of ventilation is to keep the cellar cool and dry; but this object
often fails of being accomplished by a common mistake, and instead
the cellar is made both warm and damp. A cool place should never be
ventilated, unless the air admitted is cooler than the air within,
or is at least as cool as that, or a very little warmer. The warmer
the air, the more moisture it holds in suspension. Necessarily, the
cooler the air, the more this moisture is condensed and precipitated.
When a cool cellar is aired on a warm day, the entering air being in
motion appears cool, but as it fills the cellar the cooler air with
which it becomes mixed chills it, the moisture is condensed, and dew
is deposited on the cold walls, and may often be seen running down
them in streams. Then the cellar is damp, and soon becomes mouldy. To
avoid this, the windows should only be opened at night, and late--the
last thing before retiring. There is no need to fear that the night
air is unhealthful--it is as pure as the air of midday, and is really
drier. The cool air enters the apartment during the night, and
circulates through it. The windows should be closed before sunrise in
the morning, and kept closed and shaded through the day. If the air
of the cellar is damp, it may be thoroughly dried by placing in it a
peck of fresh lime in an open box. A peck of lime will absorb about 7
lb. or more than 3 qt. of water, and in this way a cellar may soon be
dried, even in the hottest weather.
[Illustration: 67. Barrel Stand.]
_Barrel Stand._--A simple and effective barrel stand may be made in
the manner described below. It consists of a stout frame on 4 legs
9-12 in. high, made of quartering which may vary from 2 in. sq. for
small casks to 3 in. sq. for larger ones. The proportions given in
the annexed illustration (Fig. 67) are suited to a 9 gal. cask. This
should be 22 in. long, 15 in. wide, 9 in. high, and made of 2½ in.
stuff, of which it will consume about 9½ ft. run. It will be seen
that the sides _a_, _b_ are joined to the legs _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_
by mortice and tenon joints, while the ends _g_, _h_ are dovetailed
into the sides _a_, _b_. The joints are secured by pins of oak or
red deal driven into holes bored by a gimlet. The stand thus made is
only adapted to carry casks stood on end. For holding them steadily
on their side, and at the same time giving them a tilt forward to
allow all the clear contents lying above the sediment to be drawn
out without disturbing the barrel, use is made of 2 pieces of board
hollowed out to receive the barrel. For the sized cask mentioned
(9 gal.), 15 in. will suffice in length and 1 in. in thickness for
each piece. Both are prepared for letting down into the frame by
cutting out a piece 2½ in. sq. from each of the 2 bottom corners as
at _a_, and can then be screwed to the cross piece _b_ of the frame.
Previously the cradle is formed by describing on the piece of wood an
arc of a circle corresponding to the size of the cask at the point
where it is to be supported. Supposing the diameter of the cask to be
15½ in., the radius of the circle to be described will be 7¾ in., as
shown. This gives the correct arc, but as the cask will lie sloping
and not flat, the foremost edge of the arc must be shaved away till
the cask will rest on the entire breadth of the edges of the cradle
_c_. For the front cradle the board may be 6½ in. wide, and for the
back 8½ in.
_Cleaning Casks._--(1) The acid smell very often found in casks
may be attributed to absorption in the pores of the wood of acetic
and lactic acids--a very small quantity of either of them having
power to communicate their principle to any fermenting liquid with
which they may be brought in contact, and increasing very fast at
the expense of the alcohol in the liquid, while at the same time
causing unsoundness to a greater or less extent, according as the
temperature of the atmosphere may be high or low. Bearing this in
mind, it is of the utmost importance that all free acid which the
cask may contain should be carefully neutralised before filling
with a liquid so liable to change as fermenting wort. Casks before
filling, after being well washed with boiling water, should be
allowed to cool, and then examined by some responsible person as
to their cleanliness, acidity, and probable mustiness; the cask is
well smelt, and usually a light is passed through the tap-hole, so
that the examiner may view the interior. Any cask that may smell
sour (especially in summer weather, or when required for stock or
pale ales) should be rejected, and be well treated with lime. This
should be put into the casks _dry_, small lumps of the lime being
broken, so that they can be easily inserted in the bung-holes, and
when sufficient has been put in (say, about 4 lb. to a barrel), then
about 4 gal. of _boiling_ water must be added, the casks bunged up,
and kept so for a few hours, occasionally rolling about. The lime
should then be well washed out, and the casks steamed, and allowed
to cool, when they will be in a fit condition for containing the
most delicate liquid without any injury. The hard brown substance,
which on being scraped with a nail leaves a white mark, so often
found in casks, is a deposit that forms from the constituents of
the liquid contained in them, and is often carbonate of lime, or
yeast dried, or both. When this is formed, the only effectual
method of cleansing is to take out the head, and put it into the
cooper’s hands to be well scraped, until every particle of the fur
is removed. Cask-washing machines never remove fur or thick dry
deposit properly; they are very convenient in a general way for the
usual run of casks, but any exceptionally bad must be unheaded, and
cleaned by hand. For stock ales it is a good plan to rinse with
solution of bisulphite of lime just before filling trade casks. (2)
With regard to the coating spoken of in (1), it not only preserves
the wood but keeps it clean and sweet, and does no harm at all to
the beer. It takes some considerable time before the wood is coated
with such a protecting enamel. It occurs alike in rounds, puncheons,
and stone squares. Formerly it was customary to have all vessels
that were furred over thoroughly dressed by the cooper, but now
intelligent coopers advise brewers to keep it on. (3) Blow sulphur
fumes into foul casks by fumigating bellows, such as gardeners use
when fumigating conservatories. The sulphurous acid formed by burning
brimstone is a powerful purifier, and will not leave an unpleasant
taste, being easily washed away. (4) Cider casks.--Half fill each
cask with boiling water, and add ¼ lb. of pearlash, then bung it up,
and turn over occasionally for 2 days, then empty, and wash with
boiling water. (5) Scald out with boiling water; if the heads are
out, put them over a straw fire for a few minutes, so as to slightly
char the inside. If you have a steam boiler, partially fill with
water, and admit steam through the bung-hole by a pipe down into the
water, and so boil. (6) Vinegar casks.--Old vinegar barrels become
impregnated to such an extent with acetous substances that it is next
to impossible to render them fit for the storage of any other liquid.
Fill the barrels with milk of lime, and let this remain in them for
several months, then rinse out well with plenty of warm water, and
steam them inside for ½ hour.
_Cleaning Bottles._--(1) The commonest plan is by means of water and
small shot. But lead shot, where so used, often leaves lead carbonate
on the internal surface, and this is apt to be dissolved in the wine
and other liquids afterwards introduced, with poisonous results; and
particles of the shot are sometimes inadvertently left in the bottle.
Fordos states that clippings of iron wire are a better means of
rinsing. They are easily had, and the cleaning is rapid and complete.
The iron is attacked by the oxygen of the air, but the ferruginous
compound does not attach to the side of the bottle, and is easily
removed in washing. Besides, a little oxidised iron is not injurious
to health. Fordos found that the small traces of iron left had no
apparent effect on the colour of red wines; it had on white wines,
but very little; but he thinks it might be better to use clippings of
tin for the latter. (2) Take a handful of common quicklime, such as
bricklayers use, and a handful of common washing soda; boil them in a
large kitchen iron saucepan (which will only be cleaned, not damaged,
by the process). When cold, the fluid will be lye; put this into the
vessel you want to clean with some small pebbles; make it warm if
you can, and shake up or let it soak according to the nature of the
vessel. (3) Gypsum, free from silicate, marble, or bruised bones, is
preferable to shot or sand. Sulphuric acid and bichromate mixed, are
best to free porcelain and glass from organic matter.
_Drying Bottles._--After washing, bottles and decanters should be
thoroughly dried inside. Let them first drain completely, then warm
them slightly and blow in fresh air by means of a pair of bellows;
this will absorb the moisture and leave the interior quite dry.
_Corks and Corking._--Cheap bad corks are always dear; the best corks
are soft, velvety, and free from large pores; if squeezed, they
become more elastic and fit more closely. If good corks are used, of
sufficiently large size to be extracted without the corkscrew, they
may be employed many times in succession, especially if they are
soaked in boiling water after, which restores them to their original
shape, and renews their elasticity.
[Illustration: 68. Corking Bottles.]
The most common mode of fastening down corks, is with the ginger-beer
knot, which is thus made:--First the loop is formed as at _a_ Fig.
68, then that part of the string which passes across the loop is
placed on the top of the cork, and the loop itself is passed down
around the neck of the bottle, and by pulling the ends of the cord
it is made tight beneath the rim; the ends of the string are finally
brought up, and tied either in a double knot, or in a bow on the top
of the cork.
For effervescing drinks, such as champagne, which require to be kept
a longer time and are more valuable, a securer knot is desirable,
which may be made thus:--A loop as at _b_ is first formed, and the
lower end is then turned upwards and carried behind the loop, as
shown at _c_; it is then pulled through the loop as at _d_, and in
this state is put over the neck of the bottle; the part _a_ being on
one side, and the two parts of the loop on the other; on pulling the
two ends, the whole becomes tight round the neck, and the ends, which
should be quite opposite, are to be brought up over the cork, twice
twisted, as at e, and then tied in a single knot.
Insects are often troublesome in devouring corks. This evil may be
prevented by the following remedies. (1) Smear petroleum over the
corks and bottle-necks, (2) Dip the cork and neck into a paste of
quicklime which has just been slaked, and let it concrete on the
bottle.
=Aerated Drinks.=--These may be divided into two classes, alkaline
and saccharine. The alkaline, usually called mineral waters, are
such as soda, seltzer, potass, &c.; while the saccharine are those
which contain a portion of sugar, such as ginger beer, lemonade, and
the various drinks made from the syrups. The alkaline mixtures after
settling in the tanks, are usually passed through a lawn sieve, and
then pumped through the machine, which impregnates them with carbonic
acid gas. Saccharine drinks do not undergo this process, but a given
quantity is put into each bottle or siphon, and the aerated water is
forced into the bottle on it.
Either hard or soft water may be used for aerated drinks, so long
as it is pure; when any doubt exists, it is always best to have it
filtered. When a choice of water can be had, use hard or spring water
for saccharine drinks.
The following recipes may be varied considerably. Some of the best
beverages have been produced by mixing several of the essences
together, and altering the colour. In all these drinks it is the
essence that is used, as the fresh fruit will not do for bottle
goods; while for the fountain drinks, the fresh fruit, being consumed
as soon as mixed, forms a creamy beverage much in demand.
In all cases, in warm weather, it is advisable to have the factory
as cool as possible, and more particularly the water. It is a good
system and is employed in many factories, to have the pump of the
machine surrounded with ice, the refrigerator being external; any
kind of ice may be used.
In regard to the machinery, fountains, &c., used in the manufacture
and dispensing of aerated beverages the reader is referred to the
catalogues of the various manufacturers of the same.
Saccharine drinks are never pumped through a machine, but a given
quantity of the syrup is put into each bottle by means of a syrup
measure-tap, or better still, a syrup pump attached to the filling
machine, and the aerated water is bottled on it.
Following are the principal saccharine aerated beverages:--
_Champagne Cider._--This is lemonade syrup flavoured with pear
essence, and coloured with the sugar colouring.
_Gingerade._--(1) Mix 5 oz. essence of cayenne, 5 oz. essence of
ginger, and 5 oz. water; (2) dissolve 3 lb. citric acid in ½ gal. hot
water; (3) dissolve 4 oz. magnesia and 20 lb. fine loaf sugar in 3¼
gal. pure water. Filter the first compound and add 7 oz., also 14 oz.
of the second, to the third; there will be no cloudiness; bottle at a
pressure of 70 to 80 lb., using 1 oz. syrup to a bottle.
_Ginger Ale._--This is ginger-beer syrup coloured slightly with sugar
or saffron colouring. An addition of pineapple will also greatly
improve the flavour. Bottle as for lemonade. Add albumen compound,
q.s.
_Ginger Beer._--This is lemonade syrup flavoured with essence of
ginger and capsicine. The soluble essence of ginger is added to
the syrup by dropping the quantity required on to pieces of sugar,
when the syrup is lukewarm; the palate will be the best guide
for quantity, as the essences vary much in strength. The albumen
compound is to be added at the same time as the essence; bottle as
for lemonade, using ¾ oz. to a bottle.
(_a_) A strong ginger beer is made by boiling with every gallon of
water, 2 lb. loaf sugar, and 1 oz. bruised ginger, 1 oz. cream of
tartar, and one small lemon, sliced. To the cooled mixture some
yeast is added, and the whole is set aside for fermentation. When
the tumultuous fermentation is over, the liquid is bottled. Ginger
beer thus made is, when properly fermented, of considerable alcoholic
strength, equal at least to the strongest Scotch ale.
(_b_) Keeps for many months. Take white sugar, 20 lb.; lime juice,
18 (fluid) oz.; honey, 1 lb.; bruised ginger, 22 oz.; water, 18 gal.
Of course the quantities can be modified. Boil the ginger in 3 gal.
water for ½ hour, the sugar, the lime juice, and the honey with
the remainder of the water, and strain through a cloth. When cold,
add the white of one egg and ½ oz. (fluid) essence of lemon. After
standing four days, bottle.
(_c_) Boil a sliced lemon with 1 oz. ground ginger in ½ pint water
for ½ hour; stand to settle, and pour off clear part into a vessel
containing 5 qt. cold water; add 1 lb. lump sugar and 1 oz. cream of
tartar; ferment with 2 oz. German or other yeast spread on toast or
plain bread; stand to ferment in warm place; cover from dust; bottle
soon as fermented; drink in three days.
(_d_) White sugar, 1 lb.; cream of tartar and ginger, each 1 oz.;
honey, 2 oz.; lemons, 2; water, 2 gal.; tartaric acid, 40 gr.; white
of an egg. Bruise the ginger, and let the water boil for 10 minutes;
pour it on the cream of tartar, sugar, and lemons. Let it stand till
cold, then add white of an egg and a tablespoonful of yeast; let it
work 6 hours, then add tartaric acid and bottle directly.
(_e_) Put into a 30 gallon brew 2 lb. of good fresh brewer’s yeast,
and stir it up well. Now allow it to ferment, taking care that there
shall be a gradual rise in temperature during fermentation. Skim
the yeast off carefully until the beer is ready for bottling (which
will not be under 24 hours), then add your eggs, and bottle quickly.
After bottling lay the bottles down, as they will mature better
than if standing up. The eggs have no effect on the strength of the
beer. The barm should not be skimmed off too often; it is necessary
to allow a good head to form before skimming. About three times
should be sufficient. 70° F. is too high a temperature to commence
a fermentation; better commence at 63° or 64° F. Beat up the eggs
with a birch rod, mixing well with 2 or 3 pints of beer; add it to
the beer after the fermentation is finished, then well mix the whole
together and bottle. If the fermentation has been conducted properly,
it will not be necessary to rack into a clean cask before fining and
bottling. Use sufficient yeast (2 lb.), avoid skimming too often, and
do not have the liquor too hot.
_Ginger Champagne._--This refreshing and agreeable beverage is,
according to a French recipe, made as follows:--Take 60 gal. water;
add 40 lb. ginger cut in small pieces, and gently boil for ½ hour,
carefully removing any froth that may arise. Cool the liquor as
quickly as possible, and when at a blood-heat (100° F.) add 9 lb.
raisins chopped fine, and the juice of 6 doz. oranges and 6 doz.
lemons. Allow the liquid to ferment, and after standing a month it
may be bottled in the usual manner. If desired, the ginger may be
omitted, and the number of oranges increased to 18 doz.
_Lemonade._--(_a_) A difference of opinion exists as to whether this
syrup is best by simmering over a slow fire, or by merely pouring
boiling water on the ingredients; but this is greatly influenced
by the quality of the water used. The quantity of sugar and citric
acid used to a gallon of syrup is also subject to variation, as some
like it more acidulated than others. The usual proportions are 27
lb. loaf sugar and 12 oz. citric acid, previously dissolved, to 3
gal. water. Simmer over a slow fire for 5 minutes; carefully skim
it and strain through a felt bag while hot; when cooled down to the
warmth of new milk, add about ½ oz. oil of lemon. A slight head is
considered an improvement, to produce which add about ½ oz. of the
French gum extract to 1 gal. syrup; 1 oz. of syrup is to be put into
the bottle, and the aerated water bottled on it at a pressure of 90
to 100 lb.
(_b_) Rinse out with boiling water an earthen glazed vessel, to warm
it; put into it about 27 lb. loaf sugar and 12 oz. citric acid,
previously dissolved in a small quantity of boiling water; stir
occasionally, and when properly dissolved, strain it through a felt
bag. Drop oil of lemon on some large lumps of sugar till they have
taken up ½ oz.; when the mixture has cooled down to the warmth of new
milk, drop in the lumps of sugar, and see that they are dissolved
before proceeding to use it. Tartaric acid may be used in place of
citric acid, but it is not so good. Use 1 oz. to each bottle, and
bottle as for (_a_).
As lemonade syrup forms the basis for so many of the saccharine
drinks, it may be as well to state that some makers prefer to use
less water, as well as to vary the proportions of citric acid and
sugar; it is also considered an improvement to add a drop or two of
otto of roses to each gallon of syrup; this, without adding at all to
the quality of the drink, throws off a pleasant aroma on the opening
of a bottle. Caramel is used for a strong colour.
_Nectar._--This is lemonade syrup, flavoured with the essence of
pineapple.
_Orange Champagne._--Take 7 gal. water, 20 oz. citric acid, 54 lb.
sugar. When cold add to each gallon 3½ oz. orange tincture; colour to
fancy (sugar colouring), add ¼ oz. albumen compound at the rate of 1½
oz. to a ½ pint bottle. This is a very delicious drink, and should be
put up in champagne bottles; a special corking machine is required,
and also a better cork than the one used for lemonade.
_Pepper Punch._--Take 1¼ oz. concentrated punch to 1 gal. plain
syrup; mix well; add a few drops essence of capsicine. About 1½ oz.
of the syrup for each bottle, filling up with aerated water.
_Tonic Lemonade._--Lemonade syrup flavoured with quinine, using the
same quantity as for tonic water; or to suit the palate.
The chief ingredient in all saccharine aerated drinks is the syrup.
This is formed by making concentrated solutions of sugar in pure
water, or in water containing the principles of various flavouring
substances; the former are called simple, and the latter compound
syrups.
There are many precautions to be taken in order to ensure the
production of good syrups, the most important being, perhaps, the
selection of the sugar. Cane-sugar only should be used, and that
should be perfectly refined. The least shade of colour in the sugar
is due to the presence of impurities, and syrup prepared from such
sugar not only has an unpleasant flavour, but is also very difficult
to keep. The use of common or brown sugar may be regarded, in many
cases, as an adulteration.
Syrups are very easily prepared. A hemispherical copper basin, not
tinned, but well polished, and kept scrupulously clean, is the
apparatus employed. This basin stands on three legs, and is furnished
with a false bottom, which is also hemispherical. The two hemispheres
are surrounded by a copper cylinder, fitted with a lid; the three
parts of the apparatus are fixed together by means of two circular
iron rings, which are fitted to the circumference of the hemispheres
and to the bottom of the cylinder, the whole being well pinned or
bolted together. A stop-cock in the outer hemisphere communicates
by means of a short pipe with the inner one, and serves to withdraw
the contents. Another cock, placed almost at the top, serves for the
admission of steam between the two bottoms; and the condensed water
is drawn off by means of a third cock communicating only with the
outer bottom, and placed at a short distance from the first. The
whole apparatus may be of any convenient size. Its chief advantage
is that the syrup can be heated to the required degree with the
utmost nicety; the steam is admitted until this degree is reached,
and the supply may then be stopped in a moment, thus ensuring perfect
regularity of working.
There are many circumstances which tend to produce changes in
syrups when made, and to cause them to degenerate and become
worthless; these must be carefully guarded against. The most
common is fermentation; this may be either the result of too short
or too long-continued boiling; or of the presence of an excess of
mucilaginous substances; or an imperfect clarification of the syrup
will also produce it in the course of time. But the most frequent
cause of fermentation is found in leaving the syrup in a warm place,
or in vessels which are not completely filled, and especially if they
happen to have been wet when the syrup was introduced. In order to
guard against under or over-boiling of simple syrups, it should be
laid down as a rule that they stand at 32° B. when boiling, and when
cold at 34° B. in winter, and 35° B. in summer. They should then be
bottled, and stored in a cool cellar.
In the preparation of syrups, which are solutions of sugar, more or
less strong according to the object for which they are used, care
should be taken to employ only the best refined sugar, and either
distilled or filtered rain-water, as they will be rendered much less
liable to spontaneous decomposition, and become perfectly transparent
without the trouble of clarifying. When, however, impure sugar is
employed, clarification is always necessary. This is best done by
dissolving the sugar in the water or fruit juices cold, and then
beating up a little of the cold syrup with some white of egg and 1 or
2 oz. cold water, until the mixture froths well; this must be added
to the syrup in the boiler, and when the whole is frisked up to a
good froth, heat should be applied, and the scum which forms removed
from time to time with a clean skimmer. As soon as the syrup begins
to simmer it must be removed from the fire and allowed to stand
until it has cooled a little, when it should again be skimmed, if
necessary, and then passed through a clean flannel. By using refined
sugar, however, all this trouble of clarification can be avoided.
When vegetable infusions or solutions enter into the compositions of
syrups, they should be rendered perfectly transparent by filtration
or clarification, before being added to the sugar.
The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will, in general, be found
to be 2 lb. to every pint of water or thin aqueous fluid. These
proportions allow for the water that is lost by evaporation during
the process, and are those best calculated to produce syrup of proper
consistence and possessing good keeping qualities. They closely
correspond to those recommended by Guibourt for the production of a
perfect syrup, which, he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to 16
parts of water.