This, and also the vessels with which the milk comes in contact, must
be kept scrupulously clean by the aid of constant scalding, to be
followed by rinsing with cold water, and drying in the air. The milk
is exposed in the pans for varying periods in order that the globules
of fat may have an opportunity of separating from the milk and
floating on the surface. This process is now very commonly replaced
by the use of a hydro-extractor, in which centrifugal action breaks
up the milk into cream and “skim milk” without any need for waiting.
According to the older practice the milk is left to stand for a
considerable time, but no advantage is gained by exceeding 24 hours;
in fact the best authorities say that it should be skimmed before the
surface begins to look wrinkled, as this appearance is a symptom of
incipient putrefaction. Large shallow perforated tin ladles are used
for removing the cream, which should be carefully deposited, without
splash, in white stoneware jars holding 2 to 12 gal., according to
the size of the dairy. Common glazed earthenware is to be avoided on
account of injurious chemical action. Skimming should be done twice
daily, and each time an addition of cream is made to the jar the
whole contents should be well but gently stirred with a stoneware
spoon. The jars should be covered with gauze to exclude insects.
In some dairies skimming is avoided by the simple plan of having a
hole in the bottom of the milk dish by which the milk is drawn off,
leaving the cream undisturbed.
Butter consists of the fatty portion of the milk, which is separated
by the process known as “churning,” the object of which is to rupture
the envelopes which hold the fatty matter. The bulk of this fatty
matter resides in the cream. Butter may be “made” by churning either
the milk or only the cream; and these may be either in a sweet or
sour (“lappered”) state. The most general practice is to churn the
cream alone in a lappered condition. For this reason the cream is set
to ripen in stoneware jars for several days, averaging about 3 days
in summer, and 5 or 6 in winter, preferably with occasional stirring.
It is the general opinion that to get the best butter, the operation
of churning should be comparatively slow, from ¾ hour to 2 hours--an
hour being a fair average, varying, however, according to the season;
the operation being much more tedious in winter than in summer. After
the butter is separated from the cream, the buttermilk remains,
containing the casein, salt, and sugar present in the original cream,
though a portion of these is taken up with the butter. The greater
the proportion of casein left in the butter, the poorer is the latter
in quality, and the more readily will it become rancid.
Commenting on Jenkins’ pamphlet, ‘Hints on Butter-making,’ the
_Field_ recently published the following remarks:--
“Cheese-making, owing to American importations, has recently been
so unprofitable that there is the more necessity for attention to
butter-making. Why should the dairies of France, Holland, Denmark,
and Sweden be able to supply an article in our markets which is
superior to the bulk of our own make? And why, above all, in
the matter of fresh butter, should Normandy be preferred by our
large purveyors to the home dairies, were it not that by superior
cleanliness and systematic management the quality is more dependable?
For instance, we have been told that the manager of the Midland Hotel
at Derby obtains all his butter from Normandy, because he finds it
more reliable and of better and more uniform quality than English
produce, notwithstanding that he lives in the centre of a great dairy
district, and that the foreign produce is liable to deterioration
by the journey. Here, then, the English farmer has an opportunity
which he is very wrong to neglect. Cheese does not pay--at least,
such varieties as are usually made; the demand for milk is limited;
but good sweet butter will always command a fair and often a very
high price. The reasons given by Jenkins for the inferior butter are
these: That the milk is not skimmed early enough--often not before
a certain amount of sourness has been developed in the milk, and an
appreciable amount of curd has therefore become mixed with the cream.
It is true that this curd increases the quantity, but it affects the
quality; the butter becomes rank, and fetches a low price. Careless
skimming, by taking off some of the milk with the cream, causes the
same results. Carelessness in churning or in the manipulation of the
butter, by which buttermilk and water are left in the butter. It may
be that this is sometimes intentional, as more weight is obtained;
but the quality is greatly injured. Much handling of the butter in
making up is also a source of injury. Dirt in any form, bad smells,
unskilful milking, bad food and water given to the cows; bad water,
soap, or other noxious substances used in washing the dairy and
vessels, are all causes of bad butter which must be guarded against.
Temperature being allowed to vary, bad packing, &c., are all elements
that require more care than is usually bestowed. As regards the
food, Jenkins points out that in a wet season, grass alone cannot be
depended on to give a good result--it is too succulent in its nature,
and should be modified by the use of 4 lb. of bean meal given to each
cow daily; whilst under ordinary circumstances the ration may consist
of 2 lb. to 3 lb. of decorticated cotton cake, or 2½ lb. of bran and
2½ lb. of oatmeal, or 3 lb. of oatmeal and 2 lb. of bean meal. And he
states, what all who have had experience will confirm, that by the
use of such food more cows can be profitably kept, and that a farmer
should look upon grass and hay as the most expensive articles of
food. Then Jenkins proceeds to describe the process of butter-making
adopted in the best districts of Normandy. We shall make no apology
for publishing these directions _verbatim_, as we shall thereby
assist the society in the dissemination of useful knowledge.
“1. Clean all dairy utensils by rinsing them with clean cold water,
and afterwards scrubbing them with boiling water; after which repeat
the cold rinsing.
“2. Cool the milk directly it is brought into the dairy by placing
the cans in a running stream, or by any other available method. This,
we may be permitted to observe, whilst most desirable, is often not
easily attainable. The Americans, in selecting the site for the
dairy, always prefer the base of a hill, so as to secure two very
important factors--shelter from the sun and a cold spring of water.
If running water cannot be obtained, that from a deep well may be
used.
“3. Set the milk at a temperature of not exceeding 55°F. in glazed
earthenware or tin pans. The question of whether these shall be
shallow or deep will depend upon our facilities for reducing the
temperature. If we have running water or ice, there is no doubt
that the deep cans thus surrounded offer a greater surface of milk
to the cooling influence, and this rapid and regular cooling causes
the cream to rise freely and quickly; but if we have not these
facilities, then shallow pans are preferable.
“4. Skim after 12 hours with a perforated tin saucer, and take care
that nothing but cream is removed; 12 hours after, skim a second
time; but this should not be mixed with the first skimmed cream
at all, if our object is to make the finest class of butter; but
otherwise it must be mixed with the first cream just before churning.
Of course by following this plan we do not obtain the maximum
produce, but we have the best quality. If the cream is too thick, a
little pure water may be added, but the addition of milk should be
avoided.
“5. Keep the cream, until the time for changing, in the coldest place
available, in covered earthenware or tin vessels.
“6. Churn the cream at a temperature of 57° to 60° F., and obtain
this by gradually raising or lowering the temperature by placing the
vessel in a bath of warm or cold water. Use an ordinary revolving
barrel, or a midfeather churn, fitted with a spigot. The more
simple the churn, and the less mechanism, the more easily is it
churned. Thomas and Taylor’s Self-acting Eccentric Churn (Stockport,
Cheshire), which gained the first prize at Bristol, is recommended,
to be turned at from 50 to 60 revolutions per minute. Stop the
churning at once when the butter comes, however small the globules
may be. Remove the buttermilk by allowing it to run through a hair
sieve, and return any butter globules to the churn.
“7. Work the butter slowly with cold water by half filling the churn,
giving it 3 or 4 turns, and then withdrawing the water. Repeat the
working until the water comes out clear; this is of great importance.
Remove the butter by a pair of wooden patters, and press out the
water by passing it under a kneading board, or on a larger scale, by
using a revolving butter worker. The board and roller can be obtained
for 13_s._ 6_d._, of How, 13, Bishopsgate-street, E.C.; or of T.
Bradford and Co., 140, High Holborn. Avoid using the hand.
“8. Make up the butter as is most saleable, and pack it in small
packages, lined first with white paper, and then with new and clean
muslin previously well rinsed in boiling water and again cooled, &c.”
We often consider the French our inferiors in agricultural matters,
but they have built up a position upon butter and cheese which has
made two or three departments absolutely wealthy, and they still
pursue the system in a most business-like and thrifty manner. We
wish we could point to a single English county in which one-half is
done with butter that is done in Calvados; but while we are content
to grow corn at a loss, and buy our dairy produce at considerably
more than we can get it for at home, we shall continue to contribute
to the wealth of Normandy and the difficulties which beset the land
question at home. Our producers must first break the back of the
middleman, and then there will be no such facts existing as the
best fresh butter a drug at 11_d._ a lb. in some of our country
districts, while it is 1_s._ 10_d._ in London.
Butter, Potting.--The best month of the year in which to pot butter
is May, or, at any rate, the business should be completed before the
hot weather comes on. If the butter is to be kept for several months,
it will be necessary to put a good deal of salt with it; 1 oz. salt
to 1 lb. butter will not be found too much. To ensure the proper
incorporation of the salt, it is best to add it by small quantities
at a time, kneading and re-kneading the butter till the whole is
thoroughly mixed. It must then be pressed firmly into wooden tubs,
or “kits,” as they are technically called; or stone jars may be used
if preferred. It is hardly necessary to add that great care must be
taken to have every vessel employed in the preparation as clean and
sweet as possible. Another very simple way to preserve butter is to
have a good-sized earthenware jar or pan filled with some strong
brine, and place it at hand in the dairy. Into the brine put from
time to time, as it can be spared, ½ lb. of fresh butter, each piece
being folded up separately in thin muslin. The only care required
is to be certain that the butter is always thoroughly covered with
brine: it will sometimes be necessary to put a weight on the butter,
as it has a tendency to rise to the surface when the brine is strong.
The butter will keep in this manner for weeks, or even months, and,
besides the advantage gained by this plan of being able to take
out just as much as is required for use at a time; there is the
additional benefit of having preserved fresh butter, as it does not
absorb the salt.
Butter, Rancid.--(_a_) Rancid butter may be recovered and sweetened
by washing and kneading it well, first in new milk, and afterwards
in cold spring water, butyric acid, on which the rancidity depends,
being freely soluble in new milk.
(_b_) Let the butter be melted and skimmed as for clarifying; then
put into it a piece of bread, well toasted all over. In a minute or
two the butter will lose its offensive smell and taste.
(_c_) Beat the butter in a sufficient quantity of water, in which you
put 25-30 drops lime chloride to 2 lb. butter. After having mixed it
till all its parts are in contact with the water, it may be left in
for 1-2 hours, afterwards withdrawn, and washed anew repeatedly in
fresh water.
_Cheese._--When milk is curdled, it separates into two portions,
curd and whey. The former consists of the butter and casein, and
produces cheese; the latter is mainly water, with the sugar and
mineral constituents of the milk in solution. Milk for cheese-making,
which is more or less rich in cream, according to the kind of cheese,
is placed in vats at a temperature varying from about 70° to 85°
F., with the due amounts of rennet and colouring matter, for 1-1½
hour under cover. The rennet must be prepared from perfectly fresh
(untainted) calves’ veils soaked in soft water--the halves of 1½
veils steeped in ½ gal. water will suffice for 250 lb. of cheese. The
best colour is liquid arnatto, ½ fl. oz. to 25 lb. cheese.
As soon as the curd has set, say 1-1½ hour, the curd is “cut” by a
special implement and broken up by the hand, a process demanding much
skill and care. This completed, the curd is subjected to pressure,
with the object of expressing the whey, which latter is drained off.
The pressure is increased and judiciously regulated as the curd
hardens, so as to remove all the whey without losing any butter.
Various appliances are in use for this purpose. When the curd has
been thoroughly freed from whey, it is broken up, salted in due
proportion, and again submitted to repeated and increasing pressings.
Finally it goes into the curing room to ripen.
Rennet.--Rennet is easily made at home, and costs less than half
what the same quantity is charged when bought ready-made. Home-made
rennet is also much stronger than the bought preparation and is
useful in making summer delicacies. Get a calf’s maw from a butcher.
They always keep them on hand, and charge about 1_s._ each. Tie the
skin tightly at one end, with a double loop of twine, and leave it
in a dairy or cool larder. When you want rennet, cut a piece about 1
in. square, and soak it in a teacupful warm water all night. Next
day, take out the bit of maw, and to 1 pint cream or milk, use 1
large tablespoonful of the liquid. As a rule, the Gloucestershire
cheese-makers do not manufacture their own rennet but buy it ready
prepared. The kind generally employed is Hansen’s Patent Rennet
Extract, which is used in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful extract to
6 gal. milk.
Cream Cheese.--Take ½ pint very richest cream and a cheese cloth.
Pour the cream into the cloth, and lay it upon one of your dairy pans
for an hour. Then take a perfectly clean knife and scrape off any
cream that may have stuck to the cloth, and lay it on the top and
sides of the cheese. Tie it up somewhat loosely, and hang it up to
drip; open it from time to time, and remove any cream that has stuck
to the cloth, and place it as before. When it stops dripping the
cheese is ready, and will turn out easily. The cheese should always
be used the same day it is made. In summer a few hours will suffice.
If you tell your dairywoman the day before, she will have thicker
cream for the cheese by keeping some of the milk that is set for
cream 12 hours or more beyond the usual time for ordinary purposes
before skimming it. The quantity of cream depends of course on the
number of your party; ½ pint is enough for 6-8 people. If the cream
be rich and the cheese well made, it will be soft, but without losing
its round shape in the least. Though tied up loosely at first, it
should be gradually tightened, after being opened from time to time
as directed above.
New-milk Cheese.--Mix 4 gal. new milk with a breakfastcupful of salt,
and a small teacupful of prepared essence of rennet. The milk should
be used warm as it comes from the cow, or, if it has cooled, all or
a part of it should be heated again, so that the whole marks about
95°F. The cheese is better if a pint or more of cream is added to
the milk, but it is not necessary. The curd and the cheese will be
hard if the milk is too hot. After about 2 hours the curd will have
set. It should then be slashed across in all directions, and some
of the whey ladled out with a cup. Next the curd should be drained
in a cloth laid over a colander, and then put into a wooden or tin
cheese mould in layers, with salt between. This should not be done
until the curd is fairly dry. The mould should be covered and turned
every day. Only a very light weight (if any) should be laid over.
At the end of 2 weeks the cheese should be put in a muslin bag, and
hung up in an airy, dry place, where the sun cannot reach it. Late in
the year try half or a third this quantity, as, though there is more
waste in a small cheese, it ripens quicker. May and June are the best
cheesemaking months. Cheese moulds are generally round or cylinder
shaped; but any strong box of wood, with gimlet holes at top, bottom,
and sides, and a lid that fits inside and not over (so that as the
cheese shrinks it still presses on it), will do for a makeshift.
Rush Cream Cheese.--To 1 pint thick, fresh cream, add ½ pint new
milk, warm from the cow, 1 teaspoonful pounded loaf sugar, and 1
tablespoonful rennet. Let it remain near the fire till it turns to
curd. Take the curd up with an egg slice, and fill the rush shape,
made as directed, and covered with a piece of straining cloth
inside. Lay a ¼ lb. weight on a saucer over the curd the first day;
afterwards a ½ lb. weight. Change the cloth every day until the
cheese is firm and begins to look mellow. Then dispense with the
cloths, and return the cheese to the rush shape and leave it to ripen
there. It may be ripened more quickly by keeping it from first to
last in a tolerably warm room. Although cream cheeses are generally
considered to be only in season during the summer, there is no reason
why they cannot be as readily made at any time of the year, and of
late they have come to be considered an almost indispensable delicacy
at a fashionable dinner-table. A little extra trouble is all that
is needed to ensure success. The cream and milk must be made rather
more than new milk warmth, and if rennet is used, the cream must be
covered and put in a warm place until the curd is come. During the
whole process the temperature should never be lower than 65°F.
Sage Cheese.--This is made by colouring the milk with juice pressed
from young red sage leaves and spinach. It should be added with the
rennet to the milk.
Much obscurity has hitherto hung around the natural processes
concerned in the development of flavour in cheese. Cheeses of
different districts and of different countries possess (apart from
mere richness due to the quantity of cream fat contained) each a
piquancy characteristic of itself, which the differences in the
mode of manufacture appear frequently much too slight to adequately
account for. In the cheese-making districts of the Continent,
however, this matter has been made the subject of scientific
investigations; and already results are forthcoming which throw much
light upon the subject. Among these, the researches of Duclaux,
at the dairy station at Fau, Cantal, France, deserve particular
attention, from the suggestiveness of the conclusions adduced. This
_savant_ has succeeded in isolating and in studying the life history
of certain microscopic organisms (microbia), in which he recognises
the primary agent that is engaged in modifying the constituents of
cheese. These organisms are nourished by the casein or curd of the
cheese, which they break up into a number of substances of simpler
constitution, some of which, like the fatty acids, are characterised
by highly piquant qualities. There are several ferments which produce
these odorous principles in different proportions, and thus give rise
to the differently flavoured cheeses; and the skill of the dairyman
largely consists (though he does not know it) in always employing the
same ferments or ripening agents, and in preventing other and less
desirable organisms from gaining a foothold. Fortunately, in course
of time, the useful ferments establish themselves in large quantities
in the dairy; they impregnate the air of the factory, and cling to
the vessels and the clothing of the operatives. From the moment the
milk is drawn, it becomes exposed to the influence of these germs,
which, developing rapidly in the warm milk, and becoming entangled
in the curd when the rennet is added, accompany it through the
operations that follow. On the Continent it appears common to curdle
the milk at a much higher temperature than we do. Duclaux speaks
of the rennet being frequently added just as the milk comes from
the cow; and if it has been allowed to cool, it is warmed up to the
natural temperature, 95°-98° F.
In making fine cheeses but little rennet is used, and the coagulation
takes a long time. The curd is soft and full of whey, which is
drained off slowly and as completely as possible, in order to get
rid of the milk sugar. That which is left is chiefly converted into
lactic acid, which renders the new cheese slightly acid. Soon,
however, the casein ferments begin to develop over the surface of
the cheese, giving rise to carbonate of ammonia, which neutralises
the acid, and leaves the cheese in the end slightly alkaline. From
the living cells of the ferment are at the same time secreted a
diastase similar to the active principle which in malt, and in all
germinating seeds, converts the starch into sugar. This penetrates
the curd little by little, and renders it soluble, and thus a
yellow translucent layer creeps gradually inward to the centre,
and replaces the white and opaque casein. When isolated, this
diastase attacked curd so strongly as to reduce it in 3 or 4 days
to the consistency and appearance of Camembert cheese; but, as the
flavouring organisms were absent, the resulting product was insipid
and tasteless. This action resembles strongly the digestion to which
the cheese is afterwards more completely subjected in the body.
Indeed, the similarity in properties between this peculiar principle
and the ferment of the pancreas is very marked. Simultaneously with
the digestive diastase there is also secreted a diastase capable
of coagulating the casein; but the cheese maker does not wait for
this to be developed, but adds to the milk some rennet, which is a
solution containing this diastase in considerable quantity. Such,
in short, is the rationale of cheese curing--first, an organised
ferment decomposes the curd, and produces in small quantities highly
flavoured compounds, which, like a condiment, give relish to the
whole mass; and secondly, a diastase, or unorganised ferment secreted
by the organism, mellows the curd and renders it more easily soluble.
The conditions most favourable for the exclusive development of
these organisms have been learnt by long practice; but should these
conditions at any time fail to be observed, some other ferment,
incapable of producing the particular kind of ripening wished for,
may intrude itself. The chamber is then said to be “sick,” and has
sometimes to be temporarily abandoned.
Special members of the yeast and mould families are also largely
concerned in the ripening of certain cheeses, and their action is
very similar to that mentioned above. Roquefort and Pontgibaud
cheeses, for example, are ripened by _Penicillium glaucum_, or, in
other words, bread mould. These cheeses are kept as near as possible
to 32° F., not because so low a temperature is most favourable to the
development of the mould, but because other ferments, and especially
such as give rise to putrefaction (vibrios), are thereby checked.
From the low temperature and unsuitable soil the ripening is apt to
proceed so slowly that it is customary to expedite the fermentation
by a liberal inoculation of mouldy bread, and by piercing holes to
enable the plant to penetrate inwards.