FOOTNOTES:

[1] See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel,[2] 415 sqq.; O. C.

Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, pp. 20 sqq., 372; J. Skinner, _Kings_, p. 43

seq.; T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 2058, n. 1, and references.

[2] The chief dates are: 720, defeat of a coalition (Hamath, Gaza and

Musri) at Karkar in north Syria and Raphia (S. Palestine); 715, a

rising of Musri and Arabian tribes; 713-711, revolt and capture of

Ashdod (cp. Is. xx.). That Judah was invaded on this latter occasion

is not improbable.

[3] Meluhha is held by many critics to be N.W. Arabia; the

identification of Musri is uncertain, see below.

[4] The phrase was a favourite one of Rib-Addi, king of Gebal

(Byblus), in the 15th century B.C.; _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_ (ed.

Knudtzon), Nos. 74, 79, &c. Jeremiah (v. 27) uses the simile in a

different way. For a discussion of Sennacherib's record, see Wilke,

_Jesaja u. Assur_ (Leipzig, 1905), pp. 97 sqq.

[5] For the early date (between 720 and 710), Winckler, _Alttest.

Unt._ 139 sqq., Burney, _Kings_, 350 sq.; Driver; Kuchler, &c.; for

the later, Whitehouse, _Isaiah_, 29 sq., in agreement with Schrader,

Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Cheyne, M'Curdy, Paton, &c.

[6] Isa. x. 28-32 may perhaps refer to this invasion. Allusions to

the Assyrian oppression are found in Isa. x. 5-15, xiv. 24-27, xvii.

12-14; and to internal Judaean intrigues perhaps in Isa. xxii. 15-18,

xxix. 15. For a picture of the ruins in Jerusalem, see Isa. xxii.

9-11. But see further ISAIAH (BOOK).

[7] See, on the story, Griffith, in D. Hogarth's _Authority and

Archaeology_, p. 167, n. 1.

[8] The house of _Nisroch_ should probably be that of the god

_Nusku_; see also Driver in Hogarth, _op. cit._ p. 109; Winckler,

_op. cit._ p. 84.

[9] It is commonly believed that Hezekiah constructed the conduit of

Siloam, famous for its Hebrew inscription (see INSCRIPTIONS,

JERUSALEM). But Isa. viii. 6, would seem to show that the pool was

already in existence, and, for palaeographical details, see _Pal.

Explor. Fund, Quart. Stat._ (1909), pp. 289, 305 sqq.

[10] The name Nehushtan (2 Kings xviii. 4, cp. _nahash_, "serpent")

is obscure: see the commentaries.

HIATUS (Lat. for gaping, or gap), a break in continuity, whether in

speech, thought or events, a lacuna. In anatomy the term is used for an

opening or foramen, as the _hiatus Fallopii_, a foramen of the temporal

bone. In logic a hiatus occurs when a step or link in reasoning is

wanting; and in grammar it is the pause made for the sake of euphony in

pronouncing two successive vowels, which are not separated by a

consonant.

HIAWATHA ("he makes rivers"), a legendary chief (_c_. 1450) of the

Onondaga tribe of North American Indians. The formation of the League of

Six Nations, known as the Iroquois, is attributed to him by Indian

tradition. In his miraculous character Hiawatha is the incarnation of

human progress and civilization. He teaches agriculture, navigation,

medicine and the arts, conquering by his magic all the powers of nature

which war against man.

See J. N. B. Hewitt, in _Amer. Anthrop_. for April 1892.

HIBBING, a village of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., 75 m. N.W. of

Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2481; (1905 state census) 6566, of whom 3537 were

foreign-born (1169 Finns, 516 Swedes, 498 Canadians, 323 Austrians and

314 Norwegians); (1910) 8832. Hibbing is served by the Great Northern

and the Duluth, Missabe & Northern railways. It lies in the midst of the

great Mesabi iron-ore deposits of the state; in 1907 forty iron mines

were in operation within 10 m. of the village. Lumbering and farming are

also important industries. The village owns and operates the water-works

and electric-lighting plant. Hibbing was settled in 1892 and was

incorporated in 1893.

HIBERNACULUM (Lat. for winter quarters), in botany a term for a winter

bud; in botanic gardens, the winter quarters for plants; in zoology, the

winter bud of a polyzoan.

HIBERNATION (winter sleep), the dormant condition in which certain

animals pass the winter in cold latitudes. Aestivation (summer sleep) is

the similar condition in which other species pass periods of heat or

drought in warm latitudes. The origins of these kindred phenomena are

probably to be sought in the regularly recurrent failure of food supply

or of other factors essential to existence due to the seasonal onset of

cold in the one case and of excessively dry hot weather in the other.

They are means whereby certain non-migratory species are enabled to live

through unfavourable climatic conditions which would end fatally in

starvation or desiccation were the animals to maintain their normal

state of activity.

I. _The Physiology of Hibernation. Hibernation and Aestivation_.--The

physiology of hibernation, as exemplified in mammalia, has been worked

out in detail by several observers in the case of some European species,

notably bats, hedgehogs, dormice and marmots. Of the physiology of

aestivation nothing definite appears to have been ascertained. It seems

probable, however, from observations upon the dormant animals that the

physiological accompaniments of winter and summer sleep are to all

intents and purposes the same. The state of hibernation, for example,

in the European hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_) is not distinguished by

external signs from the state of aestivation of the allied Mascarene

genus, the tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_). The lethargy in both cases

appears to be directly due to fall in the temperature of the organisms;

and the fall in temperature proceeds _pari passu_ with the slowing down

and weakening of the respiration and with retardation in the circulation

of the blood. Similarity, moreover, between hibernation and aestivation

is shown not only in their physiological accompaniments but also in the

species of animals which become seasonally dormant. Birds neither

hibernate nor aestivate. The tenrec (_Centetes_) of Madagascar, which

aestivates, closely resembles the hedgehog (_Erinaceus_) in habits and

belongs to the same order of mammalia. In the case of reptiles and

batrachians, snakes, lizards, tortoises, frogs and toads sleep the

winter through in cold countries; and some species of these groups

habitually bury themselves in the sand or mud in tropical latitudes

where drought is of periodical occurrence. Terrestrial molluscs lie

dormant in the winter in cold and temperate latitudes and their tropical

allies aestivate in districts where conditions enforce the habit. Some

fresh-water molluscs bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds

when the surface is covered with ice; others take refuge in the same way

when pools and tanks become exhausted during the dry season in the

tropics. In temperate and north temperate countries insects and

arachnida either die or retire to winter quarters during the cold

weather, and in the tropics they similarly disappear during times of

drought.

_Predisposing Causes of Hibernation._--The likeness between hibernation

and aestivation and the coincidence of the one with cold and of the

other with heat arrest the conclusion that the temperature of the

surrounding medium, whether atmospheric or aquatic, is the prime, much

less the sole, cause of either. The effect of extreme cold is to rouse

the hibernating animal from its slumber; and its continuance thereafter

brings about a state of torpor which proves fatal. This at least appears

to be the case with mammals, where actual freezing of the tissues is

followed by death because the gases are expelled from the fluids as

bubbles and the salts separate in the form of crystals. Some

cold-blooded animals, however, may be cooled to 0 deg. C. Fish have been

resuscitated after solidification in blocks of ice, and frogs have been

known to recover when ice has been formed in the blood and in the lymph

of the peritoneal cavity (Landois).

For the reasons given, all hibernating mammals take precautions against

exposure to extreme cold. They either bury themselves in the soil or

under the snow or seek the shelter of hollow trees or of caves, not

infrequently congregating in the same spot so that the temperature is

kept up by corporeal contact. Again the hibernating instinct may be

suspended unless the conditions are favourable for safely entering upon

winter sleep. It is alleged that bears in Scandinavia do not hibernate

unless food has been sufficiently plentiful during the summer and autumn

to fatten them for their winter fast; and hedgehogs and dormice in

captivity have been known to remain active in the cold until warm

sleeping-quarters were insured by placing hay and cotton-wool in their

cages. Finally the wood-chucks (_Arctomys monax_) in the Adirondacks

retire to winter quarters at about the time of the autumnal equinox,

when the weather is warm and pleasant, and emerge at the vernal equinox

before the snows of winter have vanished from the ground. These and

other facts justify Marshall Hall's conclusion that cold is merely a

predisposing cause of hibernation in the sense that it is a predisposing

cause of ordinary sleep. It has also been shown that the state of

hibernation cannot be forced upon snails in summer by submitting them to

artificial cold even almost to freezing point; but that at the proper

season they prepare for winter quarters at temperatures varying from 37

deg. to 77 deg. Fahr. Again insects sometimes retire to winter quarters

in the autumn when the temperature of the atmosphere is higher than that

of preceding days during which they retain their activity.

Thus the oncoming and ceasing both of winter and summer sleep depend to

a considerable extent upon conditions of existence other than those of

temperature. Darwin saw scarcely a sign of a living thing on his arrival

at Bahia Blanca, Argentina, on the 7th of Sept., although by digging

several insects, large spiders and lizards were found in a half-torpid

state. During the days of his visit when nature was dormant the mean

temperature was 51 deg., the thermometer seldom rising above 55 deg. at

mid-day. But during the succeeding days when the mean temperature was 58

deg. and that of the middle of the day between 60 deg. and 70 deg. both

insect and reptilian life was in a state of activity. Nevertheless at

Montevideo, lying only four degrees further north, between the 26th of

July and the 19th of August when the mean temperature was 58.4 deg. and

the mean highest temperature of mid-day 65.5 deg. almost every beetle,

several genera of spiders, land molluscs, toads and lizards were all

lying dormant beneath stones. Thus the animal-life at Montevideo

remained dormant at a temperature which roused that at Bahia Blanca from

its torpidity. Darwin unfortunately does not record whether the species

observed were identical in the two localities.

The temperature of animals in a profound state of hibernation is

approximately the same as that of the surrounding medium or at most a

degree or two higher. If, however, the temperature of the chosen

hibernaculum (winter quarters) falls as low as freezing point, life is

endangered at least in the case of mammals.

In most cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, the temperature is normally

only a little above that of the atmosphere, the two rising and falling

together. But, setting aside the young, especially of those species in

which the offspring are born or hatched at a comparatively early stage

of development, the majority of warm-blooded animals are able to

maintain a high and approximately level temperature irrespective of

decline in the temperature of the surrounding medium. This faculty of

temperature adjustment, however, appears to be absent or weakened in

most if not in all hibernating mammals both in their normal nocturnal or

diurnal sleep and in their winter sleep. In the case of European bats it

has been shown that the ordinary day sleep in summer differs only in the

matter of duration from the prolonged slumber of the same animals in

winter. The temperature falls with that of the atmosphere, respiration

practically ceases and immersion in water for as many as eleven minutes

has been known to prove innocuous. At moderate temperatures ranging from

45 deg. to 50 deg. F., dormice (_Muscardinus avellanarius_) and

hedgehogs (_Erinaceus europaeus_) alternately wake to feed and sink into

slumber. Dormice awake once in every twenty-four hours; the sleep of the

hedgehogs may last for two or three days. The temperature of the

hedgehog, when awake and active, rises to about 87 deg. F., that of the

dormouse to 92 deg. or 94 deg. F.; but during sleep the temperature of

both species falls to about that of the atmosphere. In other words, all

the phenomena characteristic of hibernation are exhibited in these

animals during the periods of sleep interrupting their periods of

wakeful activity. Sleep of this nature, for which the term "diurnation"

has been proposed, because it has only been observed in nocturnal

animals, lies phenomenally midway between the normal sleep of

non-hibernating mammals and the dormant condition in winter of

hibernating species. The stimulus of hunger appears to be the prime

cause of its periodic cessation. Since then the faculty of temperature

adjustment is in abeyance during the ordinary diurnal summer sleep in

hibernating mammals, which in this physiological particular resemble

reptiles, it seems probable that hibernation can only be practised by

those species in which the power to maintain, when sleeping, a permanent

average high temperature has been lost or perhaps never acquired. That

there is no broad line of demarcation between the ordinary sleep of

these hibernating mammals in which the temperature is known to drop

considerably and that of non-hibernating species is indicated by the

fact that the temperature of human beings and possibly of all

non-hibernating species falls to a certain, though to a limited, extent

in ordinary sleep.

The relation between the internal body-temperature and the respiratory

movements has been worked out in hibernating dormice, hedgehogs, marmots

and bats. When the temperature is below 12 deg. C., the torpid animal

exhibits long periods of apnoea of several minutes' duration and

interrupted by a few respirations. With the temperature rising above 13

deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the still inactive animal become

shorter, the respiration suddenly commencing and ceasing (Biot's type),

or gradually waxing and waning (Cheyne-Stokes' type). When the

temperature is at about 16 deg. C., the periods of apnoea in the

gradually awaking animal are very short and infrequent. When the

temperature is about 20 deg. and rising apace, respiration becomes

continuous and rapid and the animal is awake. These stages have been

especially recorded in the case of dormice. In the last stage the

respiration of hedgehogs and marmots is somewhat different, there being

a series of rapid respirations, often followed by a single deep sighing

respiration.

_Respiration_ appears to be totally suspended in animals in a complete

state of hibernation, if left undisturbed. It may however, be readily

re-excited by the slightest stimulus; and to this fact may perhaps be

attributed the belief that breathing does not actually cease. If a

hibernating hedgehog be lightly touched it draws a deep breath, and

breathing is maintained for a longer or shorter time before again

ceasing; but if at the same time the temperature of the atmosphere be

raised, respiration becomes continuous and lethargy is succeeded by

activity (Marshall Hall). The opinion that respiration is totally

suspended is supported by a number of facts. Hibernating marmots and

bats, for example, have been known to live four hours in carbon dioxide,

a gas which proves almost instantly fatal to mammals in a state of

normal activity (Spallanzani). A hedgehog which may be drowned in about

three minutes when awake and active, has been removed from water

uninjured when in deep winter sleep after twenty-two and a half minutes'

submergence. A hibernating noctule bat, when similarly treated, survived

sixteen minutes' immersion. Further proof of the suspension of

respiration has been furnished by experiments upon a bat which while in

a deep and undisturbed state of lethargy was kept in a pneumatometer for

ten hours without appreciably affecting the percentage of oxygen in the

air. The same animal, when active, removed over 5 cub. in. of oxygen in

the space of one hour from the instrument.

As in the case of respiration, _alimentation_ and _excretion_ are

suspended during hibernation.

The _circulation of the blood_, on the other hand, continues without

interruption, though its rapidity is greatly retarded. This fact may be

observed by microscopic examination of the wings of bats in a state of

winter sleep. Moreover, in the case of a hedgehog lethargic from

hibernation, it was experimentally shown that when the spinal cord was

severed behind the occipital foramen, the brain removed and the entire

spinal cord gently destroyed, the heart continued to beat strongly and

regularly for several hours, the contraction of the auricles and

ventricles being quite perceptible, though feeble, even after the lapse

of ten hours. After eleven hours the organ was motionless; but resumed

its activity when stimulated by a knife-point. Even after twelve hours

both auricles responded to the same stimulus, though the ventricles

remained motionless. Shortly afterwards the auricles gave no response.

On the other hand, when the spinal cord of a hedgehog in a normal state

of activity was severed at the occiput, the left ventricle ceased to

beat almost at once, and the left auricle in less than fifteen minutes;

the right auricle was the next to cease, whereas the right ventricle

continued its contraction for about two hours. Experiments upon marmots

have yielded very similar results. The heart of a marmot decapitated in

a state of lethargy continued to beat for over three hours. The

pulsations, at first strong and frequent and varying from 16 to 18 per

minute, became gradually weaker and less frequent, until at the end of

the third hour only 3 were recorded in the same length of time. Excised

pieces of voluntary muscular tissue contracted vigorously three hours

after death under electric stimulus. Only at the end of four hours did

they cease to respond. The heart of an active marmot killed in the same

way contracted about 28 times a minute at first, the number of

pulsations falling to about 12 at the end of fifteen minutes, to 8 at

the end of thirty minutes, and ceasing altogether at the end of fifty

minutes. Similarly the response of the muscles to galvanic shock failed

at a correspondingly rapid rate. It is evident, therefore, that during

hibernation the irritability of the heart is augmented in a marked

degree, and that the irritability of the left side of the organ is

scarcely less pronounced than that of the right side. Similar reduction

in the rate of the circulation has been demonstrated in certain

hibernating mollusca, Mr C. Ashford having proved experimentally that

the number of pulsations of the heart per minute gradually lessens with

a falling temperature. At a temperature of 52 deg. F. the number was 22

in the common garden snail (_Helix hortensis_), and 21 in the cellar

slug (_Hyalinia cellaria_). At a temperature of 30 deg. F. the pulsation

fell to 4 in the former and to 3 in the latter animal.

The nature of hibernation, and probably also of aestivation, and the

principal physiological phenomena connected with them, may be briefly

summarized as follows:--

1. During hibernation death from starvation and wasting of the tissues

is prevented by the absorption of fat, which, at least in the case of

mammalia, is stored in considerable quantities, sometimes in definite

parts of the body, during the weeks of activity immediately preceding

the period of winter sleep.

2. Every gradation seems to exist between ordinary sleep and

hibernation; the differences between the ordinary diurnal or nocturnal

sleep in summer of hibernating animals and their prolonged and

lethargic quiescence in winter are merely differences of degree,

differences, that is to say, of intensity and duration.

3. The physiological accompaniments of hibernation are: (a)

Cessation of all activities associated with alimentation and

excretion; (b) lowering of the body temperature to that of the

surrounding medium or to within a few degrees of it; (c) total or

almost total cessation of respiration, accompanied by power to survive

immersion for a considerable time in water or asphyxiating gases,

which prove rapidly fatal to the same animals when normally active;

(d) marked increase in the irritability of the muscles, especially

of those of the left side of the heart, whereby the pulsations of that

organ, although retarded, are uninterruptedly maintained; (e) a

slight exchange of gases in the lungs is kept up by the

cardio-pneumatic movement.

4. Amongst cold-blooded animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,

devoid of the faculty of temperature adjustment, the phenomenon of

hibernation or aestivation is of general occurrence wherever the

conditions of existence accompanying the onset of cold or drought are

inimical to active life. In hot-blooded vertebrates, on the contrary,

the phenomena are non-existent so far as birds are concerned;

aestivation is of very rare occurrence in mammalia, while hibernation

is practised by a comparatively small number of species; and in these

the faculty of temperature adjustment appears to be temporarily at all

events in abeyance.

II. _The Zoology of Hibernation and Aestivation._--Owing to the extreme

difficulty of keeping wild animals under observation in their natural

haunts for any lengthened time, it is almost impossible to get accurate

knowledge of the details of this state of existence. In a general way it

is known, or assumed from their disappearance, that certain species

retire to winter quarters in particular districts, but on such important

points as whether the winter sleep is continuous or interrupted, light

or profound, assured information is for the most part not forthcoming.

This is true even of familiar species inhabiting Europe and North

America, which have been objects of study for many years. It is still

more true of species occurring in countries uninhabited and rarely

visited, especially in winter, by naturalists interested in such

questions. The Chiroptera (bats) furnish an illustration of this truth.

It was formerly assumed that the winter sleep of these animals in north

and temperate Europe was complete and uninterrupted. Marshall Hall, for

example, remarked that "perhaps the bat may be the only animal which

sleeps profoundly the winter through without awaking to take food." It

was known, it is true, that in countries where gnats and other winged

insects disappear with the first frosts of winter, bats which feed upon

them retire to winter quarters in hollow trees, caves, sheds or other

places likely to afford them sufficient shelter. Here they hang

suspended, solitary or in companies according to the species. But a mild

spell of weather in mid-winter will sometimes entice a few to take wing

while it lasts, although they never appear in any numbers until

crepuscular and nocturnal insects are plentiful. But Mr T. A. Coward

has recently shown in the case of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats

(_Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum_ and _R. hipposiderus_), that during the

early period of their occupation of the winter retreat, hibernation, in

the strict sense of the word, does not take place, and that even later

in the season the sleep is constantly interrupted, especially when the

temperature of the air rises above 46 deg. F., and that during their

wakeful intervals they crawl about and feed apparently upon the insects

which live throughout the year in the caves. This is also true of the

long-eared bat (_Plecotus auritus_), and probably of other species of

this group. At Mussoorie in the Himalayas, and in other parts of

northern India, insectivorous bats, such as _Rhinolophus luctus_ and

_Rh. affinis_, pass the winter in a semi-torpid state, and are rarely

seen abroad during the cold season. The fruit-eating bats, on the

contrary (_Pteropidae_), which are more southern in their distribution

and are restricted in the Himalayas to the warmer valleys and lower

slopes of the mountains, are as active in the winter as at other times

of the year (Blanford).

Although almost as exclusively insectivorous as bats, moles and shrews

do not, so far as is known, hibernate. This distinction between two

groups so nearly alike in diet, no doubt depends upon the difference in

their habitats and in those of the creatures they live upon. By

tunnelling deeper in winter than in summer, moles are still able to find

worms and various insects buried in the earth beyond the reach of frost;

and shrews hunt out spiders, centipedes and insects which in their

larval, pupal or sexual stages have taken shelter and lie dormant in

holes and crannies of the soil, beneath the leaves of ground plants or

under stones and logs of wood. In view of the perennially active life of

the two insectivora just mentioned, it is a singular fact that the

common hedgehog (_Erinaceus europaeus_)--the only member of this order

besides genera referable to the moles (_Talpidae_) and shrews

(_Soricidae_) that inhabits temperate and north-temperate latitudes in

Europe and Asia--passes the winter in a state of torpor unsurpassed in

profundity by that of any species of mammal so far as is known. Possibly

the explanation of this seeming anomaly may be found in the bionomial

differences between the three animals. The subterranean feeding habits

of the mole render hibernation unnecessary on his part. Therefore the

shrew and the hedgehog, both surface feeders for the most part, need

only be considered in this connexion. As compared with shrews, amongst

the smallest of palaearctic mammals, the hedgehog is of considerable

size. Moreover, in point of vivacious energy it would be difficult to

find two mammals of the same order more utterly unlike. Hence in winter

when insects are scarce and demand active and diligent search, it is

quite intelligible that the shrews, in virtue of their smallness and

rapidity of movement, are able to procure sufficient food for their

needs; whereas the hedgehogs, requiring a far larger quantity and

handicapped by lack of activity, would probably starve under the same

conditions. Like the common hedgehog of Europe, the long-eared hedgehog

(_Erinaceus megalotis_) hibernates in Afghanistan from November till

February. The tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_), a large insectivore from

Madagascar, aestivates during the hottest weeks of the year; and

specimens exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London preserved the

habit although kept at a uniform temperature and regularly supplied with

food.

Amongst the Rodentia, no members of the Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits and

picas) are known to hibernate, although some of the species, like the

mountain hare (_Lepus timidus_), extend far to the north in the

palaearctic region, and the picas (_Ochotona_) live at high altitudes in

the Himalayas and Central Asia, where the cold of winter is excessive,

and where the snow lies deep for many months. It is probable that the

picas live in fissures and burrows beneath the snow, and feed on stores

of food accumulated during the summer and autumn. The Hystrico-morpha

also are non-hibernators. It is true that the common porcupine (_Hystrix

cristata_) of south Europe and north Africa is alleged to hibernate; the

statement cannot, however, be accepted without confirmation, because the

cold is seldom excessive in the countries it frequents, and specimens

exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in London remain active throughout

the year, although kept in enclosures without artificial heat of any

kind. Even the most northerly representative of this group, the Canadian

porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), which inhabits forest-covered tracts

in the United States and Canada, may be trapped and shot in the winter.

Some members of this group, like capybaras (_Hydrochaerus capybara_) and

coypus (_Myocastors coypus_) which live in tropical America, are

unaffected by the winter cold of temperate countries, and live in the

open all the year round in parks and zoological gardens in England.

Several of the genera of Myomorpha contain species inhabiting the

northern hemisphere, which habitually hibernate. The three European

genera of dormice (_Myoxidae_), namely _Muscardinus_, _Eliomys_ and

_Glis_, sleep soundly practically throughout the winter; and examples of

the South African genus _Graphiurus_ practise the same habit when

imported to Europe. If a warm spell in the winter rouses dormice from

their slumbers, they feed upon nuts or other food accumulated during the

autumn, but do not as a rule leave the nests constructed for shelter

during the winter. According to the weather, the sleep lasts from about

five to seven months. In the family _Muridae_, the true mice and rats

(_Murinae_) and the voles and lemmings (_Arvicolinae_) seem to remain

active through the winter, although some species, like the lemmings,

range far to the north in Europe and Asia; but the white-footed mice

(_Hesperomys_) of North America, belonging to the _Cricetinae_, spend

the winter sleeping in underground burrows, where food is laid up for

consumption in the early spring. The Canadian jumping mouse (_Zapus

hudsonianus_), one of the Jaculidae, also hibernates, although the sleep

is frequently interrupted by milder days. Some of the most northerly

species of jerboas (Jaculidae), namely _Alactaga decumana_ of the

Kirghiz Steppes and _A. indica_ of Afghanistan, sleep from September or

October till April; and the Egyptian species (_Jaculus jaculus_) and the

Cape jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_), one of the Hystrico-morpha, remain

in their burrows during the wet season in a state analogous to winter

sleep. The sub-order Sciuromorpha also contains many hibernating

species. None of the true squirrels, however, appear to sleep throughout

the winter. Even the red squirrel (_Sciurus hudsonianus_) of North

America retains its activity in spite of the sub-arctic conditions that

prevail. The same is true of its European ally _Sc. vulgaris_. The North

American grey squirrel (_Sc. cinereus_), although more southerly in its

distribution than the red squirrel of that country, hibernates

partially. Specimens running wild in the Zoological Gardens in London

disappear for a day or two when the cold is exceptionally keen, but for

the most part they may be seen abroad throughout the season. On the

other hand, ground squirrels like the chipmunks (_Tamias_) and the

susliks or gophers (_Spermophilus_) of North America and Central Asia,

at all events in the more northern districts of their range, sleep from

the late autumn till the spring in their subterranean burrows, where

they accumulate food for use in early spring and for spells of warmer

weather in the winter which may rouse them from their slumbers. The

North American flying squirrel (_Sciuropterus volucella_) and its ally

_Pteromys inornatus_ are believed to hibernate in hollow trees. All the

true marmots (_Arctomys_), a genus of which the species live at

tolerably high altitudes in Central Europe, Asia and North America,

appear to spend the winter in uninterrupted slumber buried deep in their

burrows. They apparently lay up no store of food, but accumulate a

quantity of fat as the summer and autumn advance, and frequently, as in

the case of the woodchuck (_A. monax_) of the Adirondacks, retire to

winter quarters in the autumn long before the onset of the winter cold.

The prairie marmots or prairie dogs (_Cynomys ludovicianus_) of North

America, which live in the plains, do not hibernate to the same extent

as the true marmots, although they appear to remain in their burrows

during the coldest portions of the winter. Beavers (_Castor_), although

formerly at all events extending in North America from the tropic of

Cancer up to the Arctic circle, do not hibernate. When the ground is

deep in snow and the river frozen over, they are still able to feed on

aquatic plants beneath the ice.

Amongst the terrestrial carnivora hibernation appears to be practised,

with one possible exception, only by species belonging to the group

Arctoidea. In north temperate latitudes both in Europe and Asia, as well

as in the Himalayas, brown bears (_Ursus arctos_) hibernate, so also

does the North American grizzly bear (_U. horribilis_), at least in the

more northern districts of its range. The smaller black bear of the

Himalayas (_U. tibetanus_) appears to lapse into a state of semi-torpor

during the winter, only emerging from his retreat to hunt for food when

occasional breaks in the weather occur. In the case of the American

black bear (_U. americanus_) the female seeks winter quarters

comparatively early in the season in preparation for the birth of her

progeny soon after the turn of the year; but the males remain active so

long as plenty of food is to be found. In the case of all bears, except

the Polar bear (_U. maritimus_), the site chosen as the hibernaculum is

either a cave or hole or some sheltered spot beneath a ledge of rock, or

the roots of large trees, more or less overgrown with brushwood which

holds the snow until it freezes into a solid roof over the hollow where

the sleeping animal lies. In the hibernating brown and black bears the

intestine is blocked by a plug commonly called "tappen" and composed

principally of pine leaves, which is usually not evacuated until the

spring. There is much diversity of opinion on the subject of the

hibernation of Polar bears. Their absence during the winter from

particular spots in the Arctic regions where icebound ships have spent

the winter, and the occasional discovery of specimens buried beneath the

snow, have led to the belief that these animals habitually retire to

winter quarters through the cold sunless months of the year. This may

possibly be the true explanation at least for certain districts. But it

has been alleged that bears, both adult and half-grown, may be seen

throughout the winter; and it is known that pregnant females bury

themselves in the autumn under the snow, where they remain without

feeding with their newly-born young until the spring of the following

year. Hence the absence of bears in the winter from the neighbourhood of

icebound ships may be explained on the supposition that the adult

females alone hibernate for breeding purposes, while the full-grown

males and half-grown specimens of both sexes migrate in the winter to

the edges of the ice-floes and to coast lines, where the water is open.

Before retiring to winter quarters the pregnant females store up

sufficient quantity of fat in their tissues not only to sustain

themselves but also to supply milk for their cubs. In the Adirondack

region and probably in other districts of the same or more northern

latitudes in North America, raccoons (_Procyon lotor_) retire in the

winter to some sheltered place, such as a hollow tree-trunk, and pass

the severest part of the season in sleep, emerging in February or March

when the snow has begun to disappear. In the same country, the skunks

(_Mephitis mephitica_), a member of the weasel family, also seek shelter

during the coldest portion of the winter. Merriam believes that the

hibernation of this animal is determined by cold, and not by failure of

food-supply, for he observes that skunks may frequently be seen in

numbers on snow lying 5 ft. deep at a time of the year when they feed

almost entirely upon mice and shrews which do not hibernate even when

the thermometer registers over twelve degrees of frost. In British North

America the badger (_Taxidea americana_) is said to hibernate from

October till April; but the duration of the period probably depends, as

in the case of its European ally (_Meles meles_), upon the length and

severity of the inclement season. In the last-named species the winter

repose is not as a rule sufficiently profound to prevent a break in the

weather rousing the animal from sleep to sally forth in search of food.

This interrupted hibernation takes place at least in England and even in

Scandinavia; but in countries where frost is continuous throughout the

winter it is probable that the badger's sleep is unbroken.

The one exception to the general rule that hibernation in the Carnivora

is restricted to the Arctoidea, is supplied by the raccoon dog

(_Nyctereutes procyonoides_) of Japan and north-eastern Asia, which is

said by Radde to hibernate in burrows in Amurland if food has been

sufficiently plentiful in late summer and autumn to enable the animal to

lay on enough fat to resist the cold and sustain a long period of fast.

If, however, food has been scarce, this dog is compelled to remain

active all through the winter. The Arctic fox (_Vulpes lagopus_),

although considerably more northern in range than the raccoon dog, does

not hibernate. It was long a mystery how these animals obtained food in

winter, but it has been ascertained that in some districts they migrate

southwards in large numbers in the late autumn, whereas in other

districts apparently they lay up stores of dead lemmings or hares, for

food during the winter months. In Australia the porcupine ant-eater

(_Echidna aculeata_) hibernates; and the habit is retained by specimens

imported to Europe if exposed to the cold in outdoor cages.

Instances of quasi-hibernation have been recorded in the case of man.

For example, in the government of Pskov in Russia, where food is scarce

throughout the year and in danger of exhaustion during the winter, the

peasants are said to resort to a practice closely akin to hibernation,

spending at least one-half of the cold weather in sleep. From time

immemorial it has been the custom when the first snows fall for families

to shut themselves up in their huts, huddle round the stove and lapse

into slumber, each member taking his turn to keep the fire alight. Once

a day only do the inmates rouse themselves from sleep to eat a little

dry bread.

Reptiles in which the body-temperature falls with that of the

surrounding medium pass the winter in temperate countries in a state of

lethargy; and specimens exported from the tropics into northern

latitudes become dormant when exposed to cold in virtue of their

inability to maintain their temperature at a higher level than that of

the atmosphere. The common land tortoise (_Testudo graeca_) of South

Europe buries itself in the soil during the winter in its natural

habitat, and even when imported to England is able, in some cases at

least, to withstand the more rigorous winter by practising the same

habit, as Gilbert White originally recorded. In Pennsylvania the

box-tortoise (_Cistudo carolina_) passes the winter in a burrow; and

_Testudo elegans_, which inhabits dry hilly districts in north India,

takes shelter beneath tufts of grass or bushes as the cold weather

approaches and remains in a semi-lethargic state until the return of the

warmth. The European pond tortoise (_Emys orbicularis_) also hibernates

buried in the soil; and the North American salt-water terrapin

(_Malacoclemmys concentrica_), abundant in the salt-marshes round

Charleston, S. Carolina, retires into the muddy banks to spend the cold

months of the year. In certain parts of the tropics tortoises protect

themselves from the excessive heat by burrowing into the soil which

afterwards becomes indurated. When drought sets in with the dry season

and the tanks become exhausted and food unobtainable, crocodiles and

alligators sometimes wander across country in search of water, but more

commonly bury themselves in the mud and remain in a state of quiescence

until the return of the rains; and according to Humboldt, large snakes,

anacondas or boa constrictors are often found by the Indians in South

America buried in the same lethargic state. Snakes and lizards in all

countries where there is any considerable seasonal variation in

temperature become dormant or semi-dormant during the colder months.

Batrachians, like reptiles, hibernate in Europe and other countries

situated in temperate latitudes. Frogs bury themselves in the mud at the

bottom of tanks and ponds, often congregating in numbers in the same

spot. Toads retire to burrows or other secluded places on the land, and

newts either bury themselves in the mud of ponds, like frogs, or lie up

beneath stones and pieces of wood on the land. According to Mr G. A.

Boulenger, however, European frogs and toads do not pass the winter in

profound torpor, but merely in a state of sluggish quiescence. In

tropical countries, where wet and dry seasons alternate, frogs which,

like the rest of the batrachians, are for the most part intolerant of

great heat, especially when accompanied by dryness of atmosphere, bury

themselves deep in the soil during the time of drought and emerge from

their retreats in numbers with the breaking of the rains.

This habit of passing the dry season in the hardened mud forming the

bottom of exhausted pools and rivers is practised by several species of

tropical freshwater fishes, belonging principally to the family

_Siluridae_. The members of this group are able to exist and thrive in

moist mud, and can even support life for a comparatively long time out

of water altogether. The instinct is exhibited by species occurring both

in the eastern and western hemispheres, as is shown by its record in the

case of species of _Callicthys_ and _Loricaria_ in Guiana and by

_Clarias lazera_ in Senegambia. It is also met with, according to

Tennent, in a species of climbing perch (_Anabas oligolepis_) found in

Ceylon and belonging to the family _Anabantidae_, all the species of

which are able to live for a certain length of time out of water, and

may sometimes be found crawling across land in search of fresh pools.

The habit is also common to some species of mud fishes of the order

Dipneusti, in which the air bladder plays the part of lungs.

_Protopterus_, from tropical Africa, for instance, burrows into the mud

and remains for nearly half the year coiled up at the bottom in a

slightly enlarged chamber. The walls of this are lined with a layer of

slime secreted from the fish's skin, and the orifice is closed with a

lid the centre of which is perforated and forms an inturned tube by

means of which air is conducted to the fish's mouth. The aestivating

burrow of the Brazilian mudfish (_Lepidosiren_) is similar, except that

the lid is perforated with several apertures. The Australian mudfish

(_Ceratodus_) is not known to hibernate or aestivate.

In countries where winter frosts arrest the growth of vegetation

terrestrial mollusca seek hibernacula beneath stones or fallen tree

trunks, in rock crannies, holes in walls, in heaps of dead leaves, in

moss or under the soil, and remain quiescent until the coming of spring.

Amongst pulmonate gastropods, most species of snails (_Helix_,

_Clausilia_) close the mouth of the shell at this period with a

membranous or calcified plate, the epiphragm. Slugs (_Limax_, _Arion_),

on the contrary, lie buried in the earth encysted in a coating of slime.

Similarly in the tropics members of this group, such as _Achatina_ in

tropical Africa and _Orthalicus_ in Brazil, aestivate during the dry

season, the epiphragm preserving them against desiccation; and examples

of two species of _Achatina_ from east and west Africa exhibited in the

Zoological Gardens in London remained concealed in their shells during

the winter, although kept in an artificially warmed house, and resumed

their activity in the summer.

Freshwater Pulmonata do not appear to hibernate, such forms as _Limnaea_

and _Planorbis_ having been frequently seen crawling about beneath the

ice of frozen ponds. During periods of drought in England, however, they

commonly bury themselves in the mud, a habit which is also practised

during the dry season in the tropics by species of Prosobranchiate

Gastropods belonging to the genera _Ampullaria_, _Melania_ and others,

which lie dormant until the first rains rouse them from their lethargy.

Freshwater Pelecypoda (_Anodonta_, _Unio_) spend the European winter

buried deep in the muddy bottom of ponds and streams.

In cold and temperate latitudes a great majority of insects pass the

winter in a dormant state, either in the larval, pupal or imaginal

(reproductive) stages. In some the state of hibernation is complete in

the sense that although the insects may be roused from their lethargy to

the extent of movement by spells of warm weather, they do not leave

their hibernacula to feed; in others it is incomplete in the sense that

the insects emerge to feed, as in the case of the caterpillar of

_Euprepia fuliginosa_, or to take the wing as in the case of the midge

_Trichocera hiemalis_. Others again, like _Podura nivalis_ and _Boreus

hiemalis_, never appear to hibernate, at least in England. The insects

which hibernate as larvae belong to those species which pass more than

one season in that stage, such as the goat-moth (_Cossus ligniperda_),

cockchafers (_Melolontha_), stagbeetles (_Lucanus_) and dragon-flies

(_Libellula_), &c.; and to some species which, although they only live a

few months in this immature state, are hatched in the autumn or summer

and only reach the final stage of growth in the following spring, like

the butterflies of the genus _Argynnis_ (_paphia_, _aglaia_, &c.) in

England. As an instance of species which survive the winter in the

pupal or chrysalis stage may be cited the swallow-tailed butterfly of

Europe (_Papilio machaon_); while to the category of species which

hibernate as perfect insects belong many of the Coleoptera (Rhyncophora,

_Coccinellidae_), &c., as well as some Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera

and Lepidoptera (_Vanessa io_, _urticae_, &c.). In the case of the

social Hymenoptera it is only the fertilized queen wasp out of the nest

that survives the frost of winter, all the workers dying with the onset

of cold in the autumn; the common hive bees (_Apis mellifica_), although

they retire to the hive, do not hibernate, the numbers and activity of

the individuals within the hive being sufficient to keep up the

temperature above soporific point. Ants also remain actively at work

underground unless the temperature falls several degrees below zero.

Spiders, like nearly all insects, hibernate in cold temperate latitudes.

Burrowing species like trap-door spiders of the family _Ctenizidae_ and

some species of _Lycosidae_ seal the doors of their burrows with silk or

close up the orifice with a sheet of that material. Other non-burrowing

species, like some species of _Clubionidae_ and _Drassidae_, lie up in

silken cases attached to the underside of stones or of pieces of loose

bark, or buried under dead leaves or concealed in the cracks of walls.

Other species, on the contrary, pass the winter in an immature state

protected from the cold by the silken cocoon spun by the mother for her

eggs before she dies in the late autumn, as in the "garden spider"

(_Aranea diadema_). Commonly, however, when the cocoons are later in the

making, or the cold weather sets in early, the eggs of this and of

allied species do not hatch until the spring; but in either case the

young emerge in the warm weather, become adult during the summer and die

in the autumn after pairing and oviposition. Some members of this

family, nevertheless, like _Zilla x-notata_, which live in the corners

of windows, or in outhouses where the habitat affords a certain degree

of protection from the cold, may survive the winter in the adult stage

and be roused from lethargy by breaks in the weather and tempted by the

warmth to spin new webs. Typical members of the Opiliones or harvest

spiders, belonging to the family _Phalangiidae_, do not hibernate in

temperate and more northern latitudes in Europe and America, but perish

in the autumn, leaving their eggs buried in the soil to hatch in the

succeeding spring. During the early summer, therefore, only immature

individuals are found. Other species of this order, belonging to the

family _Trogulidae_, spend the winter in a dormant state under stones or

buried in the soil. False scorpions (_Pseudo-scorpiones_) also hibernate

in temperate latitudes, passing the cold months, like many spiders,

enclosed in silken cases attached to the underside of stones or loosened

pieces of bark. Centipedes and millipedes bury themselves in the earth,

or lie up in some secluded shelter such as stones or fallen tree trunks

afford during the winter; and in the tropics millipedes lie dormant

during seasons of drought.

What is true of the dormant condition of arthropod life in the winter of

the northern hemisphere is also true in a general way of that of the

southern hemisphere at the same season of the year. This is proved--to

mention no other cases--by the observations of Darwin on the hibernation

of insects and spiders at Montevideo and Bahia Blanca in South America,

and by Distant's account of the paucity of insect life in the winter in

South Africa; by his discovery under stones of hibernating semi-torpid

Coleoptera and Hemiptera at the end of August in the Transvaal, and of

the gradual increase in the numbers of individuals and species of

insects in that country as the spring advanced and the dry season came

to an end.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Bell, _A History of British Reptiles (and

Amphibians)_ (1849); W. T. Blanford, _Fauna of British India:

Mammalia_ (1889-1891); G. A. Boulenger, _Monograph of the Tailless

Batrachians of Europe_, edited by the Ray Society; "Teleostei" in

_Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 541-727 (1904); T. W. Bridge,

"Dipneustei" in _Cambridge Natural History_, vii. 505-520 (1904); A.

H. Cooke, "Molluscs" in _Cambridge Natural History_, iii. 25-27

(1895); T. A. Coward, _P.Z.S._ pp. 849-855 (1906), and pp. 312-324

(1907); C. Darwin, _A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World_, pp.

97-98 (1907 ed.); W. L. Distant, _A Naturalist in the Transvaal_, ch.

iii. (1892); Marshall Hall, "Hibernation," in _Todd's Cyclopaedia of

Anatomy and Physiology_, pp. 764-776 (1839) (Bibliography); _Phil.

Trans. Roy. Soc._ (1832); John Hunter, _Observations on parts of the

Animal Economy_ (1837); _Index Catalogue of the Library of the

Surgeon-General's Office of the U.S. Army_, vii. (1902), Bibliography

relating to physiology of Hibernation; W. Kirby and W. Spence, _An

Introduction to Entomology_, ed. 17, pp. 517-533 (1856); L. Landois,

_A Text-book of Human Physiology_, translated by W. Stirling, i. 410

(1904); V. Laporte, "Suspension of Vitality in Animals," _Pop. Sci.

Monthly_, xxxvi. 257-259 (New York, 1889-1890); Mangili, "Essai sur la

lethargie periodique," _Annales du Museum_, x. 453-456 (1807); C. Hart

Merriam, _North American Pocket Mice_ (Washington, 1889); W. Miller,

"Hibernation and Allied States in Animals," _Trans. Pan-Amer. Med.

Congr._ (1893), pt. ii. pp. 1274-1285 (Washington, 1895); M. S.

Pembrey and A. G. Pitts, "The Relation between the Internal

Temperature and the Respiratory Movements of Hibernating Animals,"

_Journ. Physiol._ (London, 1899), pp. 305-316; Prunelle, "Recherches

sur les phenomenes et sur les causes du sommeil hivernal," _Annales du

Museum_, xviii.; J. A. Saissy, _Recherches sur les animaux hivernans_

(1808); L. Spallanzani, _Memoires sur la respiration_ (1803); J.

Emerson Tennent, _Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon_, pp.

351-358 (1861); Volkov, "Le Sommeil hivernal chez les paysans russes,"

_Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthropol._ (Paris, 1900), i. 67; abstract in _Brit.

Med. Journ._ (1900), i. 1554. (R. I. P.)

HIBERNIA, in ancient geography, one of the names by which Ireland was

known to Greek and Roman writers. Other names were Ierne, Iuverna,

Iberio. All these are adaptations of a stem from which also Erin is

descended. The island was well known to the Romans through the reports

of traders, so far at least as its coasts. But it never became part of

the Roman empire. Agricola (about A.D. 80) planned its conquest, which

he judged an easy task, but the Roman government vetoed the enterprise.

During the Roman occupation of Britain, Irish pirates seem to have been

an intermittent nuisance, and Irish emigrants may have settled

occasionally in Wales; the best attested emigration is that of the Scots

into Caledonia. It was only in post-Roman days that Roman civilization,

brought perhaps by Christian missionaries like Patrick, entered the

island.

HICKERINGILL (or HICKHORNGILL), EDMUND (1631-1708), English divine,

lived an eventful life in the days of the Commonwealth and the

Restoration. After graduating at Caius College, Cambridge, where he was

junior fellow in 1651-1652, he joined Lilburne's regiment as chaplain,

and afterwards served in the ranks in Scotland and in the Swedish

service, ultimately becoming a captain in Fleetwood's regiment. He then

lived for a time in Jamaica, of which he published an account in 1661.

In the same year he was ordained by Robert Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln,

having already passed through such shades of belief as are connoted by

the terms Baptist, Quaker and Deist. From 1662 until his death in 1708

he was vicar of All Saints', Colchester. He was a vigorous pamphleteer,

and came into collision with Henry Compton, bishop of London, to whom he

had to pay heavy damages for slander in 1682. He made a public

recantation in 1684, was excluded from his living in 1685-1688, and

ended his career by being convicted for forgery in 1707.

HICKES, GEORGE (1642-1715), English divine and scholar, was born at

Newsham near Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 20th of June 1642. In 1659 he

entered St John's College, Oxford, whence after the Restoration he

removed to Magdalen College and then to Magdalen Hall. In 1664 he was

elected fellow of Lincoln College, and in the following year proceeded

M.A. In 1673 he graduated in divinity, and in 1675 he was appointed

rector of St Ebbe's, Oxford. In 1676, as private chaplain, he

accompanied the duke of Lauderdale, the royal commissioner, to Scotland,

and shortly afterwards received the degree of D.D. from St Andrews. In

1680 he became vicar of All Hallows, Barking, London; and after having

been made chaplain to the king in 1681, he was in 1683 promoted to the

deanery of Worcester. He opposed both James II.'s declaration of

indulgence and Monmouth's rising, and he tried in vain to save from

death his nonconformist brother John Hickes (1633-1685), one of the

Sedgemoor refugees harboured by Alice Lisle. At the revolution of 1688,

having declined to take the oath of allegiance, Hickes was first

suspended and afterwards deprived of his deanery. When he heard of the

appointment of a successor he affixed to the cathedral doors a

"protestation and claim of right." After remaining some time in

concealment in London, he was sent by Sancroft and the other nonjurors

to James II. in France on matters connected with the continuance of

their episcopal succession; upon his return in 1694 he was himself

consecrated suffragan bishop of Thetford. His later years were largely

occupied in controversies and in writing, while in 1713 he persuaded two

Scottish bishops, James Gadderar and Archibald Campbell, to assist him

in consecrating Jeremy Collier, Samuel Hawes and Nathaniel Spinckes as

bishops among the nonjurors. He died on the 15th of December 1715.

The chief writings of Hickes are the _Institutiones Grammaticae

Anglo-Saxonicae et Moeso-Gothicae_ (1689), and _Linguarum veterum

Septentrionalium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et archaeologicus_

(1703-1705), a work of great learning and industry.

Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious

author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested by

contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great satisfaction--the

execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having attempted to murder

Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and John King, Presbyterian

ministers, "for high treason and rebellion" (_Ravillac Redivivus_,

1678; _The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the Mouths of Phanatical

Protestant_s, 1680). In his _Jovian_ (an answer to S. Johnson's

_Julian the Apostate_, 1683), he endeavoured to show that the Roman

empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians under Julian had

recognized the duty of passive obedience. His two treatises, one _Of

the Christian Priesthood_ and the other _Of the Dignity of the

Episcopal Order_, originally published in 1707, have been more than

once reprinted, and form three volumes of the _Library of

Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were published

_Collections of Controversial Letters_, in 1711 a collection of

_Sermons_, and in 1726 a volume of _Posthumous Discourses_. Other

treatises, such as the _Apologetical Vindication of the Church of

England_, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's _Preservative against

Popery_. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which sketches

his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant in

various collections. A posthumous publication of his _The Constitution

of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of Schism_

(1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.

See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the _Dictionary of

National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, _The

Nonjurors_ (1902).

HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philosopher and divine,

was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1798. He took

his degree at Union College in 1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in

active pastoral work, and was then appointed professor of theology at

the Western Reserve College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn

(N.Y.) Theological Seminary. From this post he was elected

vice-president of Union College and professor of mental and moral

science. In 1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868

retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to writing

and study. A collected edition of his principal works was published at

Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th of May 1888. He wrote

_Rational Psychology_ (1848), _System of Moral Science_ (1853),

_Empirical Psychology_ (1854), _Rational Cosmology_ (1858), _Creator and

Creation, or the Knowledge in the Reason of God and His Work_ (1872),

_Humanity Immortal_ (1872), _Logic of Reason_ (1874).

HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name _pohickery_.

Hickory trees are natives of North America, and belong to the genus

_Carya_. They are closely allied to the walnuts (_Juglans_), the chief

or at least one very obvious difference being that, whilst in _Carya_

the husk which covers the shell of the nut separates into four valves,

in _Juglans_ it consists of but one piece, which bursts irregularly. The

timber is both strong and heavy, and remarkable for its extreme

elasticity, but it decays rapidly when exposed to heat and moisture, and

is peculiarly subject to the attacks of worms. It is very extensively

employed in manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth,

the bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels,

chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes requiring

great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in America is for

hoop-making; and it is the only American wood found perfectly fit for

that purpose.

The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of the

brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it gives out,

the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. The species which

furnish the best wood are _Carya alba_ (shell-bark hickory), _C.

tomentosa_ (mockernut), _C. olivaeformis_ (pecan or pacane nut), and _C.

porcina_ (pig-nut), that of the last named, on account of its extreme

tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees and axle-handles. The wood of

_C. alba_ splits very easily and is very elastic, so that it is much

used for making whip-handles and baskets. The wood of this species is

also used in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia for making

the back bows of Windsor chairs. The timber of _C. amara_ and _C.

aquatica_ is considered of inferior quality.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Shell-bark Hickory (_Carya alba_) in flower.]

Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to 90 ft.

in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced ample heads,

and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When confined in the forest they

shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, but when standing alone they

expand into a fine head, and produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of

foliage. They have all the qualities necessary to constitute fine

graceful park trees. The most ornamental of the species are _C.

olivaeformis_, _C. alba_ and _C. porcina_, the last two also producing

delicious nuts, and being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Fruit of _Carya alba_; 2, Hickory Nut; 3,

Cross Section of Nut; 4, Vertical Section of the Seed.]

The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into four

equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the upper part,

while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, but has four or

more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The hickory nuts of the

American markets are the produce of _C. alba_, called the shell-bark

hickory because of the roughness of its bark, which becomes loosened

from the trunk in long scales bending outwards at the extremities and

adhering only by the middle. The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of

the States, and are exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The

pecan-nuts, which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to

1(1/2) in. long, smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and

thin-shelled, with the kernels full, not like those of most of the

hickories divided by partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour.

The thick-shelled fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground

for swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In _C. amara_ the kernel is so

bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.

HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in Hempstead

township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. His parents were

Friends, but he took little interest in religion until he was about

twenty; soon after that time he gave up the carpenter's trade, to which

he had been apprenticed when seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he

had "openings leading to the ministry" and was "deeply engaged for the

right administration of discipline and order in the church," and in 1779

he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours between Vermont and

Maryland. He attacked slavery, even when preaching in Maryland; wrote

_Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and their Descendants_

(1811); and was influential in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the

act declaring free after 1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed

by the Act of 1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of

February 1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he

was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition

at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed which

would make the Society in America approach the position of the English

Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His _Doctrinal Epistle_ (1824)

stated his position, and a break ensued in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers,

who call themselves the "Liberal Branch," being called "Hicksites" by

the "Orthodox" party, which they for a time outnumbered. The village of

Hicksville, in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the

centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named in honour of

Elias Hicks.

See _A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks_

(Philadelphia, 1825); _The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias

Hicks_ (Philadelphia, 1828), and his _Letters_ (Philadelphia, 1834).

HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, was born on

the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembrokeshire, where his father,

Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He studied medicine at Guy's Hospital,

London, qualifying as M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he

commenced a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to

Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, took the

degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued his medical work

until the close of his life. In Wales he had been attracted to geology

by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist to the Geological Survey), and his

leisure time was given to the study of the older rocks and fossils of

South Wales. In conjunction with Salter, he established in 1865 the

Menevian group (Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite

_Paradoxides_. Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important

papers on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and

described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the

Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian (granitoid

rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his views, though

contested, have been generally accepted. At Hendon Dr Hicks gave much

attention to the local geology and also to the Pleistocene deposits of

the Denbighshire caves. For a few years before his death he had laboured

at the Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected organic

remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as unfossiliferous, and

these he regarded as including representatives of Lower Devonian and

Silurian. His papers were mostly published in the _Geol. Mag._ and

_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ He was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president

of the Geological Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the

18th of November 1899.

HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the Bombay army in

1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, being mentioned in

despatches for good conduct at the action of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In

1861 he became captain, and in the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was

a brigade major, being again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet

majority. He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After

the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's service

and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum as chief of the

staff of the army there, then commanded by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was

formed at Omdurman and a new force of some 8000 fighting men

collected--mostly recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded

troops, sent in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling

Hicks led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar,

whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns of Sennar

and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an immediate attack by

the mahdists the Egyptian officials at Khartum intrigued against Hicks,

who in July tendered his resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of

Suliman Niazi and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an

expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, who in

January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that province. Hicks,

aware of the worthlessness of his force for the purpose contemplated,

stated his opinion that it would be best to "wait for Kordofan to settle

itself" (telegram of the 5th of August). The Egyptian ministry, however,

did not then believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition

started from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of 7000

infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and included thirteen

Europeans. On the 20th the force left the Nile at Duem and struck inland

across the almost waterless wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of

November the army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was

ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. With the

exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. According to the

story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors, the general was the last

officer to fall, pierced by the spear of the khalifa Mahommed Sherif.

After emptying his revolver, the pasha kept his assailants at bay for

some time with his sword, a body of Baggara who fled before him being

known afterwards as "Baggar Hicks" (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on

the words _baggara_ and _baggar_, the former being the herdsmen and the

latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to the mahdi.

See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_, book iv., by Sir F. R. Wingate

(London, 1891), and _With Hicks Pasha in the Soudan_, by J. Colborne

(London, 1884), Also EGYPT: _Military Operations_.

HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi and

Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala and Mexico

(state), and W. by Queretaro. Pop. (1895) 551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area,

8917 sq. m. The northern and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous,

culminating in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of

this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren,

being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where the _maguey_

(American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The southern and western

parts of the state consist of rolling plains, in the midst of which is

the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo produces cereals in the more

elevated districts, sugar, maguey, coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco.

Maguey is cultivated for the production of _pulque_, the national drink.

The chief industry, however, is mining, the mineral districts of

Pachuca, El Chico, Real del Monte, San Jose del Oro, and Zimapan being

among the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, gold,

mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and plumbago.

Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway facilities are afforded

by a branch of the Vera Cruz and Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco

to Pachuca, the capital of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among

the principal towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24

m. E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpan (about 9000) with silver mines 80 m. N. by

W. of the Federal Capital, and Actopan (2666), the chief town of the

district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited principally by Indians of the

Othomies nation.

HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from _hijo d'algo_ or _hijo de

algo_, son of something, or somewhat), originally a Spanish title of the

lower nobility; the hidalgo being the lowest grade of nobility which was

entitled to use the prefix "don." The term is now used generally to

denote one of gentle birth. The Portuguese _fidalgo_ has a similar

history and meaning.

HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican patriot, was born on the

8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, near Guanajuato. His mother's

maiden name was Gallaga, but contrary to the usual custom of the

Spaniards he used only the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y

Costilla. He was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained

priest in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life who

exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, including the

cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at Dolores. But Napoleon's

invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a widespread commotion. The colonists

were indisposed to accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in

proclaiming Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for their

professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, by the Spanish

authorities with suspicion as being designed to prepare the independence

of Mexico. Hidalgo and several of his friends, among whom was Miguel

Dominguez, mayor of Queretaro, engaged in consultation and preparations

which the authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested,

but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred of his

parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized the prison

at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a revolt against the

Spanish and Creole elements of the population. With what is known as the

"_grito_" or cry of Dolores as their rallying shout, a multitude

gathered round Hidalgo, who took for his banner a wonder-working picture

of the Virgin belonging to a popular shrine. At first he met with some

success. A regiment of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some

small posts were stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of

Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. Hidalgo

lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, and on the

march to Queretaro he was attacked at Aculco by General Felix Calleja on

the 7th of November 1810, and routed. He endeavoured to continue the

struggle, and did succeed in collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about

Guadalajara. With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a

position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On the 17th of

January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja and a small force of

soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other leaders, and soon afterwards

all of them were betrayed to the Spaniards. They were tried at

Chihuahua, and condemned. Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood

and then shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August 1811.

See H. H. Bancroft, _The Pacific States_, vol. vii., which contains a

copious bibliography.

HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.) used as a

gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. 1853) about 1879

at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, and was at first taken

for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence Smith proved it to be spodumene, and

named it. Hiddenite occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of

prismatic habit, often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic

cleavage renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes

from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly

distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a marked

degree, and shows much "fire" when properly cut. The composition of the

mineral is represented by the formula LiAl(SiO3)2, the green colour

being probably due to the presence of a small proportion of chromium.

The presence of lithia in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate

name of lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite was

originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards

worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association with beryl,

quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.

HIDE[1] (Lat. _hida_, A.-S. _higid_, _hid_ or _hiwisc_, members of a

household), a measure of land. The word was in general use in England in

Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although its meaning seems to have

varied somewhat from time to time. Among its Latin equivalents are

_terra unius familiae_, _terra unius cassati_ and _mansio_; the first of

these forms is used by Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no

definite area. In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of

the typical family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded

as containing 120 "acres" (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, but 120

times the amount of land which a ploughteam of eight oxen could plough

in a single day). This definition appears to have been very general in

England before the Norman Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and

80 acres are repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some

historians, however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres

or thereabouts.

"The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in _Domesday

Book and Beyond_, "is 'pre-judicial' to all the great questions of

early English history." The main argument employed by J. M. Kemble

(_The Saxons in England_) in favour of the "small" hide is that the

number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts of England

gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these parts,

making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an allowance

necessary because the hide was only that part of the land which came

under the plough, and each hide must have carried with it a certain

amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support of Kemble's theory

must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight contained 1200 hides. Now

1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a total acreage of 144,000 acres,

while the total acreage of the island to-day is only 93,000 acres.

Again a document called _The Tribal Hidage_ puts the number of hides

in the whole of England at nearly a quarter of a million. This gives

in acres a figure about equal to the total acreage of England at the

present time, but it leaves no room for pasture and for the great

proportion of land which was still woodland. On these grounds Kemble

regarded the hide as containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40

acres, and thought that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e.

that it was roughly equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought

forward is that 30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the

average family, in other words that it was the _terra unius familiae_

of Bede. Another Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at

48 acres.

But formidable arguments have been advanced against the "small" hide.

There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday the hide was equated

with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking the word _familia_ in its

proper sense, a household with many dependent members, and making an

allowance for primitive methods of agriculture, it is questionable

whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient for its support; and again if

the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected there is no serious

evidence in favour of any other. A possible explanation is that,

although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide consisted of 30 acres or

thereabouts, it had come before the time of Domesday to contain 120

acres. But no trace of such change can be found; there is no break in

the continuity of the land-charters which refer to hides and manses.

Reviewing the whole question Professor Maitland accepts the view that

the hide contained 120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they

are not insuperable. Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for

the most part of lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a

vague and general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean

120 times 4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of

Domesday the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for

purposes of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick (_Studies

on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_) says there is no evidence that the hide

contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests that possibly

the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at 40 acres, while

in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. Dr Stubbs (_Const.

Hist._ i.) suggests that the confusion may have arisen because the

word was used "to express the whole share of one man in all the fields

of the village." Thus it might refer to 30 acres, his share in one

field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four fields. He adds,

however, that this explanation is not adequate for all cases. But

these differences about the size of the hide are not peculiar to

modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, _Hida Anglice vocatur terra

unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum_, while the _Dialogus de

scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be the long

hundred, or_ 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when he says,

"hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives a very good

description of the early hide when he says (_Titles of Honour_): "Now

a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as much land as might

be well manured with one plough, together with pasture, meadow and

wood competent for the maintenance of that plough, and the servants of

the family." The view that the size of the hide varied from district

to district is borne out by Professor Vinogradoff's more recent

researches. In his _English Society in the Eleventh Century_ he

mentions that there was a hide of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40

acres in Dorset. In addition some authorities distinguish between

English hides and Welsh hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained

8 virgates. Sometimes again in the 11th century hides were not merely

fiscal units; they were shares in the land itself.

The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been established by

Mr J. H. Round in his _Feudal England_, and is regarded as throwing a

most valuable light upon the many problems which present themselves to

the student of Domesday. The process which converted the hide from a

unit of measurement to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as

follows. Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such

pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide was a

useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates doubtless from

the time of the Danegeld. For some time the two meanings were used side

by side, but before the Norman Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation,

had quite supplanted the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state

of affairs when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made.

The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, but a single

illustration may be given. _Huntedun Burg defendebat se ad geldum regis

pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred pro L. hidis_. This does not

mean that the town of Huntingdon contained a certain fixed number of

square yards multiplied by 50, but that for purposes of taxation

Huntingdon was regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.

This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton in _A

Key to Domesday_ and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof rests

primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By collating

various documents which formed part of the Domesday inquest Mr Round

has brought together for certain parts of England, especially for

Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the various lords in

the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total of 5 hides or

10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A similar result is

shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are almost universal, and

the total hidage for the county of Worcester is very near the round

figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously artificial; it must have

been imposed upon the counties or the hundreds by the central

authority and then divided among the vills. Another proof is found in

what is called "beneficial hidation." It is shown that in certain

cases the number of hides in a hundred has been reduced since the time

of Edward the Confessor, and that this reduction had been transferred

_pro rata_ to the vills in the hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that

the hide was fixed "independently of area or value." Some slight

criticism has been directed against the idea of "artificial hidation,"

but the most that can be said against it is that its proof rests upon

isolated cases, a reproach which further research will doubtless

remove. However, Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a

fiscal unit "which corresponds only in a very rough way to the

agrarian reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is "at its best a

lame compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value."

What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures have been

hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than the Danegeld. Rejecting

the idea that it is of Roman or of British origin, and pointing to the

serious difference in the rates at which the various counties were

assessed, Mr Round thinks that it dates from the time when the various

Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of

assessment for military service, possibly it was the recognized

endowment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's standing in

society was dependent to a great extent upon the number of hides which

he possessed; this statement is fully proved from the laws. Moreover, in

the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, the value of a man's oath is expressed

in hides, the oath for a king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and

that of a ceorl 5 hides.

The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate being, after

the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the villein with two oxen.

Mr Round holds that in Domesday at all events the hide always consisted

of four virgates; Mr F. Seebohm in _The English Village Community_,

although thinking that the normal hide "consisted as a rule of four

virgates of 30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for

Huntingdonshire show that "the hide did not always contain the same

number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted of a strip

of land in _each_ acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly a strong

case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.

Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions are rooted

in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between the methods of

taxation of land in Rome and in England; he sees some connexion between

the Roman _centuria_ and the hide, and between the Roman system of

taxation called _jugatio_ and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff

(_Villainage in England_) summarizes the views of those who hold a

contrary opinion thus: "The curious fact that the normal holding, the

hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by its origin; it

came full-formed from Germany and remained unchanged in spite of all

diversities of geographical and economical conditions."

In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the "Five

Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the unit of

value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of

assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide is

quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According to Mr

Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; Mr W. H.

Stevenson (_English Historical Review_, vol. v.) argues that it

contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. Mr Seebohm

thinks there was a _solanda_ or double hide of 240 acres in Essex and

other southern counties, but Mr Round does not think that this word

refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. For Kent, however,

the word _sullung_ or solin, is used in _Domesday Book_ and in the

charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, and Vinogradoff

thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.

Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two or more

shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized method of

raising money, royal and some other estates, however, as is seen from

Domesday, not being hidated and not paying the tax. This geld, or tax,

received several names, one of the most general being _hidage_ (Lat.

_hidagium_). "Hidage," says Vinogradoff, "is historically connected with

the old English Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was

levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was during the

11th century "the most sweeping and the heaviest of all the taxes."

Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was 2s. on each hide of land,

and this was evidently the rate at the time of the famous dispute

between Henry II. and Becket at Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always

kept at this figure, as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on

each hide, an unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the

hide. Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide for

the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor Henry V., and in

1194, when money was collected for the ransom of Richard I., some of the

taxation for this purpose seems to have been assessed according to the

hidage given in Domesday Book.

By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax was

disappearing, its place being taken by the word _carucage_. The carucate

(Lat. _caruca_, a plough) was a measure of land which prevailed in the

north of England, the district inhabited by people of Danish descent.

Some authorities regard it as equivalent to the hide, others deny this

identity. In 1198, however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each

_carucata terrae sive hyda_, the two words were obviously

interchangeable, and about the same time the size of the carucate was

fixed at 100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time

longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes on land.

One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain

unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and a

hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres to

make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, a simple

process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, makes

calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from the German

_hufe_ or _huba_? (A. W. H.*)