_Author’s Voyage to Europe.--Some Account of the Island of Ceylon._
On the 12th of March 1789 I embarked at Cochin in order to return to
Europe, that I might proceed to Rome and deliver the letters which
I had received from the procurator of the Missionary Establishment
on the coast of Malabar, and from the agents appointed by the
_Propaganda_ for its correspondence with the Christians of St.
Thomas. The ship in which I took my passage was the Calypso frigate
of thirty guns, having on board three hundred and forty persons,
partly seamen and partly marines. This vessel was commanded by Count
Kergoriou Loemaria, knight of the order of St. Louis, and member of
that also which was instituted by the American congress[245]; a man
who acquired great honour by his conduct in the American war when he
commanded the Juno frigate. The Calypso had been sent out to protect
the French trade in India, accompanied with the Astræa, Medusa, and
Penelope, the last of which was lost at the Cape of Good Hope. The
commodore of the whole squadron was M. St. Riveul. As this gentleman
was, at that time, on board the Medusa frigate, in the road of
Cochin, my friend Count Kergoriou procured from him permission for
me to return to Europe in his vessel, at the expence of Louis XVI.
king of France.
We directed our course towards Cape Comorin, called in the Malabar
language _Comari_, or _Canyamuri_, which we sailed past two days
after, on the 14th of March. The pleasure we enjoyed in this
agreeable passage, and the beautiful prospects with which our eyes
were gratified, can hardly be described. Having kept as close to
the land as possible, the whole coast of Malabar appeared before us
in the form of a green amphitheatre. At one time we discovered a
district entirely covered with coconut trees, and immediately after
a river winding through a delightful vale, at the bottom of which it
discharged itself into the sea. In one place appeared a multitude of
people employed in fishing; in another, a snow-white church bursting
forth to view from amidst the thick-leaved trees. Whilst we were
enjoying these delightful scenes with the early morning, a gentle
breeze, which blew from the shore, perfumed the air around us with
the agreeable smell wafted from the cardamom, pepper, betel, and
abundance of aromatic herbs and plants. Towards noon, however, there
arose a brisk gale, which sweeping the surface of the ocean, hastened
the course of our Calypso, and soon carried us beyond the view of
this enchanting country.
On the morning of the 18th of March we cast anchor in the harbour of
Colombo, in the island of Ceylon, where we found two European ships,
and one Savoyard, the owner of which was a French merchant named Le
Fabre. M. Van de Graaf, brother-in-law of the often before-mentioned
commandant of Cochin, M. I. G. van Angelbec, who was then governor of
the Dutch possessions in the island of Ceylon, sent to meet us his
three state carriages, one of which was destined for the commander
of our frigate, and the other two for the rest of the officers. With
this equipage we were conducted to a garden without the city, in
which the governor-general, M. De Graaf, at that time resided, and
where an elegant breakfast had been prepared for us. For a few days
after I had sufficient time and leisure to wander about through the
island, in order to make observations on the nature of the country
and its productions; but I had nearly experienced the same fate as a
hundred other travellers who visit both the coasts of India, and who,
for want of the necessary knowledge of the languages, are obliged
to put up with the erroneous information they receive from poor
fishermen and other ignorant persons, which they afterwards, without
reflection or proper examination, insert in their journals. Such,
indeed, would have been the case with me, had I not met with people
in Ceylon who understood both the Malabar and the Tamulic languages,
and who were able to gratify my curiosity. My residence there was,
indeed, too short to enable me to give a complete description of the
island; but I can certainly communicate some useful information on
the subject: and if I enlarge it by what I have learned from Knox,
Sonnerat, Spilberg, Cossigny, and other travellers, I hope the reader
will not think his labour lost to peruse it.
The island of Ceylon is called in the Samscred language _Lanca_, or
_Langa_; also _Ilam_, or _Salàbbam_. The last word is compounded of
_Sal_, true; and _Labham_, gain; consequently signifies the land
which brings real gain. The island of Ceylon is undoubtedly worthy
of this name, because a great many precious stones are found in it,
and because pearls are fished up on its western coasts. The Samscred
appellation _Salàbham_ seems to have given rise to the corrupted
name _Salica_, as it is called by Ptolemy, from which has been
formed Ceylon. According to M. De la Tour, it lies in the latitude
of 9° 15′, and the longitude of 77° and 78°. Towards the west it
borders closely on the coast of Pescaria; so that it is separated
from it only by the narrow strait of _Manàr_, where there is the
celebrated bridge of _Ràma_, called by the Europeans Adam’s bridge.
This bridge extends so far into the sea, that people can pass, in a
very small vessel, to the so-called _Rama’s Point_, on the coast of
Pescaria. Not far from the above-mentioned bridge of Rama stands the
celebrated temple of _Ramanacoil_, in which the younger Bacchus, and
also the _Lingam_ or _Phallus_ of _Shiva_, or the elder Bacchus, are
preserved. This bridge is still more remarkable, because it appears
from the _Purana_, or ancient history of India, that Ceylon by its
means was first peopled, as an Indian colony went to the island
along that bridge, and introduced into it the Samscred language,
together with the Indian manners and customs. The names of different
places, such as _Moselpati_, _Jasnapatnam_, _Terlipati_, _Villapati_,
_Moltupati_, _Malpati_, _Palliacur_, and those of various other
cities and towns, evidently shew their Samscred origin; for _Pati_
signifies a town; _Patnam_, _Patana_, or _Patan_, a city; and _Ur_,
an inhabited place.
As the wind, from whatever quarter it comes, has free room to play
around this island, the air is always pure and salubrious. This
advantage, and the great richness of the country gave rise formerly
to the fable that it was the place of Paradise, and that the
inhabitants lived to the age of 200 or 300 years. The Indians have
a tradition, that this island, in consequence of a dispute between
the serpent _Vasughi_ and the god of the wind, was broken loose from
the mountain _Meru_, the habitation of the gods, and hurled into the
eastern sea, where it now lies. The Pagans believe, therefore, that
this island is a part of Paradise; and this fable indeed, in ancient
times, was conveyed from India to other parts of Asia. Another fable,
which forms the subject of the poem called _Ràmayàna_, and which
relates to this island also, has been mentioned before.
Not far from the city of Candia, where the king of Ceylon generally
resides, is a river which flows down from one of the mountains. In
the middle of this river the king has built a small palace, where he
sometimes enjoys the cool air, and where are preserved the valuable
gems which the rain and streams wash down from the mountains. Pearls
are found in the district of _Mannàr_, at the western extremity of
the island. This country produces the most beautiful elephants in
all Asia, together with a great many deer, wild swine, and different
kinds of red and yellow birds not known in Europe. It yields two
crops every year, the produce of which is sufficient to feed all its
inhabitants; but when the Dutch are at war with the king of Candia,
they are obliged to procure their rice from Cochin on the coast of
Malabar. They might raise coffee and pepper in Ceylon; but they
cultivate neither of these articles, lest the price of the Malabar
pepper and the Batavian coffee should be lowered, and attend merely
to the culture of cinnamon, the sale of which is more profitable.
They possess all the places on the sea-coast, and _Colombo_ is their
capital. _Jasnapatnam_, _Negombo_, _Punta di Galle_, _Trinquemala_,
and other settlements are dependencies on its government.[246]
The Portuguese made themselves masters of this island in the year
1506; but in 1658 were expelled from it by the Dutch, A hundred years
after, that is in 1759, the latter were involved in a war with the
king of Candia, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. By
the greatest good fortune Captain Du Flo, with a number of French
adventurers, among whom were several able officers, hastened to their
assistance from Pondicherry, and placed himself at the head of the
Dutch troops. The war after that period assumed a different turn;
the Dutch took the city of Candia, and in the year 1766 reduced the
king to the necessity of signing a treaty of peace, in virtue of
which he resigned the whole sea-coast, and agreed to deliver to them
yearly a certain quantity of cinnamon at a very low rate. The king
of Candia[247] was then suffered to remain in peaceable possession
of the island. Not long before I arrived at Ceylon, Father Francis à
Sancto Elisæo wrote to me from Malabar, that this prince had again
quarrelled with the Hollanders, and refused to deliver the cinnamon
at the price agreed on, which gave rise afterwards to another bloody
war.
When the Portuguese took possession of Ceylon in the year 1506, it
was governed by _Abonnega Bopandar_, king of _Cotta_, a province
entirely different from Candia. This prince was married to a daughter
of _Tribul Pandar_, who bore him a son named _Parca Pandar_. The
latter was involved in a war with another raja or king of the island,
who defeated him in the year 1579. As he could no longer defend his
possessions, he fled to a place of safety, and transferred his right
to the Portuguese, who then gave themselves out as his successors.
He died the same year at Colombo, after he had been baptised by the
name of _Don Joan Parca Pandar_. It is asserted by others, and in
particular Arthus, that the Portuguese first visited Ceylon under
the reign of _Mara Ràga_ (properly _Maha Ragia_, that is, the great
king), and this was undoubtedly the prince by whom _Parca Pandar_ was
defeated. _Mahà Rágia_ had four sons, one of whom, named _Darma_, or
rather _Dherma_, was illegitimate. This prince found means to put to
death his legitimate brothers, and to get possession of the crown
alone; but he died by poison, and was succeeded by _Vimala Dherma
Suryada_, who was afterwards baptised at Goa under the name of _Don
Joan di Austria_.
As this prince had adopted the Christian religion, the Portuguese
imagined that he would readily permit them to carry as much cinnamon
and as many precious stones from the island as they might think
proper; but they were disappointed in their expectation, for _Vimala
Dherma Sùryada_ expelled them all from his states, and was absolutely
determined that they should not gain the superiority at _Cotta_
or _Candia_. A daughter of _Parca Pandar_, who had also embraced
Christianity, and had at baptism been named Catharina, was still in
life, but detained a prisoner in the fortress of _Mannar_. A certain
Portuguese gentleman, named Don Pietro Lopez de Sousa, married this
princess; caused himself afterward to be proclaimed king of Candia,
and declared war against the lawful sovereign, _Vimala Dherma
Suryada_, or _Don Joan di Austria_. The latter, however, being a
brave and enterprising man, pursued such prudent measures that his
antagonist Don Lopez was so completely defeated in a decisive battle
that he was obliged to give up the contest. After his death he
married Catharina the widow, by whom he had two sons.
This sovereign extended his dominion over the whole of Ceylon, and
caused a great many churches, which still remain, to be built in
the interior parts of the country. His object in erecting them, no
doubt, was to conciliate the affection of the Christians; to give
employment to his subjects, and to have a decent pretence for laying
them under contribution. That his attachment to religion was not very
sincere, appears, in particular, from this circumstance, that he
never completely finished or endowed any of these churches, so that
they have remained poor to this day.
After the death of this prince, his spouse Catharina resigned the
government, and in the year 1604 married _Henar Pandar_, who reigned
under the Pagan name of _Camapadi Mahadakshin_, and had by her a
great many children.
He was succeeded in 1632 by his son _Ragiasinba_, called also
_Mahasorùba_, or _Sinhamaharagia_, who, in the year 1644, received
the Dutch with great friendship; but did not give up to them the
Portuguese settlements, of which they never obtained complete
possession till the year 1658.
The successor of this king was _Sishamaharagia_, who assumed the
government in 1680, and had under his dominion _Coletur_ as well as
_Candia_.
The names of the above-mentioned kings of Ceylon are entirely
Samscredamic, and have been corrupted by Spilberg, as well as
Anquetil du Perron, the Dutch and the Portuguese, the first
conquerors of the island. _Vimala_, for example, signifies great;
_Dherma_ is the Samscred name of the deity _Budha_; and _Surya_
signifies the sun. _Vimala Dherma Surya_ signifies, therefore,
the great king _Dherma_, refulgent like the sun; _Sinhamaharagia_
signifies the lion-great king; for this appellation is compounded
of three Samscred words, _Sinha_ a lion, _Maha_ great, and _Ragia_
a king. _Mahàsorùba_ implies as much as the great prince; and
_Campadi Mahàdakshin_ signifies Cupid the great king of the eastern
districts. It may be readily perceived, that these are assumed and
not family names. We are told by Pliny, in his Natural History[248],
that, in his time, a _Rachia_ or king of this island sent an embassy
to Rome. We are informed also by St. Ambrose, that, in his time, four
kings reigned in that island, one of whom was called _Mahàràgia_, or
the great king. It appears from these and other circumstances, that
this island, as is the case in Malabar, was divided among several
petty princes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of one general head.
Among the deities of the inhabitants of Ceylon, we find also
_Gannèsha_; but he is represented here with goat’s feet; whereas the
other Indians represent him under the human form, except the addition
of an elephant’s trunk. The principal deity, however, worshipped in
this island, is _Budha_, or _Godama_, a son of Maia and Mercury, or
Hermes, to whom they have dedicated not only a great number of trees,
but also Adam’s Peak, called in the Samscred language _Salmala_,
which is the highest mountain in the island, and from which _Budha_
is said to have ascended to heaven after he had transformed himself
into 999 different shapes. The worship of this deity was introduced
into Ceylon about forty years after the birth of Christ; and about
the same time a violent dispute took place between the Brahmans and
the Budhists, the result of which was, that the latter, because they
would not acknowledge _Vishnu_ and _Shiva_ as gods, were expelled
from India by their opponents. The Budhists were originally Pagan
monks of the feet of _Sanyasi_, who led a life of contemplation;
renounced all property; took an oath of chastity and poverty, and
lived together in common. They are descended from the ancient
_Samanæi_, who are exceedingly well characterised in the writings of
Strabo, Porphyrius, Arrian, and Clemens of Alexandria. They never
marry, and support themselves by begging. By these Budhists the
religion of the Indians was transplanted to Pegu, Siam, and China, as
the Peguans and the Chinese themselves acknowledge. In Pegu, _Budha_
is worshipped in the same manner as in Ceylon; and the Talapoins,
his priests, are real descendants from the Budhists of Ceylon. The
inhabitants of Pegu call _Budha_ sometimes _Gaudama_, and sometimes
_Samonacodam_. _Soma_ signifies the moon, and _Codam_ a god. By this
appellation, therefore, they give to understand, that they consider
_Budha_ as a deity created by the moon; for the nymph _Rohini_ was
the favourite of the lunar god, and from these two _Budha_ derived
his existence.
The priests of this deity are called _Tiruvamsha_, which implies as
much as the sacred race. They are under a chief, who is a kind of
bishop, and has the power of determining all religious disputes that
may arise. This chief has generally in his hand a golden band, from
which is suspended a kind of sceptre shaped like a fan, and almost
similar to the _Tolapava_ employed by the Talapoins of Pegu. These
_Budhists_ hold a chapter, and choose their own magistrates, who are
always men of knowledge and rank. Their choice is confirmed by the
king. They are distinguished by a piece of yellow cloth (_Pidambara_)
which they wear, and by going with their heads shaved and entirely
bare. They dare neither apply to any labour, nor marry, and in
general must touch no female. They must eat a full meal only once
a-day; must drink no wine; and must neither anoint their bodies,
nor be present at dances or any other kind of amusement. They are
obliged also to have no concern with gold or silver; are kept under
the strictest obedience, and must do every thing required of them by
their superiors.
When they quit their order they lay aside the piece of yellow cloth,
and may then marry. A very accurate account of their institution
has been given in a Peguan book entitled _Kammuva_, which treats
of the ordination of the Talapoins; and also in the compendium
of the laws of the _Barmans_, written by the Peguan philosopher
_Dhermaràgiaguru_. Both these works are to be found in the library
of the Congregation _de propaganda fide_. Those desirous of more
information on this subject may consult also another manuscript,
preserved in the Borgian Museum, and entitled _Mangalatara_; that is,
the way and method to attain to real felicity. This excellent work,
which contains the noblest precepts of morality, was transmitted to
Cardinal Borgia by the learned Father Angelo Maria Cortinovis of
Udina, who obtained it from his brother Father Marcellus a missionary
in Pegu. All these laws, which occur under Nᵒ xxxviii. form the moral
theology of the Talapoins of the sect of the Budhists, and are highly
worthy of being explained and made publicly known.
Father Constantinus of Afkali, a missionary of the Capuchin order, in
his short account of Nepal, has given a description of the customs
of those Budhists who reside in Nepal and Thibet, where they are far
more numerous than any where else[249]. The Grand Lama of Thibet is
the real head of this sect. When the Budhists of Ceylon appear in
public, on solemn occasions, they always walk two and two; and their
bishop, or chief, with a sceptre in his hand, rides on an elephant.
They believe not only in the transmigration of the soul, but in the
immortality of the spiritual part of man; and entertain an opinion,
that after it has passed in succession through a sufficient number
of bodies, it is received into the _Nimban_, that is, eternity. The
other priests of Ceylon, destined for the service of _Gannèsha_,
are called _Gones_. The common people worship also _Ciadhàrva_, or
_Shastava_, the avenger of sin, an idol of a most horrid appearance,
which holds in its hand a sword.
A custom prevails in Ceylon, that several brothers may have one wife
in common. The children she brings forth belong to them all; nor
can the elder brother claim any preference of right. Many of the
inhabitants of Ceylon have only one wife; others maintain several.
In this respect there is no fixed law or precise regulation; but
adultery in all cases is punished. The Brahmans, like us, make a
distinction between the different degrees of consanguinity, but
they admit of a man marrying two sisters. Aunts and nephews are
not allowed to intermarry; but a man may take to wife the daughter
of his father’s sister, or the daughter of his own sister. In all
other cases they consider marriage between relations as incest; and
those guilty of this crime are punished either by the loss of the
limb which has committed the offence, or at any rate expelled from
their cast. The inhabitants of Ceylon, however, are not patterns of
chastity; and it may be clearly perceived that corruption of morals
is daily increasing among them.
The principal festival of _Budha_ is celebrated at the commencement
of the new year, in the month of March, which generally falls on the
27th, 28th, or 29th. The division of the year in Ceylon is the same
as that usual in Malabar and among the Tamulians.
In Ceylon, as well as in Pegu and Thibet, the Budhists may be said to
have very limited power. They are the preceptors and tutors of the
sovereign princes of the country, who consequently give themselves up
to their direction; consult them upon every occasion, and afford them
every kind of support and protection. The policy of this practice
produces the utmost benefit to the state. When princes pay honour
to the priesthood, and unite with it to promote the same ends, the
tranquillity of their dominions is never interrupted. In every
part of the globe, the people, who look up to the example of their
sovereigns, will not fail to imitate them; and the consequence will
be, respect for religion, and fidelity towards their princes; and on
the union of these two the welfare of a state depends.