine is fitted with cold water and steam boiling
apparatus. The water is first let into the machine, and then heated
by steam to whatever temperature is required, and the requisite
quantities of dissolved soap and soda are then added. Specially
constructed boilers are provided, one for dissolving soap and the
other for dissolving soda; and the proportions of soda and soap put
into the machine are suited to the class of goods being washed. The
consumption of soap in these machines is very small, owing to the
moderate quantity of water used for washing; in fact it is one of the
essential points that only sufficient water be employed to thoroughly
saturate the clothes.
[Illustration: 152. Steam Power Washing Machine.]
The time occupied for washing a batch of linen varies from 10 to
20 minutes, some things of course requiring longer than others. As
before mentioned, there are two machines of each size. After washing
in the first machine, the linen is passed between the indiarubber
rollers--which wring out the dirty suds--and then placed in the
second machine in clean hot water and soap for the second or clearing
operation; the time occupied for this clearing is about 10 minutes.
During the time the clearing is going on, steam is let steadily into
the washing compartment, and in many cases the clothes are during
this second operation boiled in the machine, after which cold water
is let in to cool them down, so that they may be easily lifted out
by hand. The suds that have been used for this seconding operation
can be employed, with a little additional soap and soda, for the
first washing of another batch of goods. It will be seen that the
time occupied for actual washing is very short, so that in addition
to the washing machine having no internal mechanism to operate
deleteriously upon the clothes, the time occupied is so short that
the wear upon the linen is reduced to a minimum, and the advantage
of the “seconding” process is obvious to anybody as being important
for thoroughly clearing the linen from discoloured water and soap
suds. Although, as already stated, steam is attached to the washing
machine, so that clothes can when desired be boiled in the machine,
yet many articles require separate boiling, such as body-linen, and
for this purpose tanks are provided.
_Boiling Tanks_ are fitted with special arrangements for steam
boiling and hold a large quantity of clothes and water, the latter
being very essential for the maintenance of good colour in the linen.
The linen is constantly floated and turned over by pressure of steam
rising through the water, keeping it in perpetual agitation.
The original system for boiling in these tanks was to drop the
clothes into the water, pushing them down with a copper-stick, and,
after boiling, to lift them out on to a drainer by means of the
copper-stick; but Messrs. Bradford have recently introduced a new
arrangement, consisting of a cage which when filled is let down into
the water, and remains there until the whole batch of clothes is
boiled--occupying about 10 minutes. This cage is then raised by means
of pulleys and chains, which are attached to a travelling arrangement
overhead, so that it may be run up to the rinsing tank and the
clothes tipped into the cold rinsing water. The boiling tanks in this
system are 3 or 4 in number, placed in a line with the rinsing tank
at the side, so that the travelling cage may run from either one or
the other to the rinsing compartment.
[Illustration: 153. Bradford’s New Patent Rinsing and Wringing
Apparatus.]
_Rinsing Apparatus_ (Fig. 153) consists of a large tank with 2
compartments, the first being twice as large as the second, and
having an apparatus fixed in the bottom for letting the water in
under pressure, which forces the scum that separates from the clothes
as they are being rinsed, and carries it to one end, whence it is
removed by the overflow. This operation proceeds constantly while the
clothes are being washed, so that the water is ever fresh and clear,
and in a continued state of agitation, sufficient to thoroughly
rinse the linen without fear of injury. From this compartment the
clothes are passed between rubber rollers, or lifted upon a drainer,
and then put into the second or blueing compartment, from which they
are passed between indiarubber wringing rollers.
[Illustration: 154. Hydro-Extractor.]
A hydro-extractor (Fig. 154) will extract more water than can be
done by any other means. The clothes are placed in a wire basket
which revolves at a high speed, being driven by gearing worked by a
strap, or by direct action of a steam engine attached to the machine.
Hand-power hydro-extractors are also recommended for hand laundries
where a large quantity of work has to be done.
[Illustration: 155. Drying Closet.]
_Drying Closet._--After leaving the hydro-extractor, the clothes are
taken to the drying closet (Fig. 155), which consists of a number of
horses running upon wheels in and out of a chamber, which is heated
by means of a steam coil underneath the horses; and by a special
arrangement, fresh air is constantly let into the underside of this
heating coil, and, rising amongst the clothes, extracts all the
moisture, which is effectually carried off by means of a ventilating
apparatus. Of course when weather will permit, drying is done out of
doors, for which a spacious open drying ground is provided.
_Starching._--Such goods as require starching are taken to the
starching machine, collars and cuffs to one kind of machine-which is
specially fitted for rubbing the starch into the linen--and dresses,
petticoats, aprons, &c., to the trough, in which is a specially
prepared starch, and which has a wringing machine with rubber
starching rollers.
[Illustration: 155A. Ironing, &c., Room.]
[Illustration: 155B. Bradford’s Patent “Crescent” Ironing Machine.]
_Mangling, Calendering, and Ironing._--The first machine in the
finishing and ironing department (Fig. 155A) is a “Premier” box
mangle, which is used for mangling all plain household linen, and
next to this is a “Crescent” ironing machine (Fig. 155B), which iron
in a superior manner table linen, pillow cases, pocket handkerchiefs,
and plain body-linen. The ironing surface of this machine is concave
and made in sections, under which a roller revolves. The chief
advantage of the “sections” in the ironing surface is that during
the process of ironing the moisture from the articles is carried off
through the apertures between the sections, thereby retaining a good
colour in the linen and drying it quickly. The roller besides having
a forward has also a lateral motion, worked by a very ingenious but
simple contrivance in the driving gear, and by this lateral action
the polish upon the surface of the articles is produced.
The advantage of this machine in ironing body-linen is that when the
skirt or plain part of the garment has been “taken in” as far as the
gathers, the roller can be instantly lowered by pressing the foot
upon a treadle close behind the operator, and the article withdrawn,
so that the gathered portion may be finished by hand. The ease with
which the pressure can be regulated is a very excellent feature of
the machine. A special arrangement is provided with this machine for
finishing lace and muslin curtains.
[Illustration: 155C. Bradford’s New Patent “Invert Crescent” Ironing
Machine.]
Messrs. Bradford have recently introduced the “Invert Crescent”
ironing machine (Fig. 155C), the ironing surface of which is a
concave plate of bright polished iron, made in sections similar
to the “Crescent” above described, the ventilation being equally
efficient in both machines, and is, indeed, an important patented
feature in these ironers. This machine is specially adapted for plain
ironing, such as table linen, bed linen, and other straightforward
work. The roller is heated by steam, which also adds to the
efficiency of the machine, as it keeps the flannel upon the roller
constantly dry, thereby reducing the wear and tear of ironing flannel.
Special facilities are afforded for raising or lowering the roller.
The Endless Band Calender (Fig. 155D) is in constant use ironing
body-linen, pocket handkerchiefs, and other small and plain articles.
[Illustration: 155D. Endless Band Calender.]
[Illustration: 155E. Collar Ironer.]
The _Collar Ironing Machine_ (Fig. 155E) is worked by a girl (as
in fact are all the previously mentioned ironing machines); it is
capable of ironing 90 to 100 dozen collars and cuffs per diem. It
is fitted with 2 rollers or cylinders--the bottom one (the feeder)
being of large diameter, and the top one, made of polished metal,
much smaller--and heated by gas mixed with air to produce perfect
combustion. The collars, taken straight from the starching machine,
are stretched upon a board, which is by an automatic arrangement
continually sliding backwards and forwards between the 2 rollers, the
pressure being regulated by means of a spiral spring. A very high
finish is imparted to the surface of the collars. This machine is
also made as a combined collar, cuff, and shirt-front ironer.