_Religion and Deities of the Indians._
The almighty, infinite, eternal, incomprehensible, and self-existent
Being is called in the Samscred language _Parabrahma_, _Tatva
Paramèshvara_, _Svayambhu Paràbara_. _Parabrahma_ signifies the
highest wisdom, the most wise Being; _Tatva_, the Being who exists
by himself; _Paramèshvara_, the Almighty; from _Parama_ the highest,
and _Ishvara_ lord; both which words are joined together by an
elision, and formed into one: _Svayambhu_, a Being who exists for
and by himself; as _Svaya_ signifies, in the Samscred, by himself;
and _bhu_, existing: _Paràbara_, the most excellent of all exalted
beings. All these expressions, which are taken partly from the
Brahmanic grammar, and partly from the Indian dictionaries, clearly
shew that the Indians believe in one only true God, who has the
principle of existence within himself, and who lives from eternity to
eternity. In the Indian book _Mahabhàrada_ he is distinguished by the
following appellations:
_Canmasza vináshana_, he who cannot possibly lose his purity; the
pure Being who never sins.
_Karmasákshi_, the observer of all the actions of men.
_Genmanáshádihina_, he who loses neither his being nor existence.
_Nirmala_, the unspotted.
_Nirmádiguelkoru dharmanáyaga_, the beneficent lord, or the
fundamental principle of every thing that is pure.
Father Joseph de Carignan, who was settled as missionary at _Bettia_,
says, therefore, in a book which he dedicated to the king there:
“Your Pagan authors write in your _Puràna_ (a history of ancient
times), and a part of your philosophers teach that there exists one
God, who is an almighty, incorporeal, and pure spirit.” Could he
have written thus with impunity in the presence of the Brahmans, and
particularly to a king, had he not been certain of what he advanced?
Niebuhr, Pallot de St. Lubin, and others have sufficiently proved,
that many Indians entertain the purest notions of the Divinity. One
day having asked an ignorant Malabar Pagan how extensive the love of
God was, according to his idea, he replied: _Saptasagaram eluranda
lògavum onnu ciuttia vàsughi sarpamàya avene pidicia caratina
ábharatinál ettarudáde oru mey_. That is: “God is so great, that the
serpent _Vásughi_, which surrounds the seven seas and the fourteen
worlds, would be too small should he wish to employ it on his finger
instead of a ring.” It is here seen, that this heathen formed a
very exalted conception of God, though he expressed himself in a
figurative manner. It must, however, be confessed, that there are men
also in India so stupid and blind as to believe the Deity to be a
being that consists of several parts; and who consequently worship,
as their god, the sun, the atmosphere, water, and even the rice which
serves them as nourishment. But where is the country in the world in
which there are not fools?
Respecting the manner in which God produced the world, and still
conducts himself in the government of it, the Indians are divided in
their opinions.
1. Some believe that God first produced the goddess _Bhavàni_, that
is, all-creating nature. The latter, having brought forth three
gods, called _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, converted herself
into three females, and these married their own sons. The office
assigned to the first was to produce every thing useful in the world;
the second was to preserve them; and the third was commissioned
to destroy them, when they should be no longer necessary. Life,
increase, and death--or creation, preservation, and destruction--are
every where observed in the kingdoms of nature. The above-mentioned
goddess _Bhavani_, who represents all-creative nature, according to
the doctrine of the Brahmans, is the deity who, next to the Supreme
Being, is entitled to the greatest veneration.
2. Others assert that _Vishnu_, the spirit of God, (for this is
shewn by the appellation _Pranen_, which in the book _Mahabhàrada_
is expressly added,) created in the beginning every thing from
water; and from his navel proceeded _Brahma_, _Shiva_, and the whole
multitude of the other gods.
3. Others are of opinion that the god _Parabrahma_ first created the
elements: these were enclosed in a _motta_, that is, an egg; the egg
burst in such a manner that the upper fragments formed seven equal
parts, and the lower fragments the same number; and from these arose
the seven superior and the seven inferior worlds, so that they reckon
fourteen of them. When the Supreme God, _Parabrahma_, had created the
elements, and all these worlds, his appeared on the gold mountain
_Meru_; called the other gods thither, and assigned to _Brahma_ the
office of continuing the creation; to _Vishnu_, that of preserving
it; and to _Shiva_, that of again annihilating every thing in the
world.
The whole theology of the Brahmans is founded on these three
different systems. They are contained in the _Mahabharada_,
_Bhavagavada_, _Aadiparva_, and other Indian manuscripts. A more
particular account of them may be found in my _Systema Brahmanicum_,
and in the explanations of the Indian manuscripts preserved in the
Borgian Museum at Velitri. From all these systems it incontrovertibly
follows:
1. That the Indians believe that God created the world, though they
do not agree in their ideas respecting the manner in which it was
produced.
2. That they are neither Atheists nor Materialists, because they
believe in an exalted self-existent being, who produced every thing,
and who is the creator of the world.
3. That they are also not Manichæans, as they acknowledge that the
only true God is exalted over and independent of every other being.
According to their opinion he is eternal, the only one of his kind,
and the sole creator of the universe.
According to the first system, God, before the origin of all
creatures, created a female. But who is this female supposed to
be? From the name given to her by the Brahmans, it appears that
they understand by it Nature, which they have personified under the
figure of a woman. In the Samscred she is called _Paramèshavari_,
the supreme woman; _Ishi_ or _Ishani_, the woman; _Bhavani_, the
creatoress, who gives existence to all things; _Aadicumari_, the
first maid, the first virgin; _Manassa_, the will of the lord;
_Shakti_, the strength, the power, &c. Father Joseph de Carignan
and Father Marcus à Tumba assert, that the Indians under these
appellations understand the will of God, which emanated from him in a
female form, in order to begin the creation of the world. According
to the doctrine of the Brahmans, this goddess _Bhavani_ changes and
transforms herself into a thousand shapes, and appears sometimes
as a man, and sometimes as a woman. In Thibet she is called
_Lhamaciupral_; in Nepal, _Mayadevi_; in Bengal, _Ishani_; and, as
Sir William Jones has very properly remarked, she is every where
worshipped as the goddess of Nature. Some ignorant Indians believe
that she is the wife of the Supreme God; and others consider her as
the spouse of _Sura_ or _Suraya_, that is, the Sun.
On some Indian monuments, and in some paintings, this divinity is
represented with a band round her neck, from which are suspended a
great many skulls, as a sign that she has power over life and death;
and that she produces, and again destroys, all things. From her
menstrua, which she let fall on the earth, the flowers and all other
created things arose. The rest of the Indian deities are indebted to
her for their existence; and for this reason the heathens paint on
her forehead, as well as on their own, the _Yoni_ or _Medhra_ (female
organs of generation), which are represented by two side strokes and
a red one in the middle.
The fables which the Indians, Thibetians and Chinese relate of this
deity, are so numerous that it would be impossible to mention them.
A nocturnal solemnity has been instituted in honour of her; but it
is so scandalous that decency forbids me to describe it. All that
can be said of it is, that a female perfectly naked appears on this
occasion, and that the parts of sex are not only bestrewed with
flowers, but even worshipped. This festival of offering is called in
the Samscred, Malabar, and Tamulic languages, _Shaktipùgia_; that is,
the festival of the goddess _Shakti_, or Nature, who is the mother of
all things; who produced every thing that exists.
This female deity bore three sons, _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_,
the latter of whom is also called _Mahadèva_. The first creates,
the second preserves, and the third destroys. These three different
effects are called in the Samscred _Srshti_, _Stidi_, and _Samhàra_;
that is, creation, preservation, and annihilation. The above three
gods are the symbols of the three elements, earth, water, and fire.
The earth produces all earthly things; the water promotes their
growth, and preserves them; and by fire they are again destroyed. For
this reason the Tamulians and people of Malabar say, that _Brahma_
is of the nature of the _Bhu_ or _Bhumi_ (the earth); _Vishnu_, of
that of the _Apu_ or _Gelam_ (the water), and _Shiva_, of that of the
_Aghni_, or fire. All the three bear on their foreheads the sign of
the _Yoni_, to shew that they were born by _Bhagavani_; and that they
are consequently created beings, who represent elements, and create,
preserve, and again destroy every thing for which the menstrua of
their mother supplied the original matter.
_Brahma_ is represented as a man with four visages, because the world
consists of four parts; and he rides on a swan, because the earth
floats on water. _Vishnu_ reclines on a leaf of the water-lily,
_nymphæa_, which is the symbol of water. _Shiva_ holds in his hand a
ray of lightning, in order to shew that he represents fire. One needs
only to cast a look at the figures of these deities to be immediately
able to discover the meaning of the allegory concealed under them.
They assume sometimes a male and sometimes a female appearance; and
act their part sometimes as the husbands, sometimes as the children,
and sometimes as the brothers of the goddess _Bhagavani_; in the same
manner as the Juno of the Romans was represented to be the wife,
mother, and sister of Jupiter. They are, however, different from each
other; but together form the monstrous trinity, the _Trimurti_ of
the Indians, which is shut up in the trunk of a tree, and cannot be
separated. In this manner they are represented in the ancient temple
in the island of Elephanta, an engraving of which has been given by
_Niebuhr_ in the second part of his Travels. _Tri_ signifies three,
and _Murti_ a body; _Punya Murti_, a sacred body; _Vishnu Murti_, the
body or image of _Vishnu_. The word _Trimurti_ signifies, therefore,
not three gods, or three distinct powers, but three visible bodies,
which were produced by the goddess _Bhavani_, and united together in
one trunk. In this sense the word occurs both in the _Mahabhàrada_
and _Sambhava_, and in the dictionaries of Fathers Hanxleden and
Pimentel. These three gods were in the egg created by _Paramèshvara_;
and, according to the book _Ciandròdeya_, will perish by death at the
end of the world[186].
The word _Brahma_ signifies, in the Samscred, both the science
of law, and, as Father Hanxleden says in his dictionary, the god
_Brahma_, the creator, who, according to the doctrine of the
Vishnuvites, arose from the _nymphæa_ which sprang from the navel
of _Vishnu_. As creator he is with propriety styled the science of
law, because he arranged the whole creation according to the laws of
nature. The _Veda_, which he holds in his hand, is nothing else than
the book of nature, where he found instructions how to order every
thing, according to the laws of necessity, by weight and by measure.
Sometimes he is represented as a man sitting on an egg, from which he
created all other things.
The wife of _Brahma_ is _Sarasvadi_, the goddess of grammar, poetry
and music. In the book _Amarasinha_ she is called _Brahmi_, the
goddess of the sciences; _Bhàradì_, the goddess of history; for the
old Indian history is called _Bhàrada_, or _Mahabhàrada_, after
the name of king _Bharaden_, or _Bharada_, from whom the Indians
deduce a genealogical catalogue of their oldest kings, which is,
however, fabulous. This goddess, who is distinguished by a great
many other names, signifies, without doubt, the earth, as _Vishnu_
is the symbol of water. She presides over gold and silver, trees,
fruit, rice-fields, plants, cattle, and particularly fire, which she
restrains both in habitations and in the fields. She is represented,
in general, as sitting on a leaf of the _nymphæa_; suckling a child
at her breast, or pouring from a bag the productions of the earth.
Her symbol is the cow.
The wife of _Mahadèva_, _Shiva_, or _Rudra_, is the goddess
_Parvadi_, that is, the ruler of the mountains. She is called also
_Ishàni_, the woman; _Gaurì_, the yellow, shining; _Gauri_, the
white; _Haimavadì_, the ruler of every thing that is moist and cold;
_Rudràni_, the goddess who is the cause that women in labour cry,
and that men are afflicted with fevers, the small pox, the plague,
and other diseases; _Sarmangala_, the goddess of pleasure, of joy,
who promotes the growth and increase of all earthly things. She was
destined to be the wife of _Shiva_, that is, the sun, because the
moon receives her light from the latter, and in conjunction with him,
at least according to the physical principles of the Indians, has an
influence on all earthly things, and contributes to their creation
as well as destruction. Her husband _Shiva_ has also several other
names by which his properties and effects are distinguished. Thus,
for example, he is called _Mahadèvi_, the great god; _Rudra_, the
god who visits mankind with sickness, and by these means compels
them to shed tears; _Isha_, the lord; _Shuli_, he who bears the
trident, the symbol of the three worlds, viz. the heavens, the
earth, and the infernal regions, which are all under his inspection;
_Shrikanda_, the lord of light; _Andagaribu_, the enemy of darkness;
_Vyomaghesha_, the lord of the firmament, &c. All these appellations
sufficiently prove that this deity represents the sun.
According to the Indian mythology, these two deities, _Shiva_ and
_Parvadi_, produced the following children:
1. _Gannèsha_, of whom some account has been already given.
2. _Kartiguna_, or _Scanda_, the leader of the celestial armies.
3. _Hanumán_, the symbol of the air and the wind.
4. _Bhagavàdi_, of whom an account has also been given.
The next in order among the celestial gods is _Budha_, that is, the
intelligent, the vigilant, the crafty, the acute. He is supposed
to be a bosom friend of _Shiva_, and supplies the place of his
private secretary. This office has been conferred on him by the
Indian mythologists; because, according to their ideas, each planet
is governed by a particular genius; and because _Budha_ represents
Mercury, which is nearest the sun. This god is said to have been
the author of a great many books, and to have invented arithmetic,
the art of writing, geometry, astronomy, and, in short, all those
sciences which have been cultivated and improved by the industry of
man. The opinion or those who consider him as having been really a
writer, a king, and a legislator, is ridiculous.
The other deities of the Indians are:
1. _Indra_, or _Devendra_, the genius who presides over rain and the
atmosphere.
2. _Yama_, the genius under whose inspection the dead are placed; the
angel of death who dispenses rewards and punishment.
3. _Aghni_, fire, as a personified deity.
4. _Kamadèva_, or _Manmatha_, the god of pleasure, who blinds the eye
of reason, and inspires men with wicked desires.
5. _Varuna_, the genius who presides over the sea, and also over
ponds, lakes and rivers.
6. _Vaishrava_, who presides over buried treasures, and over all pits
and caverns in which riches lie concealed.
7. _Vishvacarma_, the inspector of all manual labour and mechanical
arts.
8. _Yaksha_, certain genii who are in the service of the
above-mentioned _Vaishrava_.
9. _Gandarva_, the genii who make music in the heavens.
10. _Kinnara_, the musician of the female deities.
11. _Rakshasa_, the nocturnal apparition; a malignant genius,
delighting in mischief; produced by the goddess _Adidi_, and detested
by the other gods. This appellation is applied, in ridicule, by
the Brahmans to the Europeans. It is remarkable that the Assyrians
and Medes are in various ancient books called also _Rakshasa_. The
Indians describe them as a wild, cruel, hostile people, who reside on
the other side of the mountain _Imau_ or _Himala_.
12. _Bhùda_, with the long _ù_, are also spectres in the service of
_Mahadèva_.
13. _Pishasha_, wicked dæmons, the damned devils.
14. _Apsarastri_, nymphs who reside partly in heaven, and partly on
earth.
The Indians believe that good and bad genii of this kind wander
always about, and sometimes suffer themselves to be seen. For this
reason they are accustomed to invite them to eat in their houses;
and, on such occasions, they clean their habitations that they may be
ready to receive them.
Of the above kind are the apparitions of _Vishnu_, who, as the
preserver of the world, shewed himself to mankind under nine
different forms. In these apparitions the whole history of the
_Vishnuvites_, both sacred and profane, is contained. As they are
highly interesting, I shall here insert them, together with the
Malabar text, as it is written in the Indian book _Mahabhàrada_. The
description of them is as follows:
1. _Hayagrìvane connu Vèdanguel vìndu munnam bhayate tirpan Malsya
vèszam adhava geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst conquer _Hayagriva_
(the ringleader of the wicked), and who, with a view to free us from
our first terror (occasioned by the flood), didst assume the form of
a fish, and bring us back the lost _Vèda_.”
2. _Kshìra ságaram-athanándare munnam adhibháramò dánnìduna mandiram
uyartuvan ghòramáyoru? kùrma vigraham dharicìdum kárana murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who in the sea of milk, in
which the world with its monstrous burden had sunk and was near being
plunged to the bottom, didst assume the form of a huge tortoise;
didst again raise it up, and save it from apparent destruction.”
3. _Dhàtrie rekshiciuden kádelittadhò lòga prapti-cuhhávicioru
Hiranyáccene munnam potriyàgavadáram ceidu nigrahiciuden dhàtrie
stànatà-keum yagnànga murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of
a boar, and in that form didst destroy the _Hirannya_, who through
malice threw the world from its equilibrium, and hurled it to
destruction; but which thou didst save by thy wisdom, and hast again
fixed on its centre[187].”
4. _Hiranyà Kaschipu vamá Asurendrene Kolluvan Narasinba-Karamay
ciamagna nalhá geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the mixed form
of a lion and a man, in order to destroy the _Hirannya_, the leader
of the wicked dæmons, who wished to force mankind to worship him.”
5. _Didigia-adhibenaya Bálie ciadipadina Didinnadidi Sudanaya Vàmana
murte geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of a
dwarf, and didst give thyself out as a son of the goddess _Didi_, to
deceive king _Bali_, the prince among the sons of the goddess _Didi_,
and to punish him[188].”
6. _Dharanni Suragena dvèshiguel áyundáya dharanni Pàlemnáre giama
daghni genáya irivattoru tude vadhiciu tábam tirkum Parashuràma murte
parápalaya geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who didst assume the form of a
hero, who called himself _Parashuràma_; thine is the victory, thou
preserver of the world, thou who didst destroy twenty-one of those
kings who rebelled against the celestial gods, and who didst free the
earth from their oppressive burthen.”
7. _Pankti kanane connu munnam àbatu tìrpàn Panktisyandana sudenàya
Rágghava geá._
“Thine is the victory, O Vishnu! thou who wast born as man, of the
race of king _Ragghu_, under the name of _Rágghava_; who didst
destroy the _Panktikana_ (the giant _Ràvana_), and didst free the
world from that pest.”
8. _Annanni vanna mundàya .... Madhura puri tannil Vàsudèva-àtmagenày
Dèvaguì taneyanay vannu Ngiàn genicìdum bhumiyil pirrakennam
Dèvaguelòda-aruli ceidu satya lògavum pukidinàr .... Krshnenày
pirranidu ingane gegan-nàlhen Vishnu bhaktenmaroke sèviciar-anandiciàr._
“These apparitions of Vishnu were over .... He now appeared in the
form of a child produced by _Vasudèva_ (the name of the father),
and _Devaguì_ (the name of his mother), and thereby fulfilled the
desire of the gods, who, as soon as they were informed of it, raised
themselves together to heaven ---- He was born in the form of
_Krishna_, and so _Vishnu_ became lord of the world, honoured and
worshipped by all the upright to the present day.”
9. The ninth apparition of _Vishnu_ was made in the person of
_Budha_, the attentive, cunning, and vigilant god, who observes the
good and bad actions of men, in order to punish or reward them,
when the tenth apparition of _Vishnu_ shall take place. _Dusdhere
shikshikeyum shistere rekshikeyum_, says the _Mahabhàrada_; that is,
he will punish the wicked, and reward the good.
These were the nine apparitions of _Vishnu_, as I find them described
in two Malabar manuscripts of the _Mahabharada_. One of them is
written on palm-leaves, but the other on paper; and both perfectly
agree in regard to the words, and even the accents. I, however, know
that in this respect there are many variations, which may be seen in
the second volume of the _Asiatic Researches_; but, in my opinion, it
is always better to adhere to the Indian originals, than to depend on
the ornamented relations of inconsiderate travellers.
The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is an article of belief
generally acknowledged as true by the philosophers, as well as by the
common people in India. _Dhermaragia Guru_, the Peguan philosopher,
explains himself on this subject as follows, in his short account of
the _Barman_ laws[189]: “Those who honour the Deity, his laws and
his priests will one day share the fate of all good men. For, in
regard to the good and bad actions of every living being, the case is
the same as with the shadow of our body, which never quits it, but
follows it wherever it goes. Among all living creatures there are
good and bad. Man becomes either a _Nat_ (dæmon), or an animal. The
soul of the animal transmigrates either into a man or a _Nat_. The
_Nat_ becomes either animal or man. In a word, all those who have not
rendered themselves worthy of being admitted into the _Niban_ (the
habitations of the blessed), go alternately upwards and downwards.”
This transmigration of the soul from one body into another is called
_Punar-genana_. The body in which the soul is purified and cleansed
is _Yadana Dèba_, the body of affliction or torment. A person who is
perfectly purified, glorified, and blessed, is called _Punnyadeha_.
Virtues and meritorious actions are either _Ulkrsha_, great deserts;
_Madhyama_, moderate; or _Samánya_, altogether trifling and common.
Sins are divided in the like manner; and according to this gradation
the soul has to endure a greater or less degree of torment. The gods,
that is the dæmons, are subject to this metempsychosis also; and
hence it happened that _Budha_ was obliged to wander from one body
into another 999 times, _Vishnu_ ten times, and _Shiva_ and _Bhavani_
an infinite number of times.
It is evident, that such transmigrations of the soul, or apparitions,
can be considered properly as nothing else than repeated incarnation;
and therefore the Greeks never said, “the Soul of Zoroaster, of
Semiramis, or Pythagoras, has again become man, but that it has
entered into another body.” When the soul has attained its full
purity, it is then, according to the doctrine of the Indians,
susceptible of five degrees of eternal joy and happiness:
1. _Sànitya_, the presence of God.
2. _Sàmipya_, approximation to God.
3. _Sàyugia_, union with God.
4. _Sàlocya_, holy contemplation of God.
5. _Sàrubhya_, participation in the divine essence.
The damned, on the other hand, are exposed in _Naraga_ (hell) to the
most dreadful torments. The _Preda_ or _Naragagendu_, that is, the
souls of the damned, have to expect there:
1. _Tabana_, pain.
2. _Avici_, internal anguish.
3. _Samhàra_, sufferings and punishment for their sins.
4. _Kàlasùtra_, an extraordinary length of time, which does not end
till full atonement has been made for their sins.
5. _Tipravèdana_, torments effected by fire.
6. _Pìdha_, a dreadful malignity and exasperation of their minds.
The inspection of the damned belongs to _Yàma_, that is, the god
who is always vigilant; or _Shràdhadèva_, the god of tears and
lamentations. The five principal places where good works are rewarded
are:
1. _Nìba_, or _Mòksha_, the true abode of the blessed in the highest
heaven, where _Parabrahma_ the God of gods has his residence.
2. _Brahmalòga_, the heaven of the god _Brahma_, to which those
ascend who have particularly devoted themselves to the service of
this god.
3. _Caylàsa_, the heaven of _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_, to which their
adherents attain.
4. _Vaicunda_, the heaven of _Vishnu_, which is peculiarly destined
for the worshippers of that deity.
5. _Indraloga_, or _Suargga_, the heaven of _Dèvendra_. This is
situated in the air. It is consequently the lowest of all, and is
appointed for the reception of those who on earth devoted themselves
to the service of any deity.
The _Mòksha_, or _Niba_, is the only one of these heavens from which
souls have no need of again descending to the earth; for in it they
are already cleansed, and have attained to the highest degree of
perfection. From all the rest they are now and then sent down; but
they again ascend to them, according as their past conduct in life
has been meritorious or deserving of punishment. Souls transmigrate
also sometimes into animal bodies, and hence the prohibition to kill
animals.