CHAPTER XV._Roumania Past and Present

PRESENT ROUMANIAN LEADERS AND THEIR POLICY.

The King--Customs of the Court--The Queen--Her attainments--Extract

from her poetry--Madame Rosetti--Her patriotism and adventures--M.

Constantin A. Rosetti--His career and public services--M.

Bratiano--Other leaders of public opinion--The party of

progress--Their past foreign and domestic policy--Geographical

boundaries--Panslavism and Panroumanism--The future policy of

Roumania--Growth by pacific means--(Note: Comparative values of

Russian, Turkish, and Roumanian securities)--Roumania and Great

Britain--Conclusion.

We have passed in hasty and imperfect review those features in the

national life of Roumania which we believed would be of interest to our

readers, and will now endeavour to present to them sketches of a few of

the persons of distinction who are forming public opinion, and are the

leaders of progress in the country, premising, however, that there are

many omissions, due partly to our own ignorance, and partly to the fact

that the discussion of the merits and demerits of some of the public men

would not have been fitting in this treatise.

By his rank and patriotism, and not least by his extensive knowledge,

his Majesty King Charles is entitled to our first consideration. Of his

political career we have spoken in our historical summary, and little

more need be added. He was born on April 20, 1839, and is therefore

about forty-three years of age. On November 15, 1869, he married Pauline

Elisabeth, Princess of Wied, who was then about twenty-six years old;

but, unfortunately, the sole offspring of their union, a little girl,

lies interred in the grounds of the Asyle Helene. The King is a handsome

man, rather above the average height, and, so far as his regularly

formed features are concerned, he might belong to any nationality of

Western Europe. He usually wears a somewhat severe expression, but the

moment he begins to converse this at once disappears. His manner is

quiet and earnest, although he often warms into enthusiasm, and he has

the happy faculty of placing all with whom he comes into contact at

perfect ease. He possesses a wide range of information, and speaks with

evident knowledge on all matters of interest to his subjects or to

civilisation. Of course he is well acquainted with his adopted country

and its resources, takes a lively interest in its trade and

capabilities; and so far as the geographical configuration of Roumania

is concerned, he not only knows all about the level country, but has

either ridden or walked through every part of the Carpathians. His

scientific knowledge is such as one might expect in an educated German,

and is chiefly of a practical kind. He is deeply interested in

arboriculture, about which he knows more than many who are entrusted

with the care and fate of the vast woods that clothe the mountain

districts, and he has often pointed out to such persons errors in their

mode of felling timber. In private life the King is hospitable, genial,

and very regular in his habits; he is a devout Catholic, but a constant

attendant upon the services of the Greek Church.

[Illustration: H.M. PAULINE ELIZABETH,

FIRST QUEEN OF ROUMANIA.

IN THE NATIONAL COSTUME.

(FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY FRANZ DUSCHEK.)]

But of course our interest in him is necessarily rather of a public than

of a private character. Is he constitutional? or is Europe likely some

day to be favoured with a Roumanian _coup d'etat_? The answer to these

questions is clear and emphatic. Although a Hohenzollern, he is a

Constitutional Liberal, we should say of an advanced type. We spoke

before of his misunderstandings with his ministers; but even those who

were originally opposed to him, and who watched his every act with

suspicion, state that he has managed with great tact to steer clear of

unconstitutional courses; indeed, from their own admissions and the

facts of history, it is clear that he must have served a very trying

apprenticeship in the art of constitutional rule. His demeanour towards

his subjects and that of his queen, of whom we shall speak presently, is

everything that can be desired, and both are winning their affections

more completely year by year.

When the court is at Bucarest a great portion of the king's time is

devoted to giving audiences, not only to officials, but to all who

desire to know their sovereign, and even to seek his counsel or that of

his amiable consort. Two books are kept at the palace, one for callers

only, and the other for persons who desire to see and speak with the

king or queen, for they give audiences apart. Those who enter their

names in the second book must give notice to the 'Hofmarschall,' and

they are then sent for in turn, and punctuality above all things is

insisted upon. The king gives audiences from 1 to 3 or 4 p.m.; the queen

for a longer time, and young as she is, for she has not yet attained her

fortieth year, she is regarded as the mother of her people, and many

there are who come to her for advice or consolation. But we are

digressing. If the king interests himself in the civil affairs of

Roumania, he is a soldier before everything else. The virtual as well as

the nominal head of the army, he always wears uniform, and nothing is

too unimportant for his consideration in the organisation of his army.

Those who have been in the field with him and much about his person

extol his coolness, bravery, and endurance. He has often risked his life

in battle, was always to the fore visiting outposts and bivouacs in the

most inclement weather, and there can be no doubt that it is to his

bravery as a general, and to his tact and patience as a statesman, that

Roumania is largely indebted for her independence and her promise in the

future.

II.

The Queen of Roumania is almost too well known in Europe, through her

literary attainments, to need any description here; still a few

particulars concerning her may be of interest to our readers. She is of

the middle height, has an amiable face and still more affable manner.

She, too, might pass for a lady of any western country, having very

little to indicate her German nationality. Her voice is soft and

melodious, and although she can speak well on literary and scientific

subjects, there is not the slightest pedantry or affectation of learning

in her discourse. She is said to speak six languages, and she certainly

speaks Roumanian, French, German, and English. We do not know what the

other two may be, but if she speaks the four languages here named as

fluently and with as little foreign accent as she does our own, she may

fairly claim to be an accomplished linguist. All educated Roumanians

speak French, and most of them German, besides their own tongue; indeed

French is almost the universal language of the middle classes, whilst

those who have been educated here, especially the younger men, naturally

speak English well, and therefore the Queen is in this respect only

somewhat ahead of her more accomplished subjects. But, as we have

already stated, she is a poetess, and her verses are often marked by

great depth of feeling. She possesses, too, considerable scientific

knowledge and great taste in art, and one of her chief desires is to

promote national industry. She sets the example by wearing the national

costume (in which her portrait is usually taken) whilst in the country,

and requires it to be worn on State occasions, her main object being, we

were told, to encourage the peasant women who make these costumes in

their own homes. But whilst in these matters, as in her devotion to

public duty, the Queen identifies herself with the Roumanian people and

their interests, she would not be a German if she had forgotten the

'Fatherland.'

'Land of greenwood and of vine,

Sparkling wavelets of the Rhine,

Hushed thy song, afar thy gleam.

All to me, now, but a dream.

'Oft when I these eyelids close,

Purling sounds haunt my repose,

Vessels in the sunlight's ray,

'Fore the wind, speed on their way.

'Lovely home on German plain

Once my own, but ne'er again,

Thou wilt be to mem'ry dear

Till they place me on my bier.'[194]

[Footnote 194: The first three verses of the dedication in _Rumaenische

Dichtungen_, by Carmen Sylva (the Queen's _nom de plume_), Leipzig, W.

Friedrich, 1881. Lest our halting verse should prejudice the illustrious

authoress, we append the original for those who know German:--

'Du Rebenland, du gruener Wald,

Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:

Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,

Ich bin entflohn fuer immer!

'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,

Dann hoer' ich's singen, rauschen,

Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',

Den Wind die Segel bauschen.

'Dass ich die schoenste Heimath hab'

In deutschen Gau'n besessen,

Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum Grab

Nun nimmer kann vergessen.'

]

III.

But her Majesty, who is a Protestant, is not the only lady now living

who has made her mark in Roumanian history. There is another of whom we

are sure our readers will be glad to hear something, for she is an

accomplished Englishwoman, and it is very questionable whether, after

all, the Roumanians do not owe their independence as much to her energy

and devotion as to any other cause; we mean Madame Rosetti, the wife of

the Home Secretary.[195] It was mentioned in our historical summary that

the patriots of 1848 made their escape to France in that year, and that

they returned after the Crimean war in 1856. That is a long story told

in a, couple of sentences, and but for Madame Rosetti it is probable

they would never have escaped, but would have languished and died in a

Turkish prison in Bosnia, whilst Roumania might have been at this day a

Turkish pashalik or a Russian province. The fact is that all the leaders

of the revolution, fifteen in number, were arrested and conveyed on

board a Turkish man-of-war lying in the Danube; and Madame Rosetti,

whose heroic adventures have formed the theme of a work by

Michelet,[196] helped them to escape from their captors. As we have

already said, she is an Englishwoman, whose maiden name was Grant, and

she had only been married about a year when the revolution broke out.

Her first child was born a day or two before her husband and his

comrades were arrested, but she at once left her bed, and, taking her

infant in her arms, prepared to follow them. First she managed to obtain

an interview with the patriots on board the Turkish vessel to which they

had been conveyed, and there plans were formed which she skilfully and

courageously executed. Disguising herself as a peasant, and carrying her

child, she followed them up the Danube to Orsova, communicating with her

friends from time to time by signals. At Orsova the prisoners were

landed, and whilst they were on shore she succeeded in making their

guards intoxicated, and, with the connivance of the authorities,

prepared suitable conveyances, in which the patriots made their escape.

First they passed through Servia, and reaching Vienna in safety they

entered that city the day after the bombardment, and subsequently they

made their way through Germany, accompanied by their deliverer, and

found a hospitable asylum in Paris. Since her return Madame Rosetti has

been as valuable a coadjutor to her husband in his prosperity as she was

in his adversity, and she is also a useful and willing adviser to any of

her countrymen who, visiting Roumania, may stand in need of her

assistance.

[Footnote 195: When the above lines were penned, M. Rosetti was the Home

Secretary, although he has since resigned. It was as such that we knew

him, and we therefore prefer to leave our account, of him and his

amiable lady as it was originally written.]

[Footnote 196: _Legendes demoeratiques du Nord_, Madame Rosetti, p. 279

_et seq._]

IV.

Her husband, his Excellency Constantin A. Rosetti, has also reaped the

reward of his devotion to his country's welfare. He is of an old boyard

family of Italian origin, and in his early youth he was not only a

soldier in the national army, but his pen also gained for him a

considerable reputation, for he composed and published many interesting

Roumanian poems. At the age of about thirty-two years he married the

English lady to whom he owes so much, and of his adventures in 1848 we

have already twice spoken. Before he permanently took up his residence

in Paris after his escape, we believe he spent some time in

Constantinople. In Paris he was the companion of Michelet, Quinet, and

other leading writers, and with them and his countrymen the brothers

Bratiano and Golesco lie managed by his patriotic publications to keep

the lamp of liberty burning in his own country. Here, too, he is said to

have enjoyed the support of our own distinguished statesman, William

Ewart Gladstone, who was subsequently made a Roumanian citizen by an Act

of the legislature about the year 1861, and whom the Roumanians still

regard with feelings of great respect and admiration. On the return of

M. Rosetti to Roumania after the Crimean war he founded the 'Romanal' a

daily paper which still occupies a high position amongst the journals of

the capital, and which remains his property.[197] He took a conspicuous

part in the union of the Principalities under Prince Couza, and

supported that prince whilst his proceedings were constitutional, but he

was one of the most active agents in his deposition, and the only

serious objection that has been taken to his acts and those of his

colleagues on that occasion is that he employed the army to bring about

the prince's overthrow. To this matter, however, we have already

referred in our historical summary. In 1866 he was one of the

provisional government, and was at first by no means favourably disposed

towards the present king, who was, we believe, recommended to the

Roumanians by the Emperor Napoleon III. In later times, however, he

became one of his Majesty's most faithful advisers.

[Illustration: Constantin A. Rosetti]

M. Rosetti is about sixty-seven years of age, full of life and energy.

His career of hardship has somewhat bowed his physical frame, but it has

in no way interfered with his cheerful and kindly disposition. In

appearance he is an Italian, has very prominent but mild eyes, and a

most thoughtful, somewhat careworn countenance. He is _vif_, hot and

excitable, and not unfrequently lets his voice be heard if anything is

going wrong in public affairs, and something is very often going wrong

in Roumania. He speaks Roumanian, French, and German, and can write

English (of which he is fond of interjecting an expressive word now and

then when he is speaking in French) fairly well. Unfortunately for

scandal-mongers, of whom there are a good many in the capital and

elsewhere, M. Rosetti lives with great simplicity on the premises of the

'Romanul,' and upon, the profits of his paper and his salary; so they

are unable to charge him with peculation, which they would certainly do

if he gave them the slightest justification. He is a Radical, and an

uncompromising enemy of _coups d'etat_, and of despotism or

unconstitutional proceedings in any form, a man of unflinching honesty

and the leader of political thought in his country. In fact, he is a

patriot, and his countrymen know and appreciate the fact.

They usually couple his name with that of M. Bratiano, who is President

of the Council and Minister of Finance, and, so far as temperament is

concerned, the very opposite of his colleague. M. Bratiano is a quiet,

courteous gentleman, somewhat younger than M. Rosetti. His features are

regular and handsome, his beard and hair iron-grey, and his voice even

and melodious. He is full of pleasant humour, and has the bearing and

manner of an English gentleman; but although an excellent debater, he is

not a good linguist. In Roumania they say, 'Rosetti thinks and Bratiano

speaks,' but Bratiano thinks as well as speaks. So completely at one are

the two statesmen that many of the uninformed poorer classes who have

not seen them believe them to be one person, whom they call

'Bratiano-Rosetti,' and whilst we were in Bucarest we saw a caricature

(an art in which the Roumanians take great delight) where the two

statesmen were depicted as the Siamese twins.

[Illustration: M. BRATIANO.]

The aim and policy of M. Bratiano are well expressed in one of his

despatches on the question of the Danube, which were made public by that

diplomatic phenomenon M. Callimaki-Catargi. 'Our attitude,' he says,

'like the whole policy of the ministry to which I belong, has always

been, and ever should be, defensive, not offensive.'[198]

Amongst the other leaders of political thought in Roumania is Prince

Demeter Ghika, President of the Senate, a fine burly good-natured

gentleman of the old school; Prince Jon Ghika, at present the Roumanian

Ambassador in London, a patriot and a savant, whose sons were educated

in England; M. Statesco, the Foreign Minister, a young and promising

statesman; M. Stourdza, the director of the National Credit Association;

and there are doubtless many others of whom we do not like to speak

without a nearer acquaintance, or better information than we possess.

One of these is M. Cogalniceanu, a deputy, who has written a good

history of Roumania, was a minister under Prince Couza, and we believe

the author of the celebrated Act of 1864 which created the peasant

proprietary of the country.[199]

[Footnote 197: There are daily papers in Bucarest for readers of every

nationality resident there, the _Romanal, Independance Roumaine,

Bukarester Tagblatt_, &c., all of which are free to say whatever they

please--_and they say it!_]

[Footnote 198: Despatch, February 1, 1880.]

[Footnote 199: Of the leaders of intellectual thought and industries in

Roumania we have already spoken elsewhere.]

From men to measures is a natural transition in politics. Although we

have endeavoured to show, and do not hesitate to repeat here, that some

of the great principles laid down in the Constitution of Roumania are

only beginning to be carried out in practice, it is but just to add that

the vigour and energy with which the party of progress has of late years

developed the resources of the country is a matter of surprise and

admiration even to foreigners resident there who are acquainted with our

Western methods. The present _regime_ began, as we have already said, in

1875, and since that time the foreign policy of the party in power first

liberated the nation from the last vestige of foreign despotism; then

firmly established it as a European kingdom. That they occasionally

make mistakes no one can deny. For example, the recent announcement in

the speech from the throne, that Roumania was prepared in the present

and future for every sacrifice which it might be necessary to make to

ensure in all respects absolute facility of navigation of the Danube,

appears to an outsider to have been an error in judgment, if the

government were not prepared to hear with equanimity of the threatened

departure of the ambassador of a neighbouring State which had put the

cap upon its head, and against whose unwarrantable pretensions the

remark was directed. But it is easy to be wise after the event, and we

admit that it is presumptuous for anyone to criticise hastily any matter

that is being tossed about on the troubled sea of Oriental politics.

Living as we do on a seagirt isle which is practically unapproachable to

an external foe, and having for centuries enjoyed the blessings of

freedom, we can have no conception of the difficult cards which

Roumanian statesmen have to play in the political game in which they are

often compelled, much against their desire, to participate. From time to

time they hear great international theories propounded for the benefit

of their powerful neighbours, to which they are compelled to close their

ears, however nearly those principles may apply to their own condition.

Suppose, for example, some European Power claims new territory on the

ground of geographical position. Why, ask the Roumanians, should we be

hemmed in as we are on every side? Why should not the plains on both

sides of the Danube guarded by the Balkans and the Carpathians

constitute a strong realm, one and indivisible, with the great river

flowing as an artery through its centre? The answer is, Russia! If an v

of the Great Powers had insisted upon such a readjustment in the East,

she would have opposed it, for is not Bulgaria her last stepping-stone

to Constantinople? 'Skobeleff the First, King of Bulgaria' would suit

her aims far better. This reminds one of 'Panslavism.' Who will deny the

right of adjacent branches of the same race to live under one

government? Admitted; but then why not also Panroumanism? In that case

considerable portions of Austro-Hungary, Bessarabia, Bulgaria, Servia,

would have to be added to the present dominions of King Charles of

Roumania; for there are almost as many Roumanians in those countries as

there are within the present boundaries of the kingdom.[200]

But if Roumanian statesmen are permitted to enjoy their _reflections_ on

these interesting political topics, they know that it would be unsafe to

publish them, for, as we have seen, if they venture even, to cry too

loudly 'Roumania for the Roumanians,' some hectoring neighbour instantly

takes the alarm and threatens to withdraw its ambassador; and in case of

a fracas between any two such neighbouring States, even the rights which

she at present enjoys would hardly be respected. Her policy is therefore

tolerably well defined, and it was ably set forth in the royal speech

which contained that dangerous reference to Austrian pretensions. Peace

is requisite for her, in order that her Parliament may occupy itself in

developing the riches of the soil and the economic interests of the

country; but the organisation of a strong defensive army is equally

necessary to protect those interests from grasping and despotic States

in her vicinity, and because, 'by the development of all the forces of

the nation, Roumania will become an element of order, peace, and

progress in Eastern Europe.' In fact, she must make herself, by peaceful

measures, what Michael the Brave succeeded for a very short time, and

from motives of personal ambition, in making her by the sword in his

day, the arbiter of surrounding nations, the Belgium of the East, which

no aggressive despot would dare to assail; and she must become

sufficiently strong to resist not only inimical but friendly foreign

occupations, which have such a demoralising effect upon her people.

On this undertaking her Government has already for some years past been

embarked. It has secured railway property for the State which was in the

hands of aliens, has begun to improve watercourses, created national

credit institutions, reduced the interest upon the national debt,

increased the value of Roumanian securities, and has generally followed,

as it still pursues, the ways of 'peace, retrenchment, and reform.'[201]

We have no wish to patronise Roumania even in words, for her best friend

is he who tells her to depend entirely on her own resources and develop

those herself; to carve her fortunes, and to shape her ends. But when we

look upon her sufferings, reflecting how for ages she has lain beneath

the claws of savage enemies, quailed under despots who sucked the

lifeblood of the nation, and then compare her constitutional democracy

with ours--nay, if alone from a material point of view we weigh the

interest we have in her prosperity, we cannot fail to see that in the

East is rising up a Power, in part of our creation, young and weak as

yet, but full of hope and promise; and therefore, in concluding this

imperfect record of her 'past and present,' we heartily commend her

future to the earnest watchfulness of every English friend of liberty.

[Footnote 200: According to some, there are more.]

[Footnote 201: Although we have endeavoured as much as possible to avoid

burdening this popular treatise with statistics, one set of figures

which have been kindly supplied to us by friends at Bucarest and in

London is so significant, and indeed of such general interest, that we

must claim the reader's indulgence for giving it _in extenso_. It

comprises the values of Russian, Turkish, and Roumanian securities from

1870 to 1880, which are as follows:--

TURKISH.

RUSSIAN. General Five per Cent. ROUMANIAN.

Six per Cents. Debt. Oppenheim.

1870 83-1/2 to 94-1/2 45 to 51 75 to 98

1871 88 " 97 44-1/2 " 52-1/2 86 " 96-1/2

1872 95 " 100 46-1/2 " 55 91 " 104

1873 96 " 100-1/2 45 " 47 98 " 104

1874 97 " 103 45 " 46-1/2 98 " 108

1875 95 " 104-1/2 23 " 45 100 " 109

1876 74 " 100-1/2 11-1/2 " 23 74 " 106

1877* 71 " 93 6-1/2 " 11-1/2 58 " 91

1878* 74 " 91 8-1/2 " 12 87 " 105

1879 84 " 93 10-1/2 " 12 93 " 110

1880 85 " 96 10 " 12-1/2 102 " 112

And in 1881 the prices of the Oppenheim loan ranged from 105 to 116.

From these eloquent figures it will be seen that whilst Russia has been

stationary, and Turkey has fallen 75 per cent, the condition and

security of Roumania has risen, roughly speaking, 25 per cent, in the

eslimation of the financial world during the last ten years. The two

years marked with an asterisk were years of war.]

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX I.

_Table of Movements and Settlements of various Nationalities and Tribes

in the Provinces bordering on the Lower Danube between the Getic period

and about the end of the Thirteenth Century, A.D., compiled by

the Author, and corrected from the Ancient Historians (Tacitus, Dion

Cassius, Eutropius) and the works of Gibbon, Smith, Lesage, Engel,

Lauriani, Neigebaur, Henke, Wilkinson, Merivale, Freeman, Dierauer,

Roesler, Pic, and others._

+--------------+--------------------------------------------+------------------+

| | _APPROXIMATE DATES OF_ | |

|_NATIONALITY +-----------+-----------+----------+---------+ |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

|GETAE--Getae | 335 B.C. | ? | ? | ? |Thracian origin; |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| |B.C. |274 A.D. |Goths | |fused with |

| | | |A.D. | |and their descen- |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

|Ostrogoths, | 250 A.D. |274 to 375 |Huns, 375 | 378 A.D.|and were allowed |

|Visigoths, | |A.D. |A.D. | |to settle with |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

|at various | |A.D. |375 A.D. | |conquered by |

|_Sarmatians_ | | | | |A.D. |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| | |A.D. |550 A.D. | | |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| | |564 to |Part anni-|End |alternately |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| |A.D. |to |1014-1019 |Remarks |by different |

| | |1014-1019 | | |authors. Amongst |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| | | |dom | | |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| | | | |1275 |with Wallachs and |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

|(and |(with |1083 to |and | |absorbed other |

| | | |1220 A.D. | |Carpathians. |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

| | |1249 to ? | | |certain districts |

| | | | | |1223 A.D. |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------------+

APPENDIX II.

THE 'CAPITULATIONS.'

The original 'Capitulation' of Mircea I. of Wallachia to the Sultan

Bajazid I. at Nicopolis, 1393 A.D., is contained in a

'Hatthoumaioun' of the latter, said to have been preserved in

Constantinople, and there seen by a Roumanian called Kitzorano, who was

attached to the Wallachian Embassy, and who took a copy of it (along

with others), which he sent to the Great Ban Takanitza Vacaresco. The

Greek historian, Dionysius Photino, also saw it at the Porte, and

published a copy of it in his 'History of Dacia,' vol. ii. cap. v. p.

369, a work which the reader will find in the British Museum. This runs

as follows:--

'We order, in our great condescension, that the country of Wallachia,

which has lately submitted to our invincible arms, shall be governed by

its own laws, and that the Voivode shall have the power of making war

and peace with his neighbours and of life and death over his subjects.

All Christians belonging to the countries subject to our rule who would

emigrate to Wallachia shall be allowed the free exercise of their

religion. All Wallachians visiting our empire on business shall be

allowed to do so without interference in the same or in their garments.

The Christian voivodes to be elected by the metropolitan and the

boyards. In return for our great condescension in having accepted this

rayah (the Voivode of Wallachia) amongst the other subjects of our

empire, he will be bound to pay into our treasury, every year, the sum

of 6,000 red piastres of the country.'

Translations of this capitulation are to be found in the French

histories of Roumania, but they are not always trustworthy; for example,

Beaure and Mathorel (Appendix, p. 203) profess to give a verbatim copy,

in which the last article declares that the Sultan promises never to

deliver a firman to a Wallachian subject, nor to summon him to

_Constantinople_. A moment's reflection would have shown the inaccuracy

of this statement, for Constantinople was at that time still the capital

of the Eastern Empire, and only fell into the Ottoman power in 1453. The

stipulation in question is the last in the treaty with Vlad (V.?), 1460.

The 'Capitulation' of Bogdan of Moldavia to Selim I., 1513, was in some

respects more favourable to the vassal State. Amongst other

stipulations, it provided for the residence in Constantinople of a

Moldavian envoy, and permitted a Christian church to be erected there.

The annual tribute was, however, raised and consisted of 11,000

piastres, forty falcons, and forty mares in foal, 'all by way of

present.' In both countries, after each war or insurrection fresh

stipulations, including a constantly increasing tribute, were added.

APPENDIX III.

THE ROUMANIAN CONSTITUTION.

The Constitution of Roumania contains one hundred and thirty-three

articles, and is framed with great regard to justice and to the national

liberties. The following are some of its leading provisions. The country

is divided into districts, the districts into arrondissements, the

arrondissements into communes.[202] It grants (Article 5) freedom of

conscience, of instruction, of the press, and of public meeting.

Abolishes (10 and 12)[203] distinctions and privileges of class and

foreign titles, such as Prince, Count, Baron, &c., as being contrary to

ancient institutions.[204] Capital punishment is abolished except under

martial law in time of war (18). The property of the peasantry and the

indemnity to landowners are inviolable (20). The Greek Catholic religion

is made the State Church, but all other sects are allowed freedom of

worship (21). Primary instruction is gratuitous and compulsory (23), and

primary schools are to be established in every commune. Freedom of

speech, except as to breaches of the Criminal Code, is unrestricted;

press offences must be tried by jury, and no journal can be 'warned,'

suspended, or suppressed; neither is there any kind of 'censure' of the

press (24). Freedom of assemblage (26) and the right to petition (28)

are confirmed; and the extradition of political exiles is forbidden. All

crimes are to be tried by jury (105). The legislative power is vested in

the Prince and the national representatives, namely, the Senate and the

Chamber of Deputies (32). But money bills and matters relating to the

army contingents must originate with the latter (33).

The executive power is vested in the prince (35) (now the king), who is

hereditary in the male line only (82), and who must belong to the

Orthodox Greek Church. He is inviolate, his ministers only being

responsible, and one of them must countersign all his decrees (92). He

sanctions, and may refuse his assent to, all laws; has the right of

amnesty (93); is the head of the army, makes war, concludes peace, and

performs the other acts of a constitutional sovereign. Should a vacancy

occur in the throne, various provisions exist for the eventuality, and

in case of failure of issue the two Assemblies conjointly 'elect a

prince of one of the sovereign dynasties of Western Europe' (84).

(Rather vague, but very significant.)

The Chamber of Deputies consists of members elected by direct and by

indirect voting. The constituency is divided into four 'colleges' or

groups (58). The first college in each district comprises persons having

incomes from property (_foncier_) of not less than 300 ducats, equal to

about 141_l._ (59). The second college includes those with an income

ranging from 100 to 300 ducats (47_l._ to 141_l._)(60). The third (61)

comprises persons in trade paying the State 80 francs (about 3_l._

4_s._) or upwards per annum. Members of the liberal professions,

half-pay officers, and some others, are exempted from the money

qualification. These colleges elect each one Deputy, and the towns elect

an additional number according to their importance, from such places as

Pitesti two to Bucarest five. The fourth college elects indirectly. It

consists of all persons who pay any taxes or contributions, however

small. In this college each set of fifty electors names a delegate, and

the delegates elect a Deputy. The Deputies (of whom there are to-day one

hundred and forty-five) must be Roumanians, born or naturalised, must

have attained the age of twenty-five, and must live in Roumania (66).

The duration of the Chamber of Deputies is four years.

The Senate is elected by two colleges, being the two highest for the

election of Deputies. It consists to-day of seventy-six members, and

includes a number of high officials who are not elective, such as the

archbishop and bishops. The qualification for a Senator is an income of

800 ducats (equal to about 376_l._) per annum, and he must have attained

the age of forty years. The Senators are elected for eight years, one

half retiring every four years, except in case of a dissolution of the

Senate, when all must be re-elected, or, more properly speaking, a new

Senate must be chosen (68 to 81). The Act of the Constitution deals

with the judicial system, the Code Napoleon being in force in Roumania,

with finances, army organisation, and other important matters of

national interest. The Act is signed by the Prince and his Ministers:

The Minister of the Interior and President of the Council, L. Catargi;

the Minister of Finance, J. Bratiano; the Minister of Justice, J.

Cantacuzene; the Minister of Foreign Affairs, P. Mavrogeni; the Minister

of Public Worship and Instruction, C.A. Rosetti; the Minister of War, J.

Ghika; the Minister of Public Works, Agriculture, and Commerce, D.

Stourdza.

[Footnote 202: This abstract is made from the French translation of the

Constitution; the actual divisions of the country are as follows:--

_Judetu_ is a department or district, the head of which is a prefect. Of

these there are at present thirty-two in all.

_Plasa_, subdivision of a _Judetu_, the head of which is a sub-prefect.

_Comuna_, a parish.

_Urba_, a city.

_Orage_, a town.]

[Footnote 203: The numbers in parentheses refer to the articles.]

[Footnote 204: A few old families have retained their titles, but many

who would have the same justification for doing so have discontinued

their use.]

APPENDIX IV.

THE PEASANT PROPRIETARY OF ROUMANIA.

The precise terms and circumstances under which the peasant proprietary

was formed in Roumania, as communicated to us by Prince Jon Ghika, are

as follows:--

Before the 'Convention of Balta Liman' between Russia and Turkey, there

were three classes of peasantry:

1. Those who possessed four beasts of burden and one cow.

2. " " " two " " " "

3. " " " one cow only.

By the Convention above named each class was to receive the following

land, to be paid for in certain cases by twenty-two days' labour, 1/10th

of the harvest and 1/5th of the hay.

CLASS 1.--(11 pogones, or 5-1/2 hectares), or about 14 acres,

namely:

3 pogones = about 3-8/10 acres arable.

3 " = " 3-8/10 " hay.

5 " = " 6-4/10 " pasturage.

CLASS 2.--7-8/10 pogones, or about 10 acres, viz.:

3-8/10 acres arable.

3-8/10 " pasturage.

2-8/10 " hay; and

CLASS 3.--4-1/2 pogones, or about 5-1/2 acres, viz.:

3-8/10 acres arable.

1-2/10 " hay.

6/10 " pasturage.

In 1864 these holdings, varying, therefore, from 5 to 14 acres, were

converted into freeholds at about 2_l._ per acre, repayable (as stated

in the text) in fifteen years, with 10 per cent. interest.

Mr. White, our Minister at Bucarest, has favoured us with the following

information on the same subject:--

The peasant heads of families who were endowed with land (in 1864)

received freeholds:

In Wallachia 279,684, averaging 9.1 English acres.

" Moldavia 127,214 " 12.08 " "

406,898 holdings, average 10.6 "

APPENDIX V.

LIST OF WORKS.

The following works, all of which have been consulted in the preparation

of this treatise, deal either with the past history or present condition

of Roumania. The words italicised are those used in the notes appended

to the text, where also references will be found to other books and

official reports, of which the titles are given in full.

_Almanach de Gotha_. Justus Perthes, Gotha. 1882. 'Royaume de

Roumanie,' pp. 898-907.

Annual _Report of the Board of Trade_, 1880.

_Aurelian_, Odobesco, and others (Commission princiere). '_Notice_ sur

la Roumanie.' Paris: A. Frank. 1867.

_Aurelian_, '_Terra Nostra_.' Bucuresci, Tipografia Academiei Romane.

1880.

_Beaure et Mathorel_. 'La Roumanie.' Calmann-Levy, Paris. 1878.

_Cantacuzene_. 'Cenni sulla Romania.' (Roumanian Geographical Society.)

1875.

_Carmen Sylva_ (the Queen of Roumania). 'Rumaenische Dichtungen.'

Leipzig: Friedrich. 1881.

_Carra_. 'Histoire de la Moldavie et de la Valachie.' Jassy. 1777.

Consular Reports on Roumania (referred to specially in the text)--

Consul-General Green. May 1873.

Consul-General Vivian. October 1876.

Consul-General Sanderson. 1877.

Vice-Consul Bonham. 1878.

Sold by King, King Street, Westminster.

_Dierauer_, Johannes. 'Beitraege zur Geschichte Trajan's.' Leipzig:

Teubner. 1868.

_Dion Cassius._ 'Histoire Romaine' de, par E. Gros. Paris: Firmin

Didot. 1867.

_Engel_. 'Geschichte der Moldau und Walachei' (in 'Allgemeine

Weltgeschichte,' Band 49). Halle: Gebauer. 1801.

_Felix_, Doctor L. 'Miscarea Populatiunii Romaniei.' Bucuresci:

Tipografia Academiei. 1880.

_Fife-Cookson_. 'With the Armies of the Balkans.' Cassell. 1880.

_Filek_ von Wittinghausen. 'Das Koenigreich Rumaenien.' Wien:

Carl Gerold's Sohn. 1881.

_Freeman_, Edward A. 'Historical Essays.' Macmillan. 1879. 'General

Sketch of European History.' Macmillan. 1877.

_Gerando_. A. de. 'Siebenbuergen und seine Bewohner.' Lorck,

Leipzig. 1845.

_Gibbon's_ 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.' Tegg's edition.

_Hallam's_ 'Middle Ages.' Murray. 1860.

_Hammer_-Purgstall. 'Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches.' 4 vols.

Hartleben, Pesth. 1834-1836.

_Hauer_, Franz Ritter von. 'Geologie Siebenbuergen's.'

_Henke_, Rudolf. 'Rumaenien, Land und Volk.' Leipzig: Otto Wigand.

1877.

_Kogalnitchan_, M. de. 'Histoire de la Dacie, des Valaques

Transdanubiens et de la Valacie.' Berlin: Behr. 1854.

_Kunisch_. 'Eine Fahrt nach dem Orient.' Berlin: Effert & Lindtner.

1869.

_Lauriani_, A. Treb. 'Schneller Ueberblick der Geschichte der Romaenen.'

Bukuresti: Buchdruckerei des National-Collegiums. 1846.

_Lesage_, A. 'Atlas Historique.' Paris: P. Didot aine. 1823.

_Merivale_. 'The Romans under the Empire.' London: Longmans.

1852-1862.

_Michelet_. 'Legendes democratiques du Nord.' Madame Rosetti,

1848. Paris: Garnier. 1854.

_Neigebaur_, J.F. 'Moldau und Walachei.' J.U. Kern, Breslau.

1854.

_Obedenare_, M.C. 'La Roumanie Economique.' Paris: Leroux.

1876.

_Ozanne_. 'Three Years in Roumania.' Chapman & Hall. 1878.

_Paget_. 'Hungary and Transylvania.' London: Murray. 1850.

_Peters_, Prof. K.F. 'Die Donau und ihr Gebiet.' Leipzig: Brockhaus.

1876.

_Petermann's_ 'Mittheilungen.' Ergaenzungsheft 4. Justus Perthes,

Gotha.

_Photino_, Dionysius. [Greek: Historia tes palai Dakias]. Vienna: Svek.

1818.

_Pic_, Jos. Lad. 'Ueber die Abstammung der Rumaenen.' Leipzig:

Duncker & Humblot. 1880.

_Piranese_. Engravings of Trajan's Column.

_Quinet_, Edgar, Oeuvres Completes de. Tome vi., 'Les Roumains.'

Pagnerre, Paris. 1857.

_Raicewich_. 'Bemerkungen ueber die Moldau und Wallachey.' Wien:

Edeln von Kurzbeck. 1789.

_Regnault_. 'Histoire des Principantes Danubiennes. Paulin & Chevalier,

Paris. 1855.

_Reissenberger_, Ludwig. 'Die bischoefliche Klosterkirche bei

Kurtea d'Argyisch.' Wien: K.K. Hof-und Staatsdruckerei. 1860.

_Roesler_, Robt. 'Romianische Studien.' Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.

1871.

_Russo-Turkish War_, Cassell's History of the. Cassell.

_Russo-Turkish 'War Correspondence_' of the 'Daily News.' Macmillan.

1878.

_Smith_, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman _Biography_. Murray.

Dictionary of Ancient _Geography_. Murray. 1872-1873.

_Stanley_. 'Rouman Anthology.' Hertford: Austin. 1856.

'_Statistica din Romania_.' Bucuresci: Tipografia Statululiu.

1880.

_Tacitus_, Bohn's.

_Teutschlaender_, W. St. 'Michael der Tapfere.' Wien: Graeser.

Bucarest: Sotschek. 1879.

_Tocilesco_. 'Dacia inainte de Romani.' Bucuresci:

Tipografia Academiei Romane. 1880.

_Vaillant_, J.A. 'La Romanie.' Paris: A. Bertrand. 1845.

_Wilkinson_, W. 'An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and

Moldavia,' London: Longmans. 1820.

_Zallony_, Marc. Philippe. 'Fassai sur les Phanariotes.' Marseille;

Ant. Ricard. 1824.

INDEX.

Agriculture:

cattle and sheep, 78, 79.

cereals, nature, growth, and trade in, 6, 11, 31, 70, 76, 77.

yield, and estimates of cost of growing, 76, 78.

cheese and dairy products, 79.

college (agricultural) of Ferestreu, 80-82.

education, agricultural, 80.

fanning, slovenly, 6, and _note_.

flowers and fruits, 11, 12.

implements of husbandry, 13, 75, 76.

labourers, wages of, 13.

landlordism in Roumania, 84, 85.

land reforms, comparison between Roumanian and Irish, 85, 86.

peasantry, character and condition of, 85, 86.

peasant proprietary, history of the, 82-84, and Appendix IV.

rotation of crops, 75.

soil, nature and capabilities of, 6, 17, 75, 79.

statistics of occupations, 87.

Archaeology:

collections in the Academy at Bucarest, 42.

Constantine's bridge, 27.

Curtea d'Ardges, cathedral of, 27, 58-65.

its traditions and true history, 62-65.

Gothic remains in Roumania, 27.

Roman remains in Roumania, 26, 27.

roads in Roumania, Transylvania, and Bulgaria, 26.

Trajan's bridge, 23, 24.

road on the Danube, 23.

Tablet, 21, 23-25.

Bibliography (see Appendix V. 'List of Works').

Biography:

Baasarab, Matthew, 201.

Neagu, 63, 64, 174.

Brancovano (Wallachia), 203, 206.

Bratiano, M., 223, 265, 266.

Cantemir (Moldavia), 204.

Charles I., prince and king, 16, 17, 233-52, 258-60 (see 'History').

Couza, Prince, 229-32 (see 'History').

Decebalus, 119 _et seq._

Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55, 92.

marriage, 257.

personal description of, 260, 261.

verses by, 261 _note_.

Heliade, 221, 222, 223.

Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, 167-69.

Mavrocordato, Nicholas and Constantine, 208, 209.

Mavrogeni, Nicholas, 214, 215, 218.

Michael the Brave, 175, 176-98.

Mircea the Old, 164-67.

Rosetti, C.A., 223, 263-65.

Madame, 262, 263.

Serban II. (Cantacuzene), 64, 202, 203.

Stephen, called the Good, 170, 178.

Trajan, 122 _et seq._

Vladimiresco, 219.

Ypsilanti, 219, 220.

Botany:

Ferestreu, plants cultivated at, 80.

garden flowers and fruits of Roumania, 11, 12.

plants and trees of the plains, 6.

of the hills, 11.

of the mountains, 14.

Commerce and Manufactures:

building company, for public works, 56.

cereals, imports from Roumania into Great Britain, 81.

Danube, navigation of, 30.

tonnage of vessels entering, 30.

Danubian Commission, history of, 32-35.

flannel factories, 70.

flour mills, 70.

Galatz, trade at, 68-70.

Ibrail, trade at, 72.

maize, imports into England from Roumania, 31.

markets and exchanges, absence of, 55.

match factories, 70.

petroleum wells and distilleries, 14, 31.

railways, extension of, 71.

securities, Roumanian, &c., 270 _note_.

salt mines of Roumania, 14, 106.

saw mills, 70.

statistics of trade between Roumania and Great Britain, 70.

sugar factories, 70.

Education and Culture:

Academy, the, 41, 42.

its collections and appliances, 42-45.

agricultural college at Ferestreu, 80-82.

Asyle Helene, girls' school, 92-94.

education in Roumania, 88-95.

compared with England, 89 _note_.

of youths abroad, 89-91, 95.

collegiate, 89.

other schools, 94, 95.

music, 52, 55, 97.

popular instruction and culture, want of, 55.

Savants--M, Aurelian, 80.

M. Bacologlu, 43.

M. Bernath, 19, 43.

M. Cogalniceanu, 55, 267.

Dr. Davila, 43, 92, 94, 238.

M. Hasdeu, 55, 99.

M. Jon Ghika, 165 _note_, 267, and Appendix IV.

M. Stourdza, 42.

M. Tocilesco, 27 _note_, 42.

societies, learned, 55.

Ethnography:

dances, in their relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 97, 98.

language, in its relation to the descent of the Roumanians, 95-99.

authorities on, 99.

music and its relations to the people, 97.

peasantry, types of, 7.

Trajan's colonists and modern Roumanians, 132, 162.

Wallachs, the, and the Roumanians, 151-64, 164.

Geography (see also 'Topography' and 'Geology'):

boundaries of Roumania, 3.

configuration of the surface, 5.

dimensions, 4.

hills, zone of, 11.

Kazan Pass, the, 22.

lakes, 25.

mountains, zone of, 5, 14.

plains, zone of, 6.

rivers--the Danube, 20-25.

other rivers, 25.

Iron Gates, the, 22.

population, 4.

of cities, 39, 50, 51, 71.

summary of geographical characters, 28.

Geology and Mineralogy:

Balta Alba, mineral waters of, 25.

basin of the Danube, 17, 18.

Carpathians, slopes of, 18.

summits of, 18.

coal and lignite, 18.

copper and other minerals, 19.

iron, 18.

ozokerit (hydrocarbon), 18.

petroleum wells, 14.

plains, geology of, 17.

salt mines, 14, 106-9.

History (see also 'Biography'):

Adrianople, treaty of, 221.

AEneas Sylvius on the Wallachs, 153.

Alexander, Philip, and Lysimachus, their wars with the Getae, 115-17.

Anna Comnena on the Wallachs, 152.

Anonymous Notary of King Bela, the, 150, 151.

Attila, his career and death, 141, 142.

Aurelian evacuates Dacia, 135-37.

Aurelius (Marcus) defeats the Goths, 134.

Avari, the, 143.

Bajazet I. overruns Wallachia, 165.

Balta-Liman, convention of, 224, Appendix IV.

bans, voivodes, and khans (early), 163, 164.

barbarians, 138-60, and Appendix I. (see also 'Goths,' 'Huns,' &c.).

Basilius Lupus, 201.

Bassarab, the clan, 163.

Basta (General), 192, 195, 198.

Bathori, Sigismund, 182, 185, 196.

Andreas, 189, 190, 191.

Belgrade, treaty of, 216.

Bessarabia (Lower) annexed to Moldavia, 228.

retaken by Russia in exchange for the Dobrudscha, 253.

Bogdan, Dragosch, 162, 170.

son of Stephen, 172.

Bonfinius on the Wallachs, 152.

Brancovano treats with Peter the Great, 203.

deposed and executed, 204, 205.

his great treasures, 205, 206.

Bratiano, M., 223, 266.

Bucarest, treaty of, 218.

Bulgari, their customs, 144-46.

Bulgari, their rule, 147, 148.

Bulgarians (modern), their revolt (1877), 236.

their alliance with the Russians, 242.

Cantemir treats with Peter the Great, 203.

flees into Russia, 204.

Capitulation of Mircea to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II.

of Bogdan to the Turks, 172 and Appendix II.

Charles, Prince, 16, 17.

accession, 233.

difficulties of rule, 234.

services to army, 237.

participation in war of 1877-8, 239, 241.

commander-in-chief before Plevna, 243.

meets Osman Pasha, 252,

crowned king, 255.

personal description, 258-60.

Christianity, history of, 65-66 _note_.

Consuls, Russian, established in Roumania, 217.

English and French, established in Roumania, 218.

Corvinus (see 'Hunniad').

Couza, Prince, accession and reign, 229.

surprised in his palace and deposed, 230.

abdication and departure, 231, 232.

Criminal codes of Matthew Bassarab and Basilius Lupus, 201, 202.

Dacia, contests with Home, 117 _et seq._

Decebalus, King of, 119-29.

Trajan's first invasion of, 122-27.

second invasion of, 127-30.

a Roman province, 131-34.

evacuated by Aurelian, 195-97.

Gibbon on the evacuation, 135-37.

Dacians, the, their origin and character, 117-19.

early wars with Rome, 119 _et seq._

Decebalus, King of the Dacians, 119-29.

defeats Appius Sabinus, and Cornelius Fuscus, 120.

is beaten by Tertius Julianus, 121.

makes a treaty with Domitian, 121, 122.

is defeated by Trajan, 124.

breaks his treaty with Trajan, 127.

attempts Trajan's life by assassination, 128.

again defeated by Trajan and commits suicide, 129.

Dion Cassius, the historian, 117, 118 _note_.

Domitian, defeated by Decebalus, 120.

Elisabeth, princess and queen, 55, 92, 257, 260-61, 261 _note_ (see also 'Biography').

Gellius (and other chiefs), tradition of, 150, 151 _note_.

Gepidae (a branch of the Goths), powerful in Northern Dacia, 142.

defeated and exterminated by the Lombards, 143.

Getae, their supposed origin, 115, 116.

at war with Alexander and other Greek generals, 116, 117.

Gibbon on Aurelian's evacuation of Dacia, 135.

his estimate of the Dacians, 136.

Goths, their first appearance, 134.

defeated by Marcus Aurelius, 135.

negotiate with Aurelian, 136.

rule in Dacia, 139, 140.

end of their rule, and remains left by them, 140.

Greek families, reference to histories of, 201 _note_.

rulers of Wallachia and Roumania (see 'Phanariotes').

rising under Vladimiresco and Ypsilanti, 219, 220.

suppressed, 220.

Grivitza Redoubt besieged by the Roumanians, 245, 246.

its strength, 247.

its capture by the Roumanians, 248, 249.

Helena (Couza), Princess, 92, 229.

Heliad, the regenerator of national literature in Roumania, 221-23.

his political action, 223.

Hospodars, Greek (see 'Phanariotes').

origin of title, 208, 209 _note_.

restoration of native, 220.

Hungarians (see 'Ungri').

Hunniad, Johann Corvin von, his birth and early life, 167, 168.

viceroy of Siebenbuergen and regent of Hungary, 168.

his wars with the Turks and death, 168.

anecdotes concerning him, and his character, 160.

Huns, appear in northern Dacia, 140, 141.

their aspect and ferocity, 141.

their king Attila, 141.

defeated and driven out of Europe, 142.

Innocent III., his correspondence with Joannitz, King of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 156-60.

Jassy, Treaty of, 218.

Jasyges, the, 118.

Kainardji, treaty of, 217.

Knights of St. John and Teutonic knights, 156.

Kumani, the, 155, 156.

Lauriani on the correspondence between Joannitz and Innocent III., 156-60.

on the fall of Wallacho-Bulgaria, 160.

Lombards, the, 143.

Magyars, the (see 'Ungri').

Matthew Bassarab, his criminal code, 201, 202.

Mavrocordato, Alexander, 207.

Nicholas, first Phanariote voivode, 208.

Constantine, suppresses retainers of boyards, 208.

appoints new officers of State, 208, 209.

Mavrogeni, Nicholas, his nobles rebel, 214, 215.

his defeat by the Austrians and Russians, 218.

Michael the Brave, condition of Wallachia in his day, 176-81.

classes of society, 176, 177, 178.

taxes, 178.

officials, 179.

army, 180.

political relations with other states, 181.

career of Michael:

early history and accession, 182;

alliances, 182;

massacre of the Turks, 183;

conspiracy against him, 183;

Achmed Pasha's invasion and defeat, 184;

Sigismund of Transylvania, Michael's submission to him, 185;

invasion of Sinan Pasha, 186;

Kalugereni, Michael's great victory, 186, 187;

retreat and rally of Michael, 187;

expulsion of the Turks, 188;

intrigues of Michael, 189;

abdication of Sigismund and accession of Andreas Bathori, 189;

Michael's invasion and conquest of Transylvania, 189-92;

triumph at Weissenburg, 192;

Michael overruns Moldavia, 192, 194;

in the zenith of his power, 194;

General Basta, 192, 195;

revolt of Transylvanian nobles, 195;

defeat of Michael at Miriszlo and Hight, 195, 196;

appeals to the German Emperor, 196;

recall of Sigismund Bathori, 196;

Michael pardoned and reinstated, 196, 197;

junction with Basta and defeat of the Transylvanians, 197;

feud with Basta, 197;

Michael assassinated by order of Basta, 198;

his character, 198.

Mircea the Old, allied with Hungary and Poland, defeats the Turks, 165.

first 'capitulation' at Nicopolis, 165 and Appendix II.

his army, 166.

his character, and verses in his memory by Bolentineanu, 167.

Moldavia, tradition of Bogdan Dragosch, 162.

earliest historical records of, 170.

early voivodes, 170, 171.

Stephen 'the Good,' voivode of, 171-73.

capitulation of Bogdan to the Turks, 172.

conquered by Michael the Brave, 193, 194.

Basilius Lupus, voivode of, 202.

Cantemir, voivode of, treats with Peter the Great, 203.

invasion by Peter the Great, 203.

Greek rising in (1821), 223.

Michael Stourdza seizes the boyards, who escape, 223.

Moldavia, junction of, with Wallachia under Couza, 228.

coronation of King Charles, 255.

Muktar Pasha relieves Kars, 241.

Neagu Bassarab, records in the Cathedral of Ardges, 63, 64.

his good deeds, 174.

Niamtz, verses on Stephen's flight to, 172.

Nicholas, Czar of Russia, and the Crimean war, 225, 227.

Grand Duke, watches the crossing of the Danube by the Russians, 240.

meets Osman Pasha, 252.

Officers of State in the Principalities, 179.

Omar Pasha suppresses the Greek rising, 224.

Osman Pasha repels the Russians at Plevna, 240.

is repulsed at Plevna, 243.

is defeated, and surrenders to the Russian and Roumanian generals, 252.

Paris, treaty of, 227.

Patzinakitai, the, 151.

Peter, Asan, and John, founders of Wallacho-Bulgarian empire, 154, 155.

Peter the Great, his invasion of Moldavia, 203.

Phanariotes, the, their rise and early history, 206, 207.

the first rulers, 207, 208.

installation of hospodars, 209.

extortion and tyranny of, 210-12.

extravagance of the princesses, 211.

their usual fate, 212.

favourable aspects of their rule, 214.

end of their domination, 220.

Wilkinson on their character, 220.

Pic, on the origin of the, Roumanians, 164 _note_.

Plevna, siege and investment of, 240-52.

Russian repulses before, 240, 245, 246.

defences of, 244.

fall of, 252.

Radu Affumati, 175.

Radu Negru, tradition of, 162.

Revolution of, 1848, 223.

suppressed, 224.

Roesler on the origin of the Roumanians, 164 _note_.

Romans invade Dacia under Domitian. 120.

invade Dacia under Trajan, 122-27.

second invasion under Trajan, 127-30.

rule in Dacia, 131-34.

at war with the Goths, 134, 135.

evacuate Dacia, 135-37.

Rosetti, C.A., his participation in the rising of 1848, 223;

his career, 263-265 (see also 'Biography').

Madame, liberates the Roumanian patriots from the Turks, 262, 263 (see also 'Biography').

Roumania constituted a principality under Couza, 229.

its provisional government after the fall of Couza, 231, 232.

under Prince Charles, 233-57.

erected into a kingdom, 255.

review of its history, 255.

the future of, 269, 270.

Roumanian alliance with Russia against Turkey, 237.

army, 237, 238 and _note_, 245.

neutrality in 1877, 236.

policy, 267-70.

soldiers, Russian contempt of, at the commencement of the war, 242.

praised for their coolness, 242.

bravery at Grivitza, 248.

sufferings of, after the capture of Grivitza, 248.

securities, rise in the value of, 270 _note_.

Russian invasion of Moldavia under Peter the Great (1709), 203, 204.

of the Principalities under Anne (1755), 216.

under Catherine IV. (1768), 216.

rule in Wallachia (1774), 217.

Russian consuls sent to Bucarest, 217.

rule in the Principalities (1789-92, 1806-12), 220.

intervention and Russo-Turkish war of 1829, 221.

invasion in 1848, 224.

intervention, review of benefits to Roumania therefrom, 224-25.

designs in 1853, 225.

war with England, France, and Turkey (1853), 226, 227, 228.

action in 1877, 235, 236.

indebtedness to Roumania in 1877, 237, 238.

invasion of Bulgaria (1877) 240.

disasters in Bulgaria and Asia, 240, 241, 246.

contempt for the Roumanian soldiers, 242.

recognition of their bravery, 243.

ingratitude after the conclusion of the war, 242, 243.

San Stephano, treaty of, 253.

Sarmatians, rule in Dacia, 142.

defeated by Valentinian, 142.

Serban (Cantacuzene), 202.

betrays the Turks at Vienna, 202.

Shipka Pass, fighting in, between Turks and Russians, 240, 241.

Skobeleff, his success at Loftcha, 245.

disaster at Plevna, 246, 247.

Slavonians, 144.

Stephen, called the Good, Voivode of Moldavia, 171.

overruns Wallachia, 171.

story of his flight to Niamtz (verses by Bolentineanu), 172.

his cruelty and fanaticism, 173.

his wars with the Turks and Tartars, 171-73.

Tacitus, his comments on the Roman defeats in Dacia, 119, 120.

Tartar conquest of the Principalities, 160.

ravages, and defeats by Michael the Brave, 182, 184.

Teutonic knights and knights of St John, 156.

Traditions of Radu Negru and Bogdan, 162.

Trajan, his first expedition into Dacia, 122-27.

his second expedition into Dacia, 127-30.

his triumph after the reduction of Dacia, 129.

his method of colonising Dacia, 131-33 and _note_.

Treaties of Nicopolis (1393), 165 and Appendix II.;

between Bogdan and Selim (1513), Appendix II.;

of Belgrade (1789), 216;

of Kainardji (1774), 217;

of Jassy (1792), 218;

of Bucarest (1812), 218;

of Adrianople (1829), 221;

of Balta-Liman (1849), 224;

of Paris (1856), 227, 228;

of San Stephano (1878), 253.

Turkish invasion of the Principalities (first), 165.

suzerainty enforced upon Mircea, 165.

wars with Johann Corvin von Hunniad, 168.

wars with Moldavia, 171.

supremacy established in Moldavia, 172.

inhabitants of Wallachia massacred by Michael, 183.

defeat at Kalugereni, 186, 187.

expulsion from Wallachia, 188.

exactions after Michael's death, 200.

army betrayed at Vienna, 202.

war with Peter the Great, 203, 204.

appointment of Greek voivodes, 208.

war with Anne and Charles VI., 216.

defeat the allies at Belgrade, 216.

war with Catherine, 216.

with Russia (1806), 218;

(1829), 221;

(1853), 225-28.

obstacles to the union of the Principalities, 228.

to the accession of Charles I., 234.

war with Russia and Roumania (1877), 235-53.

victories in Bulgaria and Asia, 240, 241.

defeats at Plevna, 243.

victory over Skobeleff before Plevna, 246, 247.

defeat at Grivitza, 248, 249.

Ungri (Hungarians, or Magyars), their origin, 148.

Ungri, Hallam's description of them, 149.

German account of their savagery, 149, 150.

their career in the Principalities and settlement in Hungary, 150.

Vlad, the Impaler, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168.

his wars with the Turks, 170.

his horrible cruelties, 170.

submission to the Turks, 170.

Vladimiresco, his career and death, 219.

Vladislaus, King of Poland and Hungary, fights the Turks in alliance with John Corvinus, 168.

killed at Varna, 168.

Voivodes, early, in Wallachia, 163 _et seq._, 200 _et seq._

in Moldavia, 170 _et seq._

their short rule and usual fate, 200, 213.

Phanariote, 208 _et seq._

native, restored, 220.

Wallachia, early traditions of, 162.

historical records of its foundation, 163.

bans, voivodes, and khans in, 163, 164.

first capitulation to the Turks, 165 and Appendix II.

state of society under Michael the Brave, 176-81.

under the Phanariotes, 208-14.

under Russian protection, 217, 221, 224.

Greek rising in, 218, 220.

national regeneration by Heliade, 221, 222.

revolution of 1848 in, 223, 224.

junction with Moldavia, 228.

Wallachs, their origin, 151, 153.

opinions of mediaeval historians regarding their Daco-Roman descent (Bonfinius, Anna Comnena, AEneas Sylvius), 152, 153.

their first rule, 154.

Wallacho-Bulgarian Empire, founded by Peter, Asan, and John, 155.

allied with the Kumani, 155.

duration of the Empire, 155.

correspondence between Innocent III. and John, Emperor of, 156-60.

fall of, 160.

Wilkinson on the Phanariotes, 180 _note_, 210.

Ypsilanti, his leadership of the Greek rising, 219.

treachery against Vladimiresco, 219.

lights the Turks at Dragosani, 219.

defeat, flight, and ultimate fate, 220.

Zallony on the Phanariotes, 210.

Law and Jurisprudence:

capital punishment abolished, and its substitutes, 101, 102, 106.

courts of justice, 100.

crime, statistics of, 103.

Doftana, visit to salt mine of, 104, 105.

expenditure for judicial and penal purposes, 112.

prisons of Roumania, 102-10.

prisoners, treatment of, 102, 104, 106, 110, 111.

Vakareschti, visit, to prison of, 104, 105.

Manufactures (see 'Commerce').

Meteorology:

climate and seasons of Roumania, 28.

Philology:

language, constitution of the Roumanian, 95-97.

comparison of Latin, Roumanian, and English, 96.

Greek and other derivatives, 97.

Magyar words in Roumanian, 97.

Politics:

Austria and Roumania, and the Danube, 32-35, 267.

domestic, in Roumania, 267, 269.

English interests on the Danube, 34, 35.

foreign, in Roumania, 267-69.

future, 269.

land question, the, in Roumania and Ireland, 82-85.

leaders in, 257-67 (see also 'Biography').

Liberals, efforts of the, 267-70.

parties, state of, in Roumania, 235 _note_.

Sociology:

amusements of the people, 46.

divorces in Roumania, 213, 214 _note_.

funerals, 56.

gipsies, their history, condition, and occupations, 49-54.

hospitals, 44-46, 68.

Jews, the, 57, 58.

land and houses, cost of, 47.

Lipovans, the, 54.

octroi duties and poll-tax, 57.

peasant proprietary, 82-6, and Appendix IV.

peasantry, types of, 7.

costumes of, 7, 8, 48, 49.

women, occupations of, 8, 48.

subterranean huts of, 10.

diseases of, 10.

police des moeurs, 45.

prisons and prison system, 101-10 (see 'Law').

upper classes, 46.

working classes, customs, wages, and condition in Bucarest, 46-49.

Topography:

Bucarest, 5, 37-56.

Curtea d'Ardges, 58-64.

Danubian towns, 21.

Galatz, 67-70.

Ibrail, 72.

Jassy, 71, 72.

Roumanian towns, chief, 36, 37.

Sinaia, 7, 15, 16.

Zoology:

buffaloes, 78.

fishes, 25.

sheep and cattle, 79.

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