A bacteriological expedition to the Kalmuk steppes, 1911.
During his preceding journeys in the Kalmuk steppes, Metchnikoff had
often heard it said that tuberculosis was almost unknown there, but
that the Kalmuks took it very easily when brought into contact with
foreigners. As all means of combating this disease had hitherto given
very unsatisfactory results, Metchnikoff thought that researches should
be started along a new path. He had long thought that observations on
the extreme liability of Kalmuks to tuberculosis might perhaps provide
some new data. But the study of the question necessitated a very
distant journey which he now at last had the opportunity of realising.
According to Metchnikoff's hypothesis, a _natural_ vaccination
takes place among us against tuberculosis which would explain the
resistance of the majority of human beings in spite of the enormous
diffusion of the disease. He concluded that some attenuated breeds of
microbes become introduced into our organism during our childhood,
thus vaccinating us against the virulent tuberculous bacillus. This
supposition seemed to him plausible, for he had long ago found that
some micro-organisms (Cienkovsky's bacillus, the cholera bacillus,
etc.) become modified in different environment and conditions, both
in form and in virulence. He had described this phenomenon in 1888
in a memoir entitled _Pleomorphism of Microbes_. His hypothesis would
explain the liability of the Kalmuks, since, if no tuberculous bacilli
existed in the steppes, the inhabitants could not acquire a natural
vaccination. When placed in an environment which was not free from
tuberculosis, they became infected very easily, being in no wise
prepared for the struggle against the virus.
The expedition to the Kalmuk country was therefore planned in order to
ascertain whether tuberculosis was really absent from the steppes. This
could easily be done by Pirquet's test,[27] which at the same time would
show whether the number of Kalmuks infected increased from the centre
to the outer limit of the steppes and corresponded with the greater
degree of contact with the surrounding population. If the enquiry
confirmed the hypothesis, there would remain to be seen which microbes
might best be used as vaccines.
[27] A cutaneous scarification by tuberculin which provokes local
inflammatory redness on the scarified point in tuberculous
subjects only.
The expedition was also intended to elucidate a few questions on the
etiology of endemic plague in the Kirghiz steppes. When this intention
became known, the Russian authorities desired to add to it a local
mission on the study of plague epidemics in the steppes. Metchnikoff,
who was chiefly concerned with the question of tuberculosis, was only
able to draw up a plan of work for the Russian mission and to start it
going in one of the plague centres.
The Pasteur Institute expeditionary party comprised, besides
Metchnikoff, MM. Burnet, Salimbeni, and Iamanouchi. They were joined at
Moscow by Drs. Tarassevitch and Choukevitch, and at Astrakhan by the
physicians of the Russian plague mission. The Institut Pasteur party
left Paris on May 14, 1911, full of spirits; Metchnikoff, eager to make
the journey pleasant for his companions, was doing the honours of his
country to the best of his ability; he fully succeeded, owing to the
warm welcome and liberal hospitality which they received in Russia,
where every one tried to contribute not only to the success of the
expedition but to the comfort and pleasure of its members. The latter,
indeed, preserved a most pleasant recollection of this journey, and, in
later years, always spoke of it with pleasure.
Navigation on the Volga from Nijni Novgorod to Astrakhan was full of
peculiar charm. That five days' journey was one of the rare periods
of complete rest in Metchnikoff's life. He indulged in the _dolce far
niente_ as he watched the peaceful landscape on the passing banks. The
Volga, then in flood, covered immense spaces. Here and there, whole
forests emerged from the river which reflected them as in an enchanted
dream. From time to time, little isolated villages appeared with the
gilt cupola of a church or a monastery, then meadows, forests, steep
cliffs, or gentle slopes down to the river. What poetry, what grandeur
in simplicity! As in a kaleidoscope, types of varied populations and
pictures of local customs followed upon each other.
Along the banks now and then were seen processions of pilgrims. Their
humble, gray, stooping figures breathed deep faith and resignation.
Sometimes popular songs arose from the Volga, sad, expressive,
soul-penetrating chants.
This contemplative quietude was only interrupted by stations in the
ports of large towns where deputations of the educated inhabitants came
to wish the mission welcome. These functions had a cordial and touching
character, for it was obvious that such enthusiastic demonstrations had
for their source a sincere cult for the knowledge whose representatives
were being fêted; it was touching to see such a living ideal in this
distant and oppressed land.
At Tsaritsine, several Kirghiz embarked on our boat in order to go to
a large fair which the inhabitants of the steppes attended in numbers.
Metchnikoff thought this was a unique opportunity to learn whether
there were any carriers of the plague bacillus among those many natives
coming from all parts of the steppes. He therefore decided that those
members of the expedition who had come to study plague would go to the
fair with the Kirghiz, whilst he, with the rest of the expedition,
would make observations on the Kalmuks of the Astrakhan region.
A most hospitable welcome awaited us there; people vied with each other
in their efforts to assist the expedition. The Governor-General of
Astrakhan had ordered all preparations to be made, and the mission was
provided not only with necessaries but with comforts which did much to
alleviate the fatigue of the long journey.
Whilst waiting for our companions, we had time to verify several
diagnostical reactions, the Kalmuks lending themselves willingly to the
operation. We heard later that they thought they were being vaccinated
against small-pox, a disease much feared in the steppes.
As soon as the plague mission arrived, we started towards the Kirghiz
steppes, for there was a plague centre north of the Caspian Sea. When
we were out at sea, an intense north wind began to blow the waves away
from the Kirghiz bank, and soon the depth lessened to such an extent
that we could make no progress. The sailors were perpetually making
soundings, and their repeated cries of "Two and a half feet!" became
a regular nightmare. The situation seemed critical, and returning to
Astrakhan was suggested; an idea which infuriated Metchnikoff; he would
not hear of it. At last, after several incidents we reached the Kirghiz
bank, the crossing having lasted three days instead of the usual
twenty-three hours.
As we arrived, we could see from afar a sort of Valkyries' ride of
natives clad in brilliant colours and riding up at full gallop with
wild cries and exclamations. Before us spread a barren and sandy
steppe, producing the sad impression of a land forsaken by God and
man. How could life be possible there? But gradually, as we became
captivated by the charm of the boundless space, the purity of the air,
the harmonious colouring and the scent of wild heliotrope and wormwood
which alone can grow in those sands, we began to understand that it was
not only possible to live in those steppes, but also to love them.
The plague centre stood among sandy hills with low-growing grass; the
summit of one of them was black with charred remains of burnt objects;
the corpses were buried in the same place. Only a few wretched forsaken
hovels remained. In order to throw light upon endemic plague in the
steppes, it was first of all necessary to ascertain whether the plague
microbes remained alive for some time in places where the scourge had
raged; if they were preserved in dead bodies which had been singed
rather than burnt; if the worms, insects, rodents, and domestic animals
on the spot were or were not carriers of the plague microbe, and could
or could not transmit it to a distance from the initial focus.
After organising a small emergency laboratory, the corpses were
exhumed, and Dr. Salimbeni made a post-mortem examination. These
corpses, having been in the ground for three months, were in a state of
advanced decomposition and contained no living microbes.
Having set the work of the plague mission going, Metchnikoff parted
from it in order to accomplish the projected investigations on
tuberculosis in the Kalmuk steppes. He made a very solemn entry into
these steppes; a Kalmuk deputation welcomed the mission and presented
Metchnikoff with a bronze Buddha.
The aspect of those natives is sad and humble, their movements are
slow, their eyes dull. In this they contrast with their neighbours,
the quick and intelligent Kirghiz, and one reason for it is that the
latter, being Moslems, absorb no alcohol, while the Kalmuks consume
fermented milk (alcoholic fermentation) which poisons them slightly but
continuously; this observation had already been made by Metchnikoff at
the time of his previous visit.
The Kalmuks live in tents covered with coarse felt; they transport
these dwellings on camels from one place to another when their herds
of sheep or horses have consumed the scanty pasture grass around the
camp. There is no attempt at cultivation, and the steppes become more
and more barren as the pastures become exhausted. In order to remedy
this evil, the Russian administration has begun various experimental
plantations. In some places the steppes are covered with small tamarisk
bushes or with silky grass, but, as a rule, the chief growth is of
silver wormwood. The monotony is not so great as one might think, for
the steppes, like a mirror, reflect all the divers light-changes, and
wonderful natural phenomena take place there. During the great heat,
mirages are to be seen in the distance--a river, lakes, reed-grown
shores; sometimes a sand-storm supervenes, more infernal than
fairy-like, called here "smertch." The wind raises the sand in tongues
of flames or in funnels running up to the sky with giddy rapidity.
Gradually, all the separate turmoils join in a gigantic wall of sand,
advancing in an orgy of movement; the heavy clouds fall towards the
ground, the sand rushes upwards, everything becomes confounded in
darkness and chaos.
One feels so entirely in the power of natural forces that the fatalism
of the poor inhabitants of the land is easily understood. The Kalmuks,
primitive and nomadic, produce the impression of ghosts from distant
centuries.
Metchnikoff noticed that since his last visit in 1874, fatal influences
had worked havoc on the population. Four scourges, all of them coming
from outside, are destroying the Kalmuks: syphilis, alcoholism,
tuberculosis, and the Russians who are constantly pushing them back.
Those poor people realise the fate which is awaiting them, and resign
themselves like a sick man who knows his sickness to be incurable.
The spiritual life of the Kalmuks reduces itself to their religious
cult. There are many Buddhist convents where children are being brought
up for a monastic life. Religious rites are performed by priests
dressed in purple and brilliant yellow; for the uninitiated, their
part consists in unrolling interminable bands on which prayers are
inscribed, and in executing a religious music which seemed a mixture
of a camel's grunt, a dog's howling, and an infinitely sad plaint. Of
the pure cult of Buddha, nothing seems to remain but an empty form.
However, there is a convent in the steppes--Tshori--a sort of religious
academy, where an effort is being made to restore the cult to the
original level of Buddhist doctrines.
Whilst gathering observations on tuberculosis, we traversed the steppes
in a north-easterly direction as far as Sarepta. This town seemed like
a civilised centre after the steppes, where the conditions of life were
somewhat hard in spite of the cordial reception accorded us everywhere.
The food, consisting solely in tinned goods and mutton, had caused
intestinal trouble in nearly all the members of the expedition; on the
other hand, we were greatly incommoded by the heat, lack of water, and
abundance of insects of all kinds.
In spite of all, Metchnikoff had hitherto borne the journey fairly
well. However, since we left Moscow he had had frequent cardiac
intermittence, accompanied sometimes by sharp pains along the sternum.
But the stay at Sarepta especially tried his health; the heat reached
35° C. (95° F.) in the shade and 52° C. (about 125° F.) in the sun; in
the evening the windows could not be opened because of the mosquitoes.
Metchnikoff, who had shown so much endurance, now became weak, drowsy,
and nervous; he attributed his condition to the excessive heat. Yet
he could not leave Sarepta, for all the members of both branches of
the mission had agreed to meet there in order to sum up the results of
their observations.
The researches of the expedition for the study of plague were not
finished, and the Russian mission had agreed to complete them. So far,
it was established that neither the corpses--after a certain time--nor
the ground, nor the surrounding animals contained any plague microbes,
and no carriers had been found among the Kirghiz population.
The data gathered among the Kalmuk population justified Metchnikoff's
hypothesis. In the centre of the steppes, where the Kalmuks were still
isolated, tuberculosis was completely unknown; diagnosis reactions
were negative. They became positive more and more frequently as we
came nearer the periphery of the steppes and the Russian population.
The extreme sensitiveness of the Kalmuks must therefore depend on the
fact that they have suffered no natural vaccination in the steppes,
which would support the idea that some natural vaccine exists amongst
us. Metchnikoff therefore concluded that he might direct ulterior
researches towards the quest of natural tuberculous vaccines. Such were
the scientific results of the expedition.
Apart from that, the journey to Russia had a strong personal influence
on Metchnikoff. He had formerly left his country under the impression
of the fatal error committed by the revolutionaries in killing
Alexander II., an error which had led to a protracted reaction. He had
therefore remained very sceptical concerning the Russian revolutionary
movement; he thought that the necessary reforms might come from a
Government evolution. But, during his sojourn in Russia, he was able
to appreciate events which modified his ideas to a great extent. He
was impressed by the contrast between the progressive aspirations of
the "intellectuals" and the inertia or noxious activity of the rulers.
The policy of Casso, the Minister of Public Instruction, who ordered
regular raids in the universities, the persecution of Poles and Jews,
the encouragement of the "black band" obscurantism, giving plenary
powers to creatures of darkness like Rasputin and his peers, all these
things excited indignation in a man who placed the free development of
human culture above everything.
He thus ceased to count upon the progressive evolution of a Government
which was incapable of solving the complicated problems of Russian
life, and henceforward thought that those problems would be solved by
the "intellectuals" apart from the Government and in opposition to it.