circumstances is to be recommended. There are two general methods
adopted; firstly, by gas fires, which are asbestos or metal made
incandescent by gas heat; these are made either portable, or by
fitting a specially made burner to an existing fireplace, and filling
the grate with Lumb asbestos (which is made for the purpose, and
when heated has the appearance of glowing coals); and secondly, by
gas stoves acting upon a similar principle to a hot-air coal stove.
The former are now made in great variety; they chiefly take the form
of an ornamental iron frame, in the centre of which is fitted a
fire-brick thickly imbedded in front with asbestos fibre; the burner
beneath comes immediately under the front of the fire-brick, and
when the gas is ignited, the asbestos at once becomes incandescent,
making it of cheerful and fire-like appearance, and the fire-brick in
a few minutes becomes highly heated, radiating its warmth into the
room. This description of stove and also the burner for existing
fireplaces can be obtained at any ironmongers or gas-fitters.
In nearly all gas fires and stoves the gas is burnt with an admixture
of air (atmospheric gas, 1 of gas and 2 of air), by means of an
atmospheric burner; this is not only a source of economy, but
atmospheric gas has the very great advantage of being smokeless; but
for this, a gas fire would be an impossibility; it must, however, be
borne in mind that although smokeless this gas gives off products
of combustion (carbonic acid, watery vapour, &c.), which must be
carried away by a flue or other means. The portable stoves are
always provided with a nozzle for attaching a smoke-pipe. There is
still a doubt as to which is most economical, coal or gas: we cannot
do better than quote the words of a well-known gas-stove maker,
Chas. Wilson, of Leeds. He says, speaking of heating by gas: “It is
not cheaper than coal, taking fuel for fuel and continually used,
unless, as in the case of offices where labour has to be employed
to light fires, clean grates, &c.; but it is cheaper than coal if
occasionally used, as in the case of bedrooms, or sitting-rooms used
by visitors, or rooms used by children for music, &c.; for bedrooms
it is especially adapted for use for an hour or two at night or
in the morning or for giving an unvarying heat all night. It is
preferable in the matter of cleanliness, and a true solution of the
smoke-abatement problem” (probably a coal-stove manufacturer would
speak as much in favour of fire-grates).
It should be seen when purchasing gas fires that they have silent
burners, as some make an objectionable hissing noise when in use.
[Illustration: 45. Calorigen Stove.]
“The Calorigen” Gas Hot-air Stove, Fig. 45 (Farwig & Co., 36 Queen
Street, Cheapside, London), consists of an outer sheet-iron casing
with a burner at the base inside, and proper accommodation for exit
of products of combustion. A coil of good-sized sheet-iron pipe is
affixed within the stove; the lower end of the coil is connected
with the outer air and the upper end opens into the apartment, thus
producing a free inflow of fresh air at any temperature desired, from
60° to 200° F. or higher at will. The chief advantage of a gas stove
is the immediate lighting and extinguishing, and needing no attention.
Another modern and very useful application of gas as a heating
medium is the “Geyser” or rapid water heater for the supply of hot
or boiling water to baths, lavatories, &c., or for business purposes
where it is not convenient or desirable to fit up a circulating
boiler (see hot-water apparatus). These heaters can be obtained from
any ironmonger’s or gasfitter’s. The principle is somewhat different
in the various makes, but it all results in the same thing, which
is to bring a small volume of water in contact with a large heating
surface. The apparatus is generally cylindrical in form. A cock is
at one side for attaching the cold supply, and the heated water
flows out from a spout at the other side; there is also a cock for
attaching the gas supply; they are made in various sizes to supply
and fill a bath three parts full of water at 100° F. in 5, 10 or 15
minutes, or to boil water at the rate of ½, 1 or 2 gal. per minute.
These are extremely useful appliances where gas is available, being
ready for use at a moment’s notice, and the water can be had at any
temperature at will; with a modern and properly constructed “Geyser”
the water is quite suitable for drinking purposes.
The Marsh-Greenall Gas Heating Stove, Fig. 46 (makers, Greenall and
Company, 120 Portland Street, Manchester), is both regenerative and
radiating, the heat developed and utilised per foot of gas by this
system being far greater than by the ordinary atmospheric stoves.
Ordinary luminous flames are used, these being fed by superheated
air. There is no smell and no danger “of lighting back.” The great
heat obtained by this system is radiated from a polished reflector.
The consumption of gas is only 12 ft. per hour. See Gas Heating also,
p. 994.
[Illustration: 46. Marsh-Greenall Gas Stove. 47. Eureka Oil Stove.]
_Oil Stoves._--Warming stoves which burn oil fuel are to be commended
for many purposes, but are not generally considered suitable for
living rooms--bedrooms, for instance--unless the air is continually
changed by open doors, &c., as there is a noticeable odour from
the burning oil. Rippengille’s are considered the best, and are
obtainable at almost any oil, lamp, or ironmonger’s store, or at the
chief retail agents, the Holborn Lamp Co., 118 Holborn, London. Fig.
47 is their “Eureka” cheerful reflector stove, suitable for office
or shop use. These stoves are adapted for warming conservatories
where a high temperature is not required, as a very small stove will
suffice to keep the frost out; they are also suitable for servants’
bedrooms and attics where no fireplaces exist. They are made with
metal (unbreakable) oil containers, which slide out for lighting,
trimming, &c., and they burn the ordinary petroleum oil; it naturally
follows that the better and more refined oils give the best results
with these stoves, with less liability of smell.
_Flues._--It will not be out of place to give a short treatise upon
flues, as the flues in a residence govern the efficiency of the
stoves and the comfort of the whole household.
There is a common error in blaming the flue for all faults. It can
be asserted that half the smoky chimneys are in no way the fault of
the flue at all, and when a smoky chimney does exist, nearly every
one flies to the chimney top with some device to govern the wind, and
this in very many cases is a total failure.
Flues are now generally constructed of two sizes, 9 in. and 14 in. A
7 in. flue would be sufficient for most warming stoves, but it has
to be borne in mind that the accumulation of soot quickly diminishes
the size internally, so that they are now never built less than 9
in. internal diameter. In building a residence, the following plan
is often adopted when cheapness is not the primary object, that is,
to build the usual square brick chimney, and within this to carry up
a 9 in. flue of glazed earthenware pipe (drain pipe), and the space
outside this pipe filled with concrete: this pipe flue is so easily
cleaned and is much less quickly fouled, and improves the draught.
The very general cause of smoky chimneys is that the chimney top is
below the level of some adjacent building, tree, or other object
that obstructs the free passage of the wind. In this instance the
trouble is only experienced when the wind is in certain quarters, and
sometimes this can be cured by a wind-guard or cowl (no particular
make can be recommended, as their efficiency differs under different
circumstances); but the only reliable remedy is to raise the chimney
either by pipe or brickwork to the required height. The manner in
which the annoyance is brought about is, that when the wind passes
over the chimney top its progress is arrested by the higher object,
and it may be said to rebound (the action is rarely quite alike in
any two instances), causing either a portion of the gust to pass a
short way down the chimney or to momentarily stop the up draught;
this will be noticed by the gusts of smoke that come from the stove
into the room.
When the smoke slowly oozes into the room, it is caused by sluggish
draught, or often by the construction of the grate. If the grate
has considerable distance between the fire-bars and the opening
into the chimney above, it permits the heavy cold air to accumulate
and obstruct the heated up-flow from the fire; this generally is
only noticeable when the fire is first lighted or heavily fed. It
is exactly the same result as is experienced with the old-fashioned
open kitchen ranges, which nearly always require a sheet of
metal or “blower” across the opening to prevent their smoking.
The above-mentioned grates require a strong draught to work them
perfectly; or if a strong draught does not exist, a small piece of
sheet-metal should be provided to fit over the open space above the
front bars when necessary to establish the fire, as explained with
the “Eagle” grate.
Sluggish draughts are from a variety of causes, among which might be
named, insufficient height of chimney; chimneys which by any cause
may become damp or cold, or lose their heat rapidly; leakages, holes
or fissures, and a variety of causes too numerous to mention here.
The interior surface of a chimney should be as smooth as possible,
and should be swept at regular and moderately frequent intervals,
otherwise the draught will be reduced.
Every fireplace should have a distinct and separate flue; sometimes
two fireplaces can be successfully worked into one chimney, but
provision must be made for tightly closing off either one when not in
use.
_Hot Water._--Heating by means of the circulation of hot water has
been in vogue many years, but has not found favour for warming
living-rooms and apartments, owing chiefly to the want of the air of
comfort, and the warmth is not quite so agreeable as that radiated
from an open fire; but this mode of heating is especially well
adapted for conservatories, cold halls, public buildings, &c., as the
heat-giving surface can be extended wherever desired, and so heat
the place equally throughout; and upon the low-pressure system there
is no danger, as the water cannot heat higher than boiling-point,
212° F., an advantage that the hot-air system does not possess. The
principle and cause of hot-water circulation will be found fully
described under hot-water apparatus; but in this arrangement there
are no draw-off taps, the services being for circulating only. For
small purposes the apparatus can be attached to the ordinary bath
boiler of the kitchen range; but there is a serious disadvantage
in this when the heat is for conservatories or where warmth is
particularly required at night, as that is the time when the kitchen
fire is not in use. For larger purposes, independent boilers are
used, varying in size according to the requirements. Portable boilers
with fire-box, &c., complete, can be obtained almost anywhere, and
most slow-combustion stoves (the “Tortoise,” for instance) can be
fitted with boilers for this purpose. It will be understood that
these boilers do not require cleaning out like kitchen-range boilers,
as there is no appreciable deposit, the same water being heated day
after day and only losing say a quart per month by evaporation.
The arrangement for a hall with an independent boiler is to have
several horizontal pipes suitably fixed one above the other and
known as a “coil,” from which the heat is radiated, and this coil
is connected by a “flow” and “return” pipe with the boiler: a small
cistern of about 2 gallons capacity is connected with, and fixed
a little above the level of the highest part of the coil in some
convenient place. The apparatus is charged through this cistern,
and a small quantity of water is added thereto periodically to make
good loss by evaporation and to keep the coil full; these coils are
usually covered with an iron grated casing, with a metal, slate, or
marble top, which is both a useful and ornamental adjunct to the hall.
For conservatories the coil is not used, the radiating pipes being
run along the wall near the ground; a portion of the pipe has a
shallow open trough cast upon it, and this is filled with water.
As the apparatus becomes heated, evaporation takes place, and this
saturates the air, moisture being essential for this purpose.
For public buildings, &c., coils are sometimes used; but more often
the pipes are run in grated-topped channels just beneath the floor,
the grating being level with the floor-boards; they are taken around
or across the building, as is most desirable to obtain an equable
heat.
The radiating pipes, whether single or forming coils, are generally
4 in. diameter, of cast iron (cast iron being a better conductor or
dissipator than wrought), and at the highest point m the apparatus
a hole is drilled and a small cock is inserted; this cock is opened
when charging, to allow of the free escape of the air in the pipes,
and it is sometimes of service to discharge any steam that is
generated. The pipes are made with a socket at one end, into which
the plain end of the next pipe is inserted and packed with yarn, &c.;
but a modern and rapid method of joining the pipes is that patented
and manufactured by Jones and Attwood, of Stourbridge; this joint
consists of two flanges with indiarubber packing between, which makes
a perfectly secure joint by tightening the flanges together; in this
method the ends of the pipes are of equal size.
As explained, the principle of circulation is exactly the same
in this as in a domestic hot-water supply apparatus. The most
popular form is that known as the Desideratum. The makers have also
introduced a singularly useful tool for cutting all pipes from 2 to
13 in. diameter.
_High-pressure Heating_, or which might be correctly termed steam
heating, consists of piping wholly, the pipe is smaller and of
wrought iron unusually strong, and a coil of it placed within the
fire-box fulfils the duty of a boiler (no boiler or large container
can be used on account of high pressure); from the furnace coil the
pipe is carried wherever required, a small quantity of water is put
within the apparatus and the air is driven out, after which the
apparatus is sealed or closed air and steam tight. When the heat is
applied, the water quickly forms steam, which at once finds its way
throughout the apparatus and heats it to a much higher temperature
than boiling water; and there is comparatively no danger whatever
pressure is exerted, as at the worst the pipe only splits, and no
disastrous explosion can occur; but this mode of heating cannot
be recommended, as it rarely works for any length of time without
requiring attention or repairs.
Bacon’s system of heating by water under pressure (J. L. Bacon &
Co., 34 Upper Gloucester Place, London, N.W.) is very good, as the
pressure is regulated by a valve, and the temperature and pressure
never become excessive. This system is worked by small, strong
wrought-iron pipes, and the apparatus is wholly filled with water.
The great convenience of the small-pipe system recommends it for
all purposes, as it can be carried into almost inaccessible places,
and can be utilised for warming air, as it passes through inlet
ventilators, and for small drying and airing closets, towel dryers,
and for numberless small but exceedingly convenient purposes which
large cast-iron pipes would be very unsuited for; and the advocates
of this system contend that as much heat is radiated from their small
pipes as from the ordinary large ones, as the former are heated to
a much higher temperature than the latter: in Bacon’s system the
highest limit is about 300° F.
The subject of a supply of hot water for baths and other purposes
will be discussed in the chapter dealing with the Bath-room. See also
p. 995.
_Steam Heat._--Steam heat may well be compared with stove and furnace
heat. Stove heat corresponds to direct radiation by steam, and
furnace heat to indirect. The supply of fresh air from the outside to
and over the hot-air furnace, and through hot-air flue into the rooms
through registers, is virtually the same as when it is conveyed by
means of steam-heated flues in the walls. Exhaust flues, for getting
rid of foul air, are equally essential. The stove, as representing
direct radiation in the same manner as the steam coil, or plate, in
the room, has the advantage over the latter of some exhaust of foul
air, however little, even when the smoke-pipe is not jacketed, for
the steam heat has none. In comparison with open-stove heat, steam
heat is at still greater disadvantage; for open stoves supply all the
qualities of complete radiation--the introduction of fresh air and
the escape of foul--to a degree wholly unattainable by steam heat,
whether direct or indirect, or by hot-air furnaces, which always
require special provision for the escape of foul air.
The advantage of stove and furnace heat over steam may be summed up
thus:--It is more economical, more uniform, more easy of management,
more suitable for small areas to be warmed, and is free from the
noises and dangers of steam. Irregularities of the fire in steam
heating are a constant source of inconvenience, and sometimes of
danger. The going down of the fire during the night-time, or its
neglect for a few hours at any time, is followed by condensation of
the steam. On the addition of fuel and increase of heat, steam again
flows quickly into the pipes where a partial vacuum has formed,
and here, on coming in contact with the condensed water, it drives
the water violently, and creates such shocks as sometimes occasion
explosions; or, at least, produces very disagreeable noises and
general uneasiness, and frequently causes cracks and leaks. Hence
direct steam heat, which for warming purposes alone is altogether
superior to indirect, has been well-nigh abandoned. Indirect steam
heat places the leaks out of sight, but they commonly lead to
mischief, and require special and expensive provision for access and
repair.
_Chemical Heaters._--Many salts in solution are capable of absorbing
a considerable amount of heat and slowly giving it off as they resume
a crystalline state. That most generally used is soda acetate, but
an improvement consists in mixing 1 lb. of soda acetate with 10 lb.
of soda hyposulphite, the latter assisting the melting of the mass
and retarding crystallisation. The mode of applying this principle
is to nearly fill a sheet copper or other metallic vessel, such as
a foot-warmer, with the solution, and seal it up. When required for
warming purposes, the vessel is placed in boiling or hot water till
the contents are quite fluid, after which it may be used as a source
of heat for 12-15 hours. Obviously the vessel may be placed in an
ornamental structure resembling a stove, or used as a foot-warmer, or
a muff-warmer, and in many other ways where fire is inadmissible.
_Hints on Fuel, &c._--Suggestions for materials which may be used to
eke out a scanty supply of coal cannot fail to be useful. One plan
consists in well bedding lumps of chalk under small coal. This gives
a long-lasting fire, but is apt to emit an unpleasant odour. Another
plan is to make clay fire-balls, using common clay, coal dust and
cinders with sand, in about the following proportions:--1 cwt. coal
dust, 2 cwt. sand, 1½ cwt. clay, well mixing the ingredients, shaping
into fist-like lumps, and drying over night before the fire; to be
put on when the surface of the fire is clear.
Some further hints for reviving fires will be found under the
Sick-room.
=Lighting.=--The illumination of a dwelling is a most important
consideration, as regards comfort and health.
_Daylight._--Natural lighting is provided for by windows. The window
area of a room should be well proportioned. In dwelling-rooms, it
may amount to half the area of the external wall containing the
windows; in churches, &c., ⅓ will suffice. Too great a window area is
objectionable, as it considerably lowers the interior temperature in
winter, unless very thick glass and double windows are provided. When
windows become steamed or covered with condensed moisture in frosty
weather, this can be cured by applying a very thin coat of glycerine
on both sides of the glass. When direct daylight cannot be got, great
advantage may be derived from using polished metallic reflectors.
_Luminous Paints._--Several bodies possess the property of absorbing
a certain amount of light and emitting it slowly. The most important
of these is calcium sulphide. This property has been utilised by
mixing the mineral with paint as a covering for surfaces where the
light is required. The illumination, however, is very feeble.
_Candles._--Candles will long retain a place in domestic lighting
from their safety and convenience for carrying about. At the same
time they are an expensive source of light, and not very powerful.
It may here be mentioned that there is a right and a wrong way of
blowing out a candle. If the candle is held on a level with the
blower’s mouth, or blown down upon, as usual, as it stands on a
shelf or table, the wick will smoulder and smoke till the room is
filled with its disagreeable smell, and the wick burned away so
that it can be lit next time with difficulty. If the candlestick
is held well above the blower’s head, and the flame blown out from
below, the ignited wick will almost immediately be extinguished,
and no trouble will be found in re-lighting the candle. Avoid cheap
candles; they burn rapidly to waste and play havoc with clothes and
furniture by “dropping.” The best form of candlestick yet introduced
is the “silver torch,” made by Wm. Nunn & Co., 204 St. George
Street, London, E. By this the candle is converted into a lamp, with
or without a globe as desired; the candle is completely consumed,
leaving no ends, and guttering and dropping are quite prevented.
Nightlights should always be burned under a glass shade, such as
Clarke’s.
_Oil Lamps._--All lamps intended for burning animal, vegetable, or
mineral oils as illuminants should have the following objects in
view:--To supply oil regularly to the wick; to apportion the supply
of air to the description and quantity of oil to be burnt; to provide
simple means for regulating the height of the wick, and consequently,
the flame; and finally, to place the burning portion of the lamp in
such a position as not to be obscured by the reservoir and other
portions. The oldest lamps, as the antique Etruscan, and the cruisie
of Scotland, were on the suction principle, and the wick depended
for its supply upon its own capillary action. As the level of the
oil was constantly varying, so the light varied also, and the first
attempts of inventors were directed to maintaining an equal level of
oil. The bird-fountain and hydrostatic reservoirs partly attained
this end, and the Carcel and Moderator systems were perfect of their
class, mechanical or pressure lamps. It is evident that suction lamps
depend for their efficacy upon the gravity of the combustible. A
spirit lamp, with a good wick, will burn very well, though the wick
be several inches above the liquid. With liquids volatilising at low
temperatures, there is always a danger of the formation of explosive
mixtures.