_Music, Poetry, Architecture, and other Sciences of the Indians._
It is a certain truth, long known, that the art of poetry flourished
in the earliest periods among the eastern nations. Thus the Hebrews
had their hymns, and their popular songs, long before they were
acquainted with any method of committing their thoughts to writing.
As a proof that they had made considerable progress in this art, I
need mention only the Book of Job, and the ancient Song which is to
be found in the writings of Moses. It may be readily conjectured that
the Indians also, a people who attained sooner to cultivation than
many others, were not destitute of poetry some thousands of years
ago; and indeed several pieces which belong to that period are still
extant. Of this kind are some War Songs, which celebrate the exploits
and heroic deeds performed by the god _Ràma_, the Indian Bacchus,
in the island of _Lanca_, or Ceylon. They contain panegyrics on the
first Indian warriors and heroes, on the love of one’s country, on
the virtues of the people, and the happy condition of India during
the remotest periods; all objects which give full scope to the
imagination, and animate the soul with a desire of achieving splendid
actions. The reader will be better enabled to form an idea of these
different kinds of poetry from the following specimens:
WAR-SONG IN THE SAMSCRED LANGUAGE.
Mada gagia padanàndam Vigghna vicèsha daksham
Sarasigia bhava giàyàm bhàradi sòma mìsham
Nisiciara cula càlàm Ràghavam giàna kinciam
Pradidinam anubhaktyà naumivanmica màryam.
That is:
“To him who subdued the warlike hosts and the elephants, who
overcame every obstacle;
“To him who was conducted thence in triumph by his spouse, the
ruler of the moon;
“To him who frightened away the nocturnal monsters, the conqueror
_Raghàva_ (_Rama_),
“Be daily praise and adoration!--Yes, adoration be to him, the
Lord!”
WAR-SONG IN THE MALABAR LANGUAGE.
I.
Uttama puràna purushende ciaridànam
Uttamamidàdi RAGGHU nàyaga ciaritram
Bhaktiyòdu ciolluvadinna tuniyuenen
Mukti padam-èguga namuka HARI RAMA.
“I begin to sing the ancient deeds of the god Vishnu, the lord
descended from the race of Raghu! And, that I may be able to relate
them in a worthy manner, do thou thyself inspire my song, O _Hari
Rama_!”
II.
Ràkshasa culàdhipadi RAVANA bhuyokshmati
Kanalil vìnnu shalum-a tri dasha pàli
Pal cadalil mèvinna purànna purushende
Kal caladipettu bhuvi vinnu HARI RAMA.
“The three worlds, the gods, and we unfortunate men, have fallen
under the fiery hand of _Ràvana_, the giant king. Free us again, O
thou that sittest in the sea of milk! We implore it, prostrate at
thy feet, O _Hari Rama_!”
III.
Màdhava geyka, Madhu Sùdane gèyoit
Tàdhi ciamanaya bhava nila ghana dhàma
Sàdhu gena pàlanani bhoda nagarasmal
Pàhi gegadhìshvara namostu HARI RAMA.
“Destroy, destroy, O Màdhava! destroy the giant Madhu! Thou, who in
battle exertest thy force like the bursting thunder, free us, free
the world, from this pest of hell! To thee alone belongs praise and
adoration, O _Hari Ràma_!”
This poem relates to the sixth apparition of _Vishnu_, during which
he shewed himself as Bacchus, whom the Indians call _Hari Ràma_.
_Modhava_ is called _Vishnu_, because he is married to the goddess
_Mà_ or _Lakshmi_. During his sixth appearance, he married the
goddess _Sida_, the Ariadne of the Greeks, and took the field against
_Ràvana_, the king of the night, and the giants, monsters produced
by the night, who at that time inhabited the island of _Lanca_.
_Madhu_ was one of _Vishnu_’s mortal enemies, and a sworn friend of
_Ràvana_. During his three first apparitions, _Vishnu_ supported his
character, as the ruler of the waters, by saving the world from being
overwhelmed at the period of the general deluge. Here, however, he
is represented as the genius who rules the sun, and who combats and
subdues the night, together with all her progeny.
* * * * *
ANOTHER MALABAR SONG.
[Illustration: Music
Schu-ga ta-runni ge-na Mannijumanni maguda ma-li-ghe ciolle-dò
ciolle-dò Krshna li-tamr-dam.]
I.
Shuga tarunni manniyum manni maguda malighe
Ciolledo ciolledo Krshna lit-àmrdam
Sugha vibhavam adiladhìgam-iha nahi namukahò
Dugghanguel agambiloke ninghi tulom.
“Young, delicate, female papagay[203]! Thou joy and delight of
mankind! Relate, O relate the noble deeds of the god _Krishna_!
Enliven our hearts by thy song! and banish every care which distracts
our minds, in order that it may flee from us!”
II.
Suerdamidu parcyuna nin manassa telivòlavum
Tuma cerpal culambum panciadhàrayum
Madhura parinada cadali phala madhu gulangalum
Bhakshicirunna teligna paragà ni.
“Behold, beautiful little bird! when thou hast related to us these
noble deeds, we will boil for thee milk, add to it sugar and bananas,
and prepare for thee a noble meal. Compose thyself, then, and begin
thy relation.”
III.
Amara pari vrdham amarapadi sudanu sùdanay
Aasharicilay ò saratha vèlayum
Avidemarivadinu para-kalaghi nòdu Shàrigue
Aatma shudhi pradam bhacti mucti pradam.
“Thou will’st not? Canst thou no more remember those times when
_Krishna_ ascended the chariot of _Argiuna_? the hero begotten by
the God of gods, the Prince of heaven. Relate to us, O songstress!
those actions, in order that our inflamed hearts may be fitted for
devotion, for holiness of life, and the enjoyment of felicity.”
IV.
Asurer aver adhigu shadur avani padi vireraij
Adyanda dushdtarij ulbhavicidinàr
Avani bhara-maga-luvadin-avergale yòducuvàn
Aadi déven-mudrttàn oru yòdhanam.
“The giants, a horrid race, endowed with irresistible strength,
immediately after their birth became exceedingly arrogant, and
exercised the most detestable violence. They made themselves masters
of the globe; and the earth groaned under their insupportable burden.
To combat and extirpate them a god appeared. It was the Supreme God,
the god _Krishna_, who took the field against them.”
This poem has great beauties; the versification is smooth, easy,
harmonious, and lively; and expresses, as it were, the march of
an army. The first verse, in each strophe, consists of eighteen
syllables or feet, which are called _Pada_. The second verse has
always twelve such _Pada_. The melody to this song is rather quick
than slow; and holds a medium between the alt and bass. The tone
always lies on the first syllable of the three or four first words
with which the verse begins; and, altogether contrary to the European
manner, never on the final words. In the Samscred song, which occurs
hereafter, each verse consists of fifteen _Pada_. There are, however,
other kinds of verse, the quantity of which is sometimes longer. For
example:
Aghila shàstra citram parama gnana mitram
Agghana gunna màtram carunàm purna pàtram.
The first of these two verses contains fifteen, and the other only
fourteen syllables. The metre is called _Parra_, and not _Porb_, as
Anquetil du Perron asserts. It serves as a proof that our so-called
Leonine verses, which rhyme in the middle and at the end, are not
unknown to the Indians. Their public songs are always sung with an
instrumental accompaniment. Their singing voices, of which they
reckon six, have very singular names, and are as follows:
1. _Shlagia_, the peacock voice.
2. _Nishada_, the elephant voice.
3. _Irszubha_, the ox voice.
4. _Sandhara_, the sheep’s voice.
5. _Madhyama_, the voice of a certain bird called _Anilpakshi_.
6. _Dheivada_, the horse voice[204].
The instruments which they use with their vocal music are the large
drum, _Perumpara_; the small drum, _Tudi_; two clarinets, _Kushel_;
a kettle-drum beat upon with pieces of iron; two copper or brass
basons, and a couple of cow’s horns. During the song they frequently
clap their hands; often change their tone and voice, according as the
circumstance may require; sing sometimes in _piano_, and sometimes
_forte_; and either let the tone issue through the nose, or force it
out between their teeth with the greatest violence, and by quick and
repeated clapping with the tongue. All this gives it the character
of a Bacchanalian and warlike music, which imitates the noise made
by people who are engaged in battle. Their pastoral songs, on the
other hand, are full of soft and tender expressions, and have in them
somewhat languishing[205]. They describe the kind of life which the
god _Krishna_ led as a shepherd during his residence on earth; but
the former celebrate either the god _Rama_ as a hero, or describe
the actions performed by _Krishna_, in the war which he carried on
in conjunction with the five brothers, _Pando_ or _Pandava_, against
their relations the _Cauravas_. The wars of _Rama_ are described in
the epic poem _Ramayana_, which is highly esteemed in every part of
India. The description of the heroic deeds of _Krishna_ is contained
in the book _Yudhishtira-vigea_, a poem in the Samscred language, on
which the Indians set a great value also. The subject of the latter,
a particular explanation of which may be found in my account of the
Borgian manuscripts, is briefly as follows:
The Indian king _Pandu_, of the race of those who deduced their
origin from the Sun, had five sons, called _Yudhishtira_, _Bhìma_
or _Bhimasèna_, _Argiuna_, _Naghala_, and _Sahadeva_. These five
brothers, who are known under the name of _Pando_ or _Pandava_,
had their court at _Kanudi_, or _Hastinapuri_. The inhabitants of
that district are mentioned in Arrian under the appellation of
_Assaceni_, or _Astaceni_, and act a very conspicuous part in the
Grecian as well as Indian history. The period of their existence
falls about the time when Semiramis ruled over the Assyrians. These
five _Pando_ were expelled from their possessions by their cousins
the _Curu_, or _Caurava_, who together formed a hundred brothers, and
who behaved to them with great cruelty. While they were wandering
about as fugitives, _Krishna_, or the Indian Apollo, appeared to
them; declared himself their protector and fought a desperate battle
with the two principal leaders of the _Caurava_, who were called
_Suyodhana_, or _Duryodhana_, and _Karna_. When he had overcome them,
he restored to the _Pando_ the possessions taken from them. Such is
the subject of this beautiful poem. The sixth part of the manuscript,
which I have now in my hands, contains 125 _shloga_; and the whole
consists of eight such parts. The Samscred text is exceedingly
difficult; and it requires great knowledge of that language to be
able to understand it completely. The best helps for that purpose
are the grammar; the dictionary _Amarasinha_, and the perusal of
some other poems; but as there are a few only among the Brahmans who
study such works, it is rare to find any of them who comprehend the
true meaning of these _shloga_. It is certain, however, that the
_Yudhishtira-vigea_ appears to be a poem of great antiquity. It does
not make the least mention of the worshipping of human figures and
idols; for this kind of superstition was certainly posterior to the
introduction of the planetary worship, and had its origin about 700
years before the birth of Christ. Prior to that epoch, Sabæism was
the prevailing religion in India. For this reason no other deities
occur in the _Yudhishtira_, but _Shiva_ and _Parvadi_; that is, the
god of the Sun, and the goddess of the Moon; and no other offerings
than fruit or flowers, which were presented to these deities.
Besides this poem there are three others, called _Ràmàyana_, _Magha_,
and _Bhagavada_, to which it has some affinity. They were all
originally written in the Samscred language; but in various provinces
they have been translated into the usual dialects of the country.
The _Bhagavada_, which _Niebuhr_, in the second part of his Travels,
calls _Sri baha gavant poram_, instead of _Shri Bhagavada puràna_, is
so highly esteemed by the Indians, that when any one repeats a few
verses to them from it, they immediately stand up and uncover their
heads. On this subject I can relate the following anecdote from my
own experience.--In the year 1787 I was obliged to appear before the
tribunal of the king of Travancor, respecting an affair between me
and four of his magistrates, who wished to compel me not to baptise
any more Pagans. During this litigation, _Sampradi_ thought proper
to put me to the test respecting my knowledge of the languages.
I repeated to him the four first verses of the above-mentioned
_Bhagavada_; upon which the three magistrates, with all their
assistants, rose up, gazed at me with every mark of astonishment,
and treated me with much more civility than before. I gained my
cause; and can with truth assert, that these four verses of the
_Bhagavada_, which I have explained in my Samscred grammar, chiefly
contributed to the fortunate issue of the business. I had once an
opportunity of making a similar observation at _Vaipur_. Having
gone to that place with a view of examining into the state of the
church accounts, I was one day invited to dinner by a _Mapulla_, or
Christian of St. Thomas. Some of this man’s neighbours, of the same
religion, had spread a report among the inhabitants that I understood
the Samscred; upon which I received a visit from two learned Pagans,
who were desirous of trying how far my knowledge extended. I caused
them to sit down, after the Malabar manner, on a small bench; and
when they had repeated to me a great many verses from various poems,
I began to recite the above lines from the _Bhagavada_. Scarcely had
I pronounced the first words, when they started from their seats,
uncovered their heads, and laid the right hand on their mouth, in
order to shew their veneration for that book. By these means I
acquired so much reputation among the Pagans, that on every occasion
they treated me with the utmost respect.
There are also in India a great many dramatic pieces, which are
really acted, and of which the Tamulians and natives of Malabar
are remarkably fond. This taste is carried so far, that the
newly-converted Christians represent sometimes, before the doors
of the churches, pieces of this kind, in which the actions of the
Pagan deities are exhibited. The apostolic vicar and archbishop of
_Codungalur_, or _Cranganor_, finds himself, therefore, under the
disagreeable necessity of issuing a new order every year against such
improper amusements[206]. Some of these dramatic poems are at least
2000 years old; as I could prove from the subject and composition of
them. Of this kind is the poem _Sacontala_, which has been translated
into English by Sir William Jones[207]. In Malabar there are also
other dramatic poems highly esteemed, the most remarkable of which
are the _Sharnishta_, _Devayàni_, and _Calàbadì_. Of the latter I
shall here insert a few specimens, that the reader may at least see
what liberties the Pagan theatrical poets allowed to themselves in
their writings.
Ingane prasidhamam Dasharha Kshmàpadi
Mangalàm guiàm Kashi ràgia Canyaque vèttu
Canyaca Calàbadi yennum pèreyullavell
Mannidam pucashnoru ciàru saunaryatodu.
“King _Dàsharda_ afterwards celebrated in a public manner his
marriage with the beautiful _Calàbadi_, the virgin-daughter of king
_Káshi_ (or of Benares), who was distinguished not only by her
remarkable beauty, but also by her virtue and modesty.”
Dhanyànam nrben tande dherma pàriniyày
Sannadâmguinmàr mannì tal grehamèvum càlam
Càmalilaguel tudarniduvànar ambhiciu
Càmini manniyàle viliciu paducave.
“When queen _Calàbadi_ entered the apartment of this rich and
powerful monarch, and when the king observed that she excelled in
beauty all the princesses present, a desire was awaked in him of
embracing her as his spouse. He addressed her, therefore, in the
words of love, and said:”
Sunarì variguedò talpam èruga shubhè
Cundahà sini ninde lagna yendidu nèram
Ittarum Nrbavaren cionnadu kèttu neram
Uttaram pareyàde ninnidu Calàbadi.
“Come, O come, thou fortunate, thou beautiful bride! why are thy
virtuous cheeks covered with the blushes of modesty?--On these words
of the king, _Calàbadi_ began to quiver and shake; and was not able
to return him an answer.”
Satvaram anagnaven caypidicia-dupiciang
Uttama striratnatè punnarnòranandaram
Cattum aghni yittu tàbicia lòham pole
Matta Càshiniyude gàtram etreyum Ushnam.
“The king hastened towards her, laid hold of her hand, and kissed
this precious jewel without waiting for her permission. But ah! as
iron becomes glowing when it has lain a long time in the fire, so
glowing and hot became the body of the bride.”
Endedò ninde déham ciuttu ciuttiricunnu
Bendham endinennu bhenduràne ciol nì
Purna Ciandraguen ninuanga tábam givalicidò
Ciurna ceshamam ende vigraham ninne tottàl.
“Tell me, benign countenance, why thou burnest, why thou glowest:
tell me the cause of this fire. Has the full moon concentrated all
its rays in thy body? When I touch thee, it appears to me as if I
were about to melt.”
Ciannanam tannilninu vàhni yennadupòle
Sunari ninghelninnu Ciùdinendadò bandham.
“Tell me, thou most beautiful of the beautiful, why thy body burns
so, why it is so hot, and at the same time emits an odour as
delicious as sandalwood when it is consumed by the fire.”
Inganeyulla vàku Kettapol còbatòdu
Anganà manni paragnìdinàl nrbanòdu
Aadi Càlame cennu sahasam pravarticiàl
Kèdamundàgum bàla strìguelka dharica nì.
When the enchanting _Calàbadi_ heard these words, not without
considerable agitation of mind, she said to the king: “Know, O my
Lord, that it grieves and pains a young tender maid when she is about
to subject herself, for the first time, to the embraces of a man.”
Onnumè nirbhandiciu vannatu taramalla
Mannava Shigha manne anga pòvirnnàlum
Sangamàgraham inikundàgum nèrattu gnàn
Angu vannannugula kriddayum ceidìduven.
“O King, my spouse! noblest jewel of my crown! remove from me,
and seat thyself in a distant place. Do not again surprise my
inclination; when Nature prompts, I will voluntarily obey her soft
impulse, and resign myself to thee as thy property.”
Angalànanam còndum ishda dànanguel còndum
Manganmàrude manò ragnam varuttenam
Nalla vàkuguel condu nanaciu tannupiciu
Vollabhen shubhaguennullatu tonnikenam
Mallave vashattay tìrum à càlam pinne
Valladu prayoguiciàlapriam illàdàgum.
“It is only by politeness, sportfulness, and agreeable presents,
that the inclination of a young maid can be captivated. A lover must
employ sweet words: the long restrained and involuntary tears must
trickle down his cheeks. When his beloved then perceives that he is
magnanimous and kind; when he has insensibly secured her approbation;
then--then, without doubt, no part of his conduct can give her
offence.”
* * * * *
All these verses consist of fourteen feet, and are sung in a soft
recitative tone. But however some may attempt to vindicate the
liberties used by these theatrical poets, it is an undoubted truth
that they have a very pernicious influence on the morals. To guard
against this destructive effect, the Christians of St. Thomas have
been here and there induced to convert some of the historical parts
of the Bible into dramas, and to represent them on the stage.
_Alangatta Capiar_, and the catechumen _Rama Nayer_, who died while I
was in India, have distinguished themselves with great advantage in
this kind of composition.
The music and songs employed before the Heathen temples form a
part of the Indian legislation, so far as the object of them is to
render the people obedient, and to inspire them with a love for
their country and for religion. The case was the same, in ancient
times, with the music of the Greeks[208]. When it became gradually
lost; when it was employed only for private devotions; and when the
whole host of poets began, by their lascivious compositions, to sap
the foundations of morality, and to corrupt the morals, the Grecian
governments fell to ruin. To guard against a like evil, the Indian
legislators have established as a law, that, on public festivals,
and other solemn occasions, the actions of their gods only, which
are described in their sacred books, can be exhibited on the stage.
These, however, are of such a nature that they give great offence to
the newly-converted Christians, who are not sufficiently attached to
the principles of their belief[209].
The gamut, the notes of which we distinguish by _Re_, _mi_, _fa_,
_sol_, _la_, is by the Indians called _Shabdasvara_, and consists
of eight notes. They are called _Sa_, _ri_, _ga_, _ma_, _pa_, _da_,
_ni_, _sha_. From this it appears, that the Indians were by no means
such rude barbarians as the Greeks pretended[210].
* * * * *
Respecting the Indian architecture, I have already given a sufficient
account in different places of this work, but particularly in
the eighth chapter. I must, however, here add a few observations
respecting the form of their pagodas. These temples, their external
inclosure excepted, are built either in a conical and pyramidal form,
or cylindric and round. Both these forms have a symbolic allusion
to that of _Mahadèva_, the great god; or, what amounts to the same
thing, the Sun. Reuben Burrow once saw a truncated cylinder standing
on a cone, which represented the _Lingam_ of _Mahadèva_. It was
sixty-four feet in diameter, and sixty-five in height. The cone,
its pedestal, was ninety-three feet in height, and its diameter
at the base was 363. The same form is observed in other Indian
buildings, particularly the ancient pagodas, dedicated to _Mahadèva_,
in _Carnada_, and on the coast of _Coromandel_. The pagodas at
_Màbalipuram_, _Salsette_, and the island of _Elephanta_, together
with a few others which are cut out in the solid rock, form however
an exception. I consider the latter to have been temples dedicated in
former times to _Mithra_, who was worshipped not only in Persia, but
also in India. Some pyramidal temples, such as that at Pondicherry,
form at the summit a blunt or obtuse angle, yet represent fire, or
the _Lingam_ of _Shiva_, the oldest of all the gods of the Indians,
the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and the Persians.
The greater part, or rather almost all the pagodas on the coast
of Coromandel, are built of large square stones, so arranged and
connected that they form a pyramid. Those seen on the coast of
Malabar consist of black basaltes, found in the Gauts; which is
exceedingly hard, and very proper for building[211]. They are, for
the most part, circular, and covered with plates of copper, as those
at _Padmanàburam_, _Molicolam_, _Tirumannur_, and _Certele_. Some of
them, however, are square, as that at _Mattinceri_, which is called
_Tirumala Dèvasam_; that also at _Ciovare_, and two others. The front
and doors of these pagodas are either of marble or basaltes, and
ornamented with figures of various kinds, which have a symbolical
meaning, and represent the _Vahana_, or riding animals of the gods.
On the front of a temple at _Tirapalur_ there are two cows cut out,
of a colossal size. On some the god _Hanumàn_, or Pan, is represented
under the form of an ape; and on others _Shiva_, who is exhibited
in a form altogether horrid and frightful. Between these pieces of
sculpture and that of the Greeks no comparison can be made; but
they at any rate deserve to be preferred to the shapeless statues
of the Egyptians. It is seen by them that they are finished in an
original Indian style, which is very different from the Grecian or
the Egyptian. I am induced, therefore, to conjecture, that the art
of constructing such works was conveyed to this country neither from
Egypt nor Greece. Thus the deities _Shiva_, _Ràma_, _Parvadi_, &c.
are represented in the pagodas at Salsette, Mabalipuram, and in the
island of Elephanta, as men perfectly naked, who have nothing on
their bodies but a small piece of cloth to cover their parts of sex.
Their arms and fingers are ornamented with bracelets and rings, and
around their ancles they have a couple of broad bands. On their head
they bear a conical cap, and in each of their long perforated ears
hangs a large ring. These, however, are neither Egyptian nor Grecian,
but Indian ornaments, which are still used by the inhabitants of the
country. Were there no other difference between the sculpture of the
Greeks and Indians, the dress and costume of these statues would
serve as an irrefragable proof that the temple of Salsette cannot
possibly have been the work of Alexander the Great and his army,
as has been erroneously asserted by Gemelli, Careri, and Spilberg.
How could Alexander the Great be capable of building a temple at
Mabalipuram on the coast of Coromandel, a country which he never
entered? Yet statues of the Indian deities, of the like kind, are
found there, and with the same costume and ornaments as those in the
pagodas of Salsette and the island of Elephanta. This sufficiently
shews that these monuments are of Indian origin, and must have been
formed long before the period of Alexander the Great.
We find also, by the sacred Scriptures[212], that the custom of
worshipping _Priapus_, as the symbol of the all-creating Sun,
(_Shiva_,) in subterranean temples and caverns, prevailed fourteen
hundred years before the birth of Christ. Besides, a period of more
than four hundred years would certainly be necessary, before a
mountain which consists of massy rock, and which must have been cut
with the chissel and mallet, could be hollowed out in such a manner
as to exhibit so many apartments, grottos, vaults, stairs, reservoirs
for water, statues, and columns, as are found in the two temples
of Salsette and the island of Elephanta. Alexander and all his
successors, whose dominion in general did not last above a hundred
years, and whose authority extended over a very small district of
land, on the sea coast, could not have been in a condition to bring
all these works to a conclusion. Gemelli Careri, who carefully
examined the proportions of the temple at Salsette, and who has given
an accurate description of it, acknowledges that it is one of the
greatest master-pieces in Asia, and that its wonderful architecture
exceeds all description[213]. All travellers, such as Niebuhr,
Sonnerat, Anquetil, and several Englishmen, who have seen this
temple, extol it in the highest degree, and express the astonishment
which it excited in their minds when they beheld it. As the shortness
of my stay did not allow me to measure its different parts, and
as on that account I cannot describe it properly myself, I shall
here insert an extract from the description which has been given by
Gemelli Careri, of a part of this temple.
* * * * *
“You pass,” says he, “through an opening forty palms in circumference,
made in a wall of the same stone; fifty in length, and eight in
breadth; and on which there are three statues. Before entering the
pagoda, you observe, on the right, a round grotto, which is more
than fifty-one palms in circumference. It contains a great number of
statues, some in a sitting posture, others erect; and one, on the
left, which is much larger than the rest. Over this grotto arises
a cupola, cut out from the rock also, and which forms with it one
whole. All around the walls are seen various characters, which no
one has ever yet been able to explain[214]. On entering the first
vestibule of the temple, which is fifty palms square, you observe,
on both sides, two columns sixty palms in height, including their
chapitres, and six in diameter. On that which stands to the right
as you enter are two lions, with a shield near them; and on that to
the left two statues. Having passed these pillars, you see, at the
entrance of a grotto on the left hand, two large statues in an erect
posture, which seem as if looking at each other. Proceeding farther,
you find, on the left, two other statues of a prodigious size, and
a third on the right, all standing, with several small ones near
them. All these are in the vestibule; for, on entering the adjoining
grotto, which forms a square of twenty-four palms, you observe
nothing curious. On the right side, where the lions stand, there are
no statues, but two large vases on well-proportioned pedestals.
“You then enter another place, on the same level, by three doors,
thirty palms in height and eight in breadth, exactly similar to each
other, except that the one in the middle is level with the ground,
whereas those on the sides are raised five palms. In this place
there are four pillars, also cut out of the rock, which are twelve
palms in height, and stand between the five windows that supply the
pagoda with light. On the right side of the door you observe several
unknown characters, which, like the rest of the work, have suffered
considerable injury from the hand of time. Besides various small
figures, there are in this apartment two colossal statues more than
twenty-five palms in height. They are in an upright position, have
the right hand stretched out open, and hold a dress in the left.
Their heads are covered with conical caps; and in their ears they
have pendants, exactly like those of the Indians.
“At the entrance of the large door of the grand pagoda, which is
fifteen palms in height and ten in breadth, there are four upright
statues, one of which represents a female holding a flower in her
hand; together with twelve smaller ones, some in a sitting and others
in a standing posture, and having the right hand, which seems to
contain something, placed on the breast. On the left are observed
four other statues cut out of the same rock, two of which represent
females, and have around their legs large rings. Towards the sides
there are sixteen smaller statues, which, like those just now
mentioned, have their hands on the breast, and are partly sitting and
partly standing. Over this door you find also two large statues, with
two small ones sitting opposite to each other, and three of the same
kind in an upright posture. On the left side, below, there is another
inscription in the same characters as those before mentioned[215].
Above the architrave of this door is a window, the breadth of which
is forty palms, and consequently equal to that of the whole pagoda. A
large stone supplies the place of an architrave, and is supported in
the inside by eight octagonal pillars.
“In regard to the pagoda itself, which is a hundred palms in length,
and forty in breadth, it is arched like that of _Mabalipuram_, and
of a circular form at the extremity. Besides the four columns at the
entrance, there are thirty of the same kind within, which divide
the whole into three apartments. Seventeen of these pillars are
ornamented, some with chapiters, and others with figures representing
elephants. The rest have no ornament except that of being cut into
an octagonal form. The space left between the columns and the solid
rock, that is, the breadth of the side apartments, is about six
palms. At the end of the pagoda there is a kind of cupola, cut out in
the rock; which, however, is not hollow in the inside. It is thirty
palms in height, and sixteen paces in circumference. I am convinced
that it was formerly destined for some particular use, with which at
present we are not acquainted.
“Every thing hitherto described is cut out from the solid rock, so
that I could observe neither in the statues nor any where else the
smallest appearance of joining. On the floor of the pagoda, a few
cut stones lay scattered about, which may formerly perhaps have been
employed for stairs. On coming out of the pagoda, having ascended
sixteen steps cut from the solid rock, I arrived at a cistern filled
with potable water; and, on ascending sixteen steps more, I found a
grotto sixteen palms square, and a little farther another much larger
and filled with muddy water. Proceeding twenty paces more, I came to
three other grottos, all adjoining; the first of which was twenty,
and the last only twelve palms square. In the first was a window, to
which you could ascend by means of twelve steps; also two columns and
a small cistern.”
Such is the construction of the celebrated temple in the island of
Salsette, which lies as it were in the middle between the other two,
formed exactly in the same manner. The before-mentioned pagoda of
_Mabalipuram_, which I have seen, is, like the rest, cut out in the
subterranean rock, and constructed in the same taste, except that
the proportions seem to be different. The description of this pagoda
will, therefore, enable the reader to form some idea of the antiquity
of these temples under the earth, and to judge what progress the
ancient Indians had made in the art of architecture. It appears from
the account of Careri, that some of the columns and pillars in these
temples are square at the bottom, octagonal in the middle, and round
at the top. In the pagoda at _Mabalipuram_, I observed, however, that
the pillars were perfectly round; had no ornaments, and approached
pretty near to the Corinthian order. If I am not much mistaken, the
stem and calyx of the Lotus plant, or _Nymphæa_, has here served as
a pattern; for, as the calyx of this plant, according to the Indian
mythology, is assigned to the gods as a place of residence, it was
very natural that the Indians should copy it in their architecture;
and, as I have frequently remarked, apply it on columns, pillars,
and architraves. I was, therefore, always more and more convinced
that they did not imitate the Grecian style, or borrow the smallest
ornament from it. This will appear more probable, when we reflect
that the antiquity of these temples is far anterior to the age of
Alexander the Great, whose conquest of India might certainly have
given the natives an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
architecture of the Greeks.
The Indian architect is not confined so much by mythology as the
statuary. The latter must make the statues of the gods exactly in
the way and manner prescribed by the priests; in order, according
to their opinion, that the attributes of the deity may be properly
expressed. Hence it happens that the Indian statues have from four to
six hands; three, and sometimes more heads; and, in general, a very
horrid appearance. The architect, however, has full scope for his
genius, and is by no means subjected to the arbitrary prescriptions
of the Brahmans. For this reason the Indian architecture exhibits
more taste, and is much more perfect than their works of sculpture:
but I will not deny that the statuaries also make excellent pieces
when they are allowed to follow the impulse of their own genius; as
is proved by the many bas reliefs, crucifixes, madonnas, vases, and
other articles of ivory, which are here and there executed by the
Indian artists.
In the neighbourhood of every temple there must be always reservoirs
or cisterns, in which the Pagans wash and bathe before they perform
their devotions. These cisterns, named _Cula_, are for the most part
of marble, and of very beautiful workmanship. Before the entrance
of the temple is a so-called _Mandava_, or covered hall, which is
totally separated from it, and rests upon pillars. Here the priests
are accustomed to assemble when they have any temporal business to
transact respecting the temple. Not far from it are houses for the
high-priest, the astrologer, or nativity-caster, and the overseer
of the temple. The other side is set apart for the habitations of
the women who belong to the temple, and the female servants of the
deity. The latter are called _Dèvadàsi_; from _Dèva_, a god; and
_Dàsi_, a female servant, or maid. Their employment is to clean the
temple, light the lamps, and contribute to the private pleasures
of the pilgrims. These women, however, must not be confounded with
those female dancers who commonly precede processions, and supply
the place of _mænades_. The latter, in the Samscred language, are
called _Nrtagui_--and in Portuguese, _Balhadeiras_. By means of these
women the Brahmans become acquainted with every particular respecting
the state and condition of the pilgrims; so that they are enabled,
when they appear in the temple, to tell them, with the greatest
correctness, what are their circumstances; how they live; what fate
they have experienced, and other things of the like kind. These
people then are filled with astonishment, and imagine that the deity
must have revealed all this knowledge to the priest in a supernatural
manner.
In regard to the painting of the Indians, the case is the same as
with their sculpture. This much is certain, that no one can follow
the dictates of his own genius, and paint the gods as he pleases.
Every innovation of this kind is considered as an act of impiety.
The Brahman prescribes the figure and form which a statue must have:
under these, and no other, it must be painted; and the least part of
his care is whether these be consistent or not with the rules of art
and of good taste. I have already observed, on different occasions,
that the Indian mythology gives to each deity a certain surname
and appellation, the object of which is to express their different
qualities: and a painter, when he sketches out a god, must represent
these qualities also. Thus, for example, _Shiva_, is called the
god who bears the trident; and for that reason he must be always
represented with a trident in his hand. He is called, likewise,
_Mrdyugeya_, the conqueror of death; and, on that account, must be
delineated with a number of sabres, daggers, and sculls lying around
him, and with a man under his feet. He exhibits a horrid countenance:
his mouth stands awry; his eyes seem to dart forth fire; and he has
around his neck a cord on which a great number of sculls are strung.
The case is the same with all the other deities, which must always be
represented in such a manner as is agreeable to their character and
attributes. From this it appears, that the painting of the Indians,
like their sculpture, is in the closest connection with their
theogony; and as the Brahmans alone have the right of explaining it,
they assume the exclusive privilege of judging in regard to works of
painting and statuary. As the painters are acquainted neither with
the Samscred language nor their mythology, it has been imposed on
them as a duty to consult the Brahmans; and whoever transgresses this
law, is punished by expulsion from his cast. This is the true reason
why painting and statuary have made so little progress in India.
To this may be added also, that necessity, the mother of all the
arts, is far from being so great in India as elsewhere; for as
this country supplies rice, fruits, and other natural productions
in abundance, it may be readily conceived that no person can find
it difficult to procure a living. Under these circumstances young
people feel no inducement to study painting; and among the few who
apply to that art, there is not the smallest emulation to bring
it to perfection. The Indians, in general, are not very fond of
painting; for in a country where every person almost goes naked,
little scope is naturally left for the imagination in this respect;
and therefore their desire to paint such nudities, and to represent
them in their full beauty, cannot be very strong. Here and there,
however, I observed, on the external walls surrounding the pagodas,
several beautiful paintings, which were delineated with great freedom
and correctness. This may serve as a convincing proof that the
Indians are not destitute of talents sufficient to enable them to
make as great progress in this art as other nations. They possess
also a wonderful dexterity in imitating the paintings and drawings
which are given them by the Europeans to copy. Their colours, which
they prepare from the juice of certain trees, flowers, herbs and
fruits, are uncommonly lively, and seldom or never fade. Their
painted cottons, which were celebrated in the earliest periods,
are still transported to most countries in the world, and form one
of the principal articles of the Indian trade. The small figures
in bas-relief, with which they ornament the sides of the triumphal
cars employed to carry about the images of their gods on days of
solemnity, are also of very beautiful workmanship. Some of these
cars cost from twenty to thirty thousand rupees, and are drawn by
sixty, eighty, and sometimes a hundred persons. They have from twelve
to sixteen wheels, and are painted and ornamented with figures
of all sorts. Of this kind is the car of Bacchus, in the temple
_Ramanacoil_, on the boundaries of the kingdom of _Marava_. There
are others of the like kind also at _Tiruvancòda_, _Cangipuri_, and
_Jagarnat_.
Of optics, and the art of making glass, the Indians have little or no
knowledge. An Indian prince was one day reconnoitering at a distance
an hostile army, which was advancing to attack him. An European
missionary, whom he had in his suite, gave him a spy glass, that he
might have a more distinct view of the enemy. When the prince looked
through it, he firmly believed that the army was really close to
him, and, under a conviction that this was actually the case, gave
immediate orders for engaging. But how great was his astonishment
when, by desire of the missionary, he took the glass from his eye,
and found that the enemy were still at the same distance as they had
before appeared; so that his orders would have been fruitless, even
if he had employed cannon.
The art of making glass, an invention ascribed to the Phœnicians,
seems in ancient times to have been totally unknown to the Indians.
This much, however, is certain, that glass, as a foreign article
of commerce, was conveyed to India from the Greeks and the Romans.
In the ancient Samscred book, _Amarasinha_, glass is called
_Suryacanda_; that is, a bright transparent mass, through which the
rays of the sun can penetrate. The most valuable present which can be
made to a Malabar judge or magistrate is a mirror, a telescope, or a
magnifying-glass.
The case, however, is totally different in regard to the art of
cutting precious stones, in which the Indians have made very
considerable progress. It appears from Solinus, that, in the earliest
periods, they understood the method of cutting all sorts of gems, and
giving them the proper polish. We are told, likewise, by Pliny[216],
that they were acquainted with the art of imitating different kinds
of precious stones, and particularly the beryl. This, indeed,
supposes a continual experience of many years. At Colombo, in the
island of Ceylon, I saw the Indians cut stones with a wheel, which
they turned in the same manner as the knife-grinders do theirs. This
method appeared to me much superior to ours, in which the gems are
laid on a flat square stone, fixed so as to remain immoveable, and
are then turned round by means of the hand till they are properly
polished[217].
The price of uncut diamonds in India is different, and determined
according to weight. A diamond that weighs one carat is worth from
twelve to thirteen rix-dollars; if it weighs two, it is worth sixteen
or seventeen; if four, thirty-eight; and if five, forty-two: but
this price is subject to variations. Precious stones are found on
the tops of the mountains in Golconda, Visapour, and Bengal; and in
the neighbourhood of the Gauts, particularly in the districts of
_Pugnatil_, _Cencotta_, _Attinga_ and _Velidur_, on the coast of
Malabar. The Brahmans and other opulent persons are accustomed to
purchase from the king certain pieces of land where they expect to
find these valuable stones, and to dig for them at their own expence.
But this is a very hazardous undertaking, which very frequently
does not defray the expences, and by which many families in India
are reduced to beggary. It, however, sometimes happens, that these
precious stones are washed down from the mountains by the violent
rains, and are found on the banks of different streams after they
have returned to their usual beds.
The diamond spar, employed for polishing these stones, is found in
great abundance on the coast of Malabar. The Indians are accustomed
to examine the water of diamonds always at night by the light of
a lamp. In Europe diamonds are separated by sawing them; but the
Indians split them, or cut them down to the proper size--a labour
in which they are much more expert than the Europeans. Some years
ago the Great Mogul had a diamond which weighed 279½ carats. It
was valued at two millions five hundred thousand rix-dollars. This
diamond, therefore exceeds in value any hitherto known; for the large
diamond of the Grand Duke of Tuscany weighs only 139, the Sanci 106,
and the so-called Pitt 136 carats three grains.
The artists of Ceylon prepare rings and heads for canes, which
contain a complete assortment of all the precious stones found in
that island. These assemblages are called _Jargons de Ceilan_, and
are so named because they consist of a collection of gems which
reflect various colours, such as the red ruby, the sky-blue sapphire,
the golden yellow topaz, called by the ancients chrysolite, the green
emerald, which I found myself in Ceylon, though some assert that it
is not a production of that island[218]; also the amethyst, beryl,
opal, and garnet. All these stones may be procured at Colombo in the
island of Ceylon, at Cochin and Calicut in Malabar, and at Madras on
the coast of Coromandel. The people who deal in them are Armenians,
Jews, Mahometans, and Banians; but in particular the Canarians, or
so-called _Cettis_, who are particularly well acquainted with the art
of ascertaining their quality and value. People who apply to this
branch of trade can never employ too much caution, because those who
carry it on exercise every kind of artifice and deception.
The oriental diamonds are octagonal and sharp-pointed. This form,
their colour, water and lustre, with the liveliness of their
irradiation, are the essential characteristics by which they may be
distinguished from the Brasilian diamonds. The different kinds of
agates, cornelians, chalcedonies, swallow stones, opals, onyxes,
and cats-eyes, which, according to the system of Wallerius, belong
to the silex genus, are not much esteemed on the coast of Malabar,
though some of them are brought thither from Arabia, Persia, and the
northern part of India.
The diamond, in the Malabar language, is called _Vairamanni_; the
ruby, _Patmaràgam_; the emerald, _Pociaratnam_; the sapphire,
_Nilaratnam_; rock crystal, _Palunca_, and in the Grantham dialect
_Spadika_; and pearls, _Mutta_.
On a seal ring of the king of Travancor, which consists of a very
hard and valuable stone, the following words are inscribed: _Shri
Padmanàbhen_. This is one of the sacred names given to _Vishnu_, and
contains an allusion to the birth of that deity. _Shri_ signifies
sacred, _Padma_ denotes the _nymphæa_, and _Nabben_ one who sits in
the interior part of this flower. The reader will recollect, from
what has been before said, that the _nymphæa_ is a symbol of water,
and of every thing created from it. The above words serve as a
convincing proof, that the Indians are certainly acquainted with the
art of cutting upon stone. A like ring was in the possession of the
king of Ceylon, _Vimala Dherma Suryada_, who embraced the Christian
religion, and at baptism got the name of Don John of Austria. On this
ring the god _Budha_ was represented under the human form.
The art of printing, in all probability, never existed in India;
and, perhaps, we should not be far wrong if we ascribed, in a
great measure, to this circumstance, the natural simplicity and
the irreproachable manners of the inhabitants. They copy no other
writings than such as are useful and good. The first book printed in
this country was the _Doctrina Christiana_ of Giovanni Gonsalvez,
a lay brother of the order of the Jesuits, who, as far as I know,
first cast Tamulic characters in the year 1577. After this appeared,
in 1578, a book entitled _Flos Sanctorum_, which was followed by
the Tamulic Dictionary of Father Antonio de Proenza, printed in the
year 1679, at Ambalacate, on the coast of Malabar. From that period
the Danish missionaries at Tranquebar have printed many works, a
catalogue of which may be found in _Alberti Fabricii salutaris Lux
Evangelii_.
So early as the time of Alexander the Great, the Indians were
accustomed to write on palm-leaves, as they do at present. This
appears by Curtius in particular[219]; and, according to the
testimony of Arrian[220], the Indians, at those periods, had hymns,
songs, and poems. These, as I have already said, were written either
on palm leaves, or a kind of paper wove of cotton, which was drawn
through rice water, and then pressed smooth. Some of the ancient
Indian kings, such as _Puru_, who sent a letter to Augustus Octavius
Cæsar, wrote either on cotton or silk cloth, as the Thibetians do
at present. The well-known Indian fables, ascribed to Pilpay, were
written by _Vishnu Sarman_, a Brahman, who belonged probably to the
Sect of the _Samanæi_. He flourished twenty years before Zoroaster,
and was prime minister in the court of the Indian king _Dabshelim_.
His fables were translated into Persian, in the sixth century
before the birth of Christ, by a Persian physician, _Buzerchumir_,
(Herbelot calls him _Buzervich_,) who was sent to India by king
Artaxerxes, or _Anushirvan_[221]. When I combine, therefore, every
thing I have already said, viz. the ancient inscriptions in the
subterranean temples at Salsette, Cialembron, Mabalipuri, and other
places; the testimony of so many respectable writers, and the
concordant traditions preserved among the Brahmans as well as among
the Persians, I am more and more confirmed in the opinion, that the
Indians, many centuries before the birth of Christ, had their own
peculiar characters and mode of writing, as well as original written
works, the authors of which, such as _Amarasinha_, _Kalidàsa_, and
_Pilpai_, or rather _Vishnu Sarman_, lived before that period. We
shall approach pretty near the truth, if we suppose that the fables
of _Pilpai_, as well as the _Mahabhàrada_, _Yudhishtira_, _Ràmàyana_,
and different astronomical works, were written about the fifth or
sixth century before the Christian æra.
Cotton, in Portuguese _Algodao_, and in Latin _Gossypium_, is, in
the Malabar language, called _Cerupagni._ A coarser sort, produced
by the tree _Ilava_, is called, by the natives of Malabar, _Pagni_.
The _Ilava_ is a large lofty tree, and the cotton it yields is
employed only for mattresses and bolsters. That which grows on the
shrub _Parutti_ is much finer. Both kinds are contained in an oval
capsule divided into different small cells, and called by the French
_La Coque_. The best cotton grows in Bengal and on the coast of
Coromandel; and hence it happens that the cotton articles procured
from these districts are the finest. The next in quality are those
manufactured in the provinces of _Madura_, _Marava_, and on the
coasts of _Pescaria_ and Malabar. The gradation proceeds thus to
_Canara_, where the cotton is not spun so fine, and the articles
consequently are much coarser.
The shrub _Parutti_, which produces the finer kind of cotton,
requires in India little cultivation or care; and the tree _Ilava_
requires none at all. The former thrives best on the high mountainous
districts; the latter in the flat open country. When the cotton has
been gathered, it is thrown upon a floor and threshed, in order
that it may be separated from the black seeds and the husks which
served it as a covering. It is then put into bags, or tied up in
bales, containing from 300 to 320 _Aratel_, or pounds of sixteen
ounces each. After it has been carded, it is spun out into such
delicate threads that a piece of cotton cloth twenty yards in length
may almost be concealed in the hollow of both hands. Most of these
pieces of cloth are twice washed; others remain as they come from
the loom, and are dipped in coco-nut oil, in order that they may be
longer preserved. It is customary also to draw them throw _Cangi_,
or rice-water, that they may acquire more smoothness and body. The
_Cangi_ is sometimes applied to cotton articles in so ingenious a
manner that purchasers are often deceived, and imagine the cloth to
be much stronger than it really is; for, as soon as it is washed, the
_Cangi_ vanishes, and the cloth appears quite slight and thin.
There are reckoned to be no less than twenty-two different kinds
of cotton articles manufactured in India, without including muslin
or coloured stuffs. The latter are not, as in Europe, printed by
means of wooden blocks, but painted with a brush made of the fibres
of the rind of the coco-nut, which, when beat, approaches near to
horse-hair; becomes very elastic, and can be formed into any shape
the painter chooses. The colours employed are indigo, _Indaco_,
_Anil_, or _Coachan_, all appellations borrowed from foreign
languages; and which signify, not a shrub, as some have erroneously
asserted, but a plant which grows in great abundance in the district
of Agra, and in other places of India. The stem and leaves of this
plant yield that beautiful dark blue with which the Indian chintzes,
coverlets, _tappisendis_ and other articles are painted, and which
never loses the smallest shade of its beauty. Also _terra merita_,
called _Curcuma_, or Indian saffron, a plant which dyes yellow; and,
in the last place, gum lac, together with some flowers, roots and
fruits, which are used to dye red. With these few pigments, which are
applied sometimes singly, and sometimes mixed, the Indians produce
on their cotton cloths that admirable and beautiful painting which
exceeds every thing of the kind exhibited in Europe.
The French, English, and Dutch have endeavoured to imitate these
articles; but, notwithstanding all their labour and art, they
have never yet been able either to produce these colours from the
vegetable kingdom, or to attain to the same fineness in their
cloth. No person in Turkey, Persia or Europe has yet imitated the
_Betille_[222], made at _Masulipatan_, and known under the name of
_Organdi_. The manufacturing of this cloth, which was known in the
time of Job, the painting of it, and the preparation of the colours,
give employment in India to male and female, young and old.
It may with truth be asserted, that in spinning, weaving, and dyeing,
the Indians excel all other nations in the world. A great deal of
cotton is brought from Arabia and Persia, and mixed with that of
India. The principal places where it is manufactured are: _Bengal_,
_Masulipatan_, _Paleacate_, _Madras_, _Sadras_, _Pondicherry_,
_Naur_, _Nagapatnam_, _Paleamcotta_, _Tutucuri_, _Manapar_, and
_Tiruvancoda_. The Indians work slowly and unwillingly; a fault which
is of great benefit to the Europeans. Were they more active and
industrious, they would inundate our quarter of the world with their
merchandize, and draw from us the little money still in circulation.
We clothe ourselves in their stuffs, while our woollen cloths are
to them unnecessary. On the contrary, we must pay money for all
the goods which we procure from India and China; so that these two
countries may be compared to two pits, in which we stand with both
feet and still sink deeper[223]. Pliny in ancient times complained
of the luxury of his countrymen[224], who procured similar articles
from the island of _Taprobane_, now called Ceylon; but what would he
say were he now alive and beheld our extravagance[225]? Wo to the
people who are not contented with the productions of their native
country!