Victories of Peace
It seems almost incredible that a prince who was obliged to undertake so
many and such prolonged campaigns--that against the Saxons alone
requiring twenty-six expeditions--could have had any opportunity to
engage in works of peace. The question must arise how he found the time,
or the opportunity, or the encouragement for other operations than those
of a warlike nature.
Succeeding events will supply the answer. From the point of view of his
wars, the Emperor has been called a conqueror; but when we come to
consider his peace achievements and his creative ability, it will be
shown that he had a still clearer right to that appellation. It will
also clearly reveal his ideals of sovereignty, and we shall recognize
the propriety of the title history has accorded him.
First of all, let us consider the place which was the favorite resort of
the Emperor during the last twenty years of his life. He lived at
Aix-la-Chapelle nearly all the time when he was not in the field. Its
gently sloping heights, spurs of the Eifel and Ardennes, at that time
densely wooded, enclosed a fruitful valley. A royal palace stood there
in Pepin's time; and even if Charlemagne was not born there, as is
sometimes asserted, yet it is certain that he spent the most of his
boyhood amid these scenes.
Bathing was one of his favorite pleasures, and many a time he breasted
the blue waves of the Rhine. The warm mineral baths at Aix-la-Chapelle
were his especial delight. There were also thickly wooded spots in the
vicinity which attracted him. He was as fond of hunting as of bathing,
even in his last years; and his retainers, as well as his beautiful and
buxom daughters, often joined him in the hunt, and chased the buffaloes
and wild boars to the clang of horns and the baying of hounds. All great
human personages excite the imagination of those who come under their
influence; and the popular fancy is fond of weaving stories about them
which help to reveal their true character. One of these legends concerns
the baths at Aix-la-Chapelle.
At Charlemagne's palace in Mainz there was a bell which was said to ring
whenever any danger was threatened. Charlemagne heard its clang one day
and sent a messenger to ascertain the cause. He found that a snake had
coiled itself around the rope and was the bell-ringer. The snake led the
messenger to its nest, where a noxious toad was found squatting upon the
snake's eggs. He drove the toad away and then informed the Emperor of
the curious event. Charlemagne's astonishment was further increased when
the snake suddenly appeared in the hall, wriggled along to his table,
ascended it, dropped a sparkling jewel which it carried in its jaws into
a wine glass, and then quickly disappeared. The magic stone, upon which
swan and runic symbols were engraved, had mysterious properties. Whoever
received the gift became the object of the passionate adoration of the
giver. Charlemagne placed the stone in a ring and sent it to his beloved
wife Fastrada. Immediately he became more closely attached to her than
ever before. He could not be away from her. When her death removed her
from his side, he was overcome with grief. Her body was placed in an
open coffin in the Cathedral, and the Emperor spent his time there and
would not suffer it to be buried. The people whispered among themselves,
"The Emperor's mind is affected by his love for Fastrada. What will
become of his crown and country if this grief continues?" In this
emergency the pious Turpin had a dream which suggested a method of
deliverance. He rose from his bed, donned his clothes, and hastened to
the Cathedral. It was apparently empty. Before the altar there was a
lofty sarcophagus, upon which the Empress rested. Round about it upon
the floor lay a band of paladins garbed as penitents. In front of the
sarcophagus stood the Emperor weeping, with his head resting upon the
coffin. Turpin ascended the steps. He gently raised Fastrada's ermine
covering, seized the hand so long cold, and quietly removed the ring;
whereupon the paladins, who had been kneeling in prayer, looked about in
astonishment. The Emperor lifted his head and addressed them. "How long
have we mourned? Too long, surely! Where is my chancellor? It seems to
me my people are calling. Let the Empress be buried in the earth, never
to be forgotten."
The magic swan ring now exerted its influence in a new way. The Emperor
became devotedly attached to the prelate, and the latter was troubled
over its demoralizing influence. He went to Aix-la-Chapelle, followed by
the Emperor, and threw the ring into a quiet forest lake made by the
warm springs. From that time the place became the favorite resort of the
Emperor. He erected a castle in the midst of the lake, in which he often
meditated upon the frailty of earthly things. He took delight in bathing
in the waters in whose depths the swan ring, taken from the hand of his
beloved, rested without his knowledge.
At Aix-la-Chapelle he also built a majestic palace, surrounded by a
broad columned portico, which was a marvel of architecture at that time.
Rome and Ravenna furnished the columns, the marble blocks, and the
mosaic work, and the best architects were sent there by the Pope. Around
it were buildings for the schools, court attendants, and bodyguards;
farther away, a cloister and farmhouses; and still farther off a tall
structure built over the warm baths and capable of accommodating
hundreds. The most majestic building of all was a minster connected with
the palace by a pillared passageway, the dome of which, supported by
tall columns, was adorned with a representation of Christ and the
four-and-twenty elders of the Apocalypse in mosaic upon a gold
background, the altars glistening with gold and silver ornaments.
Everything was carried out according to the plans of the Emperor; and
even when he was in the field the work went on. He devoted himself
assiduously to all sacred matters. In the early morning hours he might
be seen passing along the portico to the church to meditate and
strengthen himself for his official duties, and at evening he returned
for the same high purpose.
Those who attended this hero of the spiritual when the times were
opportune for deeds of peace often accompanied the hero of the sword
upon his expeditions. During his first Lombard campaign he became
acquainted with the pious and learned Anglo-Saxon prelate, Alcuin,[43]
and took him with him that he might have the advantage of his counsels
and teaching. Charlemagne, like all princes' sons in those days, had
enjoyed but little instruction up to the time he assumed the
sovereignty. His native ability helped him over many hard places, but
that same ability inspired him with a passionate desire to avail himself
of the treasures of knowledge. The great Emperor sat, a willing scholar,
at the feet of his teacher Alcuin, whom Guizot thus describes:
"Alcuin was very well versed in Antonius and Hieronymus and was
familiar with Pythagoras, Aristotle, Aristippus, Diogenes, Plato,
Homer, Virgil, Seneca, and Pliny. His writings were chiefly
theological, but he had also done much of importance in mathematics,
astronomy, dialectics, and rhetoric. This man was the light of the
Church in his day and was also a classical scholar."
Other members of the scholarly circle at his court were Angilbert,
Eginhard, Theodulph, Peter of Pisa, and the Lombard historian Paulus
Warnefried. The last, as already has been stated, had been condemned to
death for inciting revolt in his country, but was pardoned by
Charlemagne, who subsequently conferred many honors upon him. How highly
Charlemagne esteemed art and science is shown by the fact that he
attended the sessions of the academy and was recognized as an equal
among its members. He would not allow court ceremonials to be conducted
in halls devoted to the service of science. In order to preserve and
foster the culture of former times, the members at his request took the
names of famous ancients. Alcuin was called Horace; Eginhard, Callippus;
Angilbert, Homer; Theodulph, Pindar; and Charlemagne--the hero, champion
of the Church, and lover of the lyre--was unanimously called David.
[Illustration: _CHARLEMAGNE and Alcuin_]
Charlemagne was endowed with extraordinary natural gifts of language;
his studies, which he pursued at night, both at home and in the field,
enabled him in an exceedingly short time to converse as fluently in
Latin as in his mother tongue. He studied the works of the great Roman
historians, Julius Cæsar, Sallust, Livy, Tacitus, and others; and
besides this, during his Roman expeditions, he had viewed the scenes of
the exploits described by them and the ruins of ancient stateliness. The
Grecian world also had revealed to him the brilliant culture of the
great men of that country. He was so well acquainted with the Greek
language that he could read the literature in the original, which
disclosed to him visions of the beauty of that Eden. Rome stood high in
his estimation, but Athens higher; and higher than either Rome or
Athens, Jerusalem, as the source of those sacred teachings which are to
humanity what the sun is to the earth--light-diffuser and inspiration of
newly created life. He never wandered from the true path, whose course
is so often confused by mistaken teachers even to this day. With
unwavering faith he anticipated the complete victory of the light and
was ready at all times to serve the sacred cause with all his energy. He
often manifested his sincere interest in the Academy. He ardently longed
to create a new Athens at Aix-la-Chapelle by his own efforts, assisted
by his friends, and to make this new Athens the centre of a Christian
spirit which should be a light to all the nations. He founded training
schools and schools for youth. He organized a school at the court for
the sons of his generals and officials. He supervised every detail, so
that there should be no question of their success, and invited the
assistance of others. The great Emperor was not ashamed to avail himself
of the critical knowledge acquired by the results of education. The
chronicles of Saint Gall contain the following interesting instance of
this:--
It happened that the sons of those of the middle and lower classes
exhibited results which surpassed all his expectations, and that the
sons of people of the higher classes handed in wretched and bungling
compositions. Imitating the example of the highest Judge, Charlemagne
placed the industrious ones on his right and said to them: "I praise
you, my children, for the zeal with which you have carried out my
instructions and because you have done your best according to your
ability. Continue striving to accomplish still more that you may not
fail to meet my expectations and to have my constant care." Then he
turned his reproachful gaze upon those at his left and hurled these
words at them: "Why is it that you, sons of noblemen, puppets upon whom
have been showered all the gifts of birth and wealth, have not respected
my orders and recognized my solicitude for your reputation? You have
slighted me and devoted yourselves to effeminate habits, sports,
frivolity, and disgraceful actions." Raising his arm, he shouted: "By
Heaven, there are other things more worthy than these. Your birth and
rank count for little with me. Listen! If you do not hasten to atone for
your neglect by increased industry, you will never again enjoy my
favor."
He who would achieve greatness in the short span of life must improve
every moment of time. Even while dressing, Charlemagne busied himself
with state affairs, heard complaints, held receptions, and made
decisions. When he could not sleep at night he spent much time reading
and writing. One may ask why a man who understood Greek and Latin and
was so well versed in classic literature should have practised writing.
The question has given rise to many conjectures. Very little attention
was paid to writing in those days. It was mainly confined to the copying
of the letters in the sumptuous editions then in use. The books with
their costly gold and silver covers, set with precious stones, were
genuine works of art. Guizot says:
"With few books and still less paper, writing was a luxury as well as
a gift. Nearly all instruction was oral, and writing was not depended
upon in study. It is true Charlemagne did not need to economize in
paper; but his teachers had accustomed themselves to instruct their
pupils with extracts and selections, which were committed to memory
and not written upon tablets. They did not expect great elaboration of
detail from their scholars and brought their studies to a close
without practising the art which with us is considered the beginning.
The writing and preparation of diplomas was the work of expert
secretaries."
As Charlemagne had acquired the art of writing he thus surpassed the
princes and notables of his time in this also.
The Emperor took special pains at meals that while the body was
nourished the soul and mind should not be neglected. He was fond of
pleasant entertainment, and if conversation was not so interesting as he
wished, the chaplain would read from some good book. As gormandizing was
distasteful to him, the dinner consisted of only four courses, something
unheard-of in court life at that time. He drank but three times at
table, and regarded drunkenness as a vice. He was delighted beyond
measure when surrounded by his own family, something he rarely enjoyed
because of his many campaigns.
An extraordinarily tender relation existed between Angilbert, who bore
the academic name of Homer, and Charlemagne's beautiful daughter Bertha.
Upon one occasion they sat engaged in pleasant conversation without
noticing that night was approaching. What might have happened if the
Emperor had been aware of this it is difficult to conjecture. The hours
passed swiftly and daybreak drew near. It was not a Romeo and Juliet
morning of lark and nightingale greetings to the sun, but a cold winter
morning with freshly fallen snow on the ground. How was Angilbert to get
away without leaving accusing footprints in the snow? At this juncture,
Charlemagne, who had risen early, went to the window and beheld his
loved daughter Bertha carrying Angilbert on her back through the snow,
after which she returned to her chamber. Charlemagne kept silent about
the escapade, and it was not until some time afterwards that he confided
to his friend what he had seen that night.
It was devout piety that induced Charlemagne to build the stately
Cathedral. The music of the Italian masters was heard there for the
first time, and the art of song was fostered by his chapel. The German
language was employed there for the first time in divine service, much
to the surprise of the Franks. The peal of the organ which
Harun-al-Rashid presented to the Emperor was also first heard there. The
chronicles of Saint Gall, to which we are indebted for so much
interesting information concerning Charlemagne, relate that "the
wonderful instrument, by the aid of its metal action and leathern
bellows, filled the air with resonant thunder and anon with the soft
tones of the lyre, as if worked by magic."
Wood and stone, music, tapers, and incense, however, are of little
account by themselves. Indeed they sometimes prove detrimental to the
service, which should be the worship of God in spirit and in truth.
There had been much pomp in the service before the time of Charlemagne.
Indeed, the churches vied with each other in religious spectacles, and
there was very little change in these matters among the clericals or
laity in his time. When the clericals had finished their churchly duties
they sought relief from their exertions in worldly pleasures. They were
often seen in courtly attire engaged in hunting, in military exercises,
or riding to banquets. It was irksome to bishops and abbés when they had
to be satisfied with such a table as Charlemagne set forth. He was
determined from the very first that there should be a radical change in
church observances, and that the first step should be the establishment
of higher standards in the behavior of clericals, and the suppression of
covetousness, vanity, and personal show among them. He sternly rebuked a
bishop who had provided himself a golden crozier set with pearls and
precious stones. "We expect our pastors to bear the cross of Christ," he
told him, "but they abandon their poor sheep and seek to vie with kings
and emperors in splendor and majesty." He also required them to evince a
spirit of reverence in all their actions.
He assigned a young priest, who came to him highly recommended, to an
important position. Thereupon the priest mounted his horse which was
standing waiting for him and would have hurried away to the hunt.
Charlemagne called him back and said: "Forsooth, I observe that you are
far too active for a priest. It will be better, therefore, for you to
follow me in my campaigns as a soldier, for the Kingdom of Heaven is
much disturbed by these storms of war."
The clericals often accompanied him, not for fighting, but to render
spiritual help whenever it was needed. Certain monks who had
distinguished themselves by works of mercy and the transcribing of
useful books were allowed the privilege of hunting as exceptions,
because he thought they might strengthen themselves and at the same time
secure skins for book covers, girdles, and gloves.
Charlemagne labored incessantly for the highest interests of Church and
State. He held two annual assemblies, one military and the other of a
deliberative nature, in which these interests were discussed. It is
surprising to find that he held forty-two synods for that part of the
Empire alone, in which church matters were regulated and educational
questions settled. He issued four hundred and seventy-seven edicts
appertaining to the subjects contained in the famous "Capitularies,"
besides six hundred and seventy-four of a political character. Although
many of these are not applicable to modern conditions, it must be
remembered that one time is not all time; that the wisdom of the
lawgiver must be measured by the conditions of those for whom laws are
made; and that results must be decided upon their merits or demerits.
All his contemporaries are agreed that his laws resulted in great
benefit for the Empire.
It often happened in these assemblies that when the decisions of famous
men in the olden times were considered, a feeling of doubt would seize
upon Charlemagne. Upon one such occasion he declared: "Oh that I had
twelve such learned advisers as Hieronymus and Augustine were!" To which
Alcuin replied: "The ruler of heaven and earth did not have any, and you
are longing for twelve of them."
Charlemagne retired to rest burdened with care, but awoke with fresh
hope and new desire for action. His predecessors had made their first
residence in Paris; he, German in body and soul, much as he enjoyed the
healthiness of Roman life, left for the banks of the Rhine, and, as has
been related, selected Aix-la-Chapelle as his residence in his latter
days. There was not a detail of public administration which escaped his
attention or upon which he did not expend his extraordinary creative
ability. When it was necessary he sat in majesty upon his throne. In the
academy he devoted himself with no less assiduity to the promotion of
great truths. Indeed, it is difficult to say in what capacity he most
excelled--as a war hero, lawgiver, judge, or teacher. Those who saw him
in plain attire upon one or other of the royal estates, directing and
disposing, might well imagine that the great Charlemagne perfectly
filled the role of farmer.
Under Charlemagne's management the crown possessions became models of
husbandry. Nothing escaped his attention, and whatever he planned was
successful. The stewards received lists containing the names of species
of corn, kitchen herbs, fruit trees, medical simples, which were to be
planted, cultivated, and looked after in field and garden. He ordered
poultry, geese, and doves to be kept at the mills so that the
superfluous grain should not be wasted. He laid out fish-ponds,
constructed apiaries, planted noble vineyards, and introduced improved
methods of wine-making. Nor did he confine himself to the strictly
useful. He arranged for the keeping of pheasants and peacocks. He
cultivated great quantities of flowers in the beautiful pleasure
gardens. He employed gardeners, fish-masters, and bee-keepers. He
arranged to have experts in the making of butter and cheese teach the
people. Upon the crown estates as well as upon others, wolf-hunters were
posted, who had to deliver annually a certain number of skins or suffer
a penalty. Whatever produce from the crown property was unnecessary for
use at the court was sold, and a yearly account of it was kept. The
supervision of the house stewards extended to the slightest detail.
Charlemagne was far from avaricious. His household never suffered for
lack of anything. Whenever corn was disposed of he arranged to sell the
measure about a denier below the ordinary price. He had the highest
sense of order in the management of affairs, and looked upon disorder,
whether in the State, the family, or intellectual matters, as conducive
to disastrous results. He did not live upon the fat of the land, but
upon the abundance from his own estates.
Let us consider the conditions of industry and business in Charlemagne's
Empire. His wars were in no wise detrimental to material prosperity.
Arrow, missile, and helmet makers, as well as sword and bow and bullet
makers, were in demand. At the royal palaces there were blacksmiths,
armorers, gold and silver smiths, shoemakers, tailors, millers, turners,
masons, wheelwrights, builders, brass-workers, tanners, soap-boilers,
fowlers, potters, bakers, joiners, saddlers, net-weavers, coopers,
architects, glass-blowers, parchment makers, painters, and dyers. After
Charlemagne's order that monks who failed in studies should make
themselves useful as handworkers, there was an active emulation among
all the artisans employed at the palaces, the monasteries, and in the
cities. Ferdinand Pfalz states in his "Scenes in City Life" that under
Charlemagne, notwithstanding his frequent wars, the cities enjoyed
material prosperity:
"The Rhine, Meuse, and Scheld were crowded with freight vessels; and
at the landing-places, as at Worms, Mainz, Cologne, Dorstadt,
Maestricht, Ghent, and Bruges, or in the harbors at the mouth of the
Scheld there were busy scenes. The Strasburg merchants shipped down
the Rhine to the sea and the Frisians to Worms. The great Emperor
regarded this expansion of commerce with delight. The old and patched
Roman walls were soon too restricted for the increasing urban
populations. Churches and seats of the nobility spread out into the
suburbs, which eventually had to be enclosed in a ring of walls."
Order in housekeeping both in court and state affairs Charlemagne
regarded as vitally necessary to sovereignty. The whole Empire was
divided into districts and to each district a competent official was
assigned, whose duty it was to see that the Capitularies were respected.
Special judges appeared from time to time, made examinations, and
reported to the Emperor. In deliberations on the affairs of the Empire,
Charlemagne summoned the leading feudal owners and the high churchmen in
May, which is the origin of the name "Mayfield" given to these meetings.