The First Eleven Years of the Saxon War
We must now consider the longest and most desperate of Charlemagne's
wars--that waged against the Saxons, which began before his campaign
against Desiderius and lasted not less than thirty-three years.
A bitter race antagonism had long prevailed between the Franks and the
Saxons. As already related, the latter had been subjugated by
Charlemagne's predecessors and forced to pay tribute. Saxony extended
along both sides of the Weser, westerly to the vicinity of the lower
Rhine, southwesterly to the Harz[26] and the Unstrut,[27] and northerly
to the ocean, except the country occupied by the Frisians. Four races
inhabited Saxony--the Westphalians, living between the Weser and the
Issel; the Eastphalians, on the right bank of the Weser to the Elbe; the
Eugen, between both these; and the Northmen, or Nordalbingi,[28] who
lived on both sides of the Elbe. "Phalen" or "Falen" means a great
plain, and one of these names (Westphalia) is in use to-day.
The Saxons were not far advanced in civilization. The hatred which they
entertained against the Germans, who had been converted to Christianity
by Boniface[29] and other missionaries, had caused them to break off
friendly intercourse with their ancestral associates. They worshipped
Odin and other heathen divinities in their forests, as of old.
Charlemagne conducted his campaign against them, not so much in the
interest of religion as to overthrow the power of a dangerous neighbor,
before he went to Italy to subjugate Desiderius. He invaded Saxony and
occupied Eresburg, in the vicinity of which was Irminsul, the mystic
idol revered by the Saxons.[30] Its significance is still doubtful. Some
maintain that it typified the world-ash tree "Ygdrasil," whose trunk,
the Germans believed, was rooted in the underworld and whose branches
shadowed Odin's palace, Walhalla. Others contend that it was a memorial
of Arminius who freed Germany from the Roman yoke. The Irminsul was
demolished by the Franks. The Saxons at last sued for peace, which
Charlemagne granted after they had given him twelve hostages. Then he
retired with his army.
After this opening success over the Saxons, Charlemagne began his
campaign against Desiderius; but hardly had he deposed the Lombardian
King before he received the news that the Saxons, in violation of their
promise to remain peaceable, had invaded Hesse and were laying it waste.
He appeared among them so suddenly and in such force that they were
again easily overcome. Once more they submitted, sent him hostages, and
were pardoned. It was not his good fortune, however, to enjoy the fruits
of victory long. An uprising in Italy, led by Adalgis, son of
Desiderius, who had previously escaped, as has been related, next
confronted him. Adalgis betook himself to the court of the Greek Emperor
to seek his assistance, and made an alliance with his brother-in-law
Arighis, Duke of Benevento,[31] who had married the rejected Desiderata.
By this alliance he secured the help of the other Italian nobles, who
had been left undisturbed upon condition of remaining loyal. The landing
of Adalgis with his Greek auxiliaries was the signal for an uprising.
Upon receipt of the news of his enemy's designs from the Pope,
Charlemagne hastened to Italy. Only one of the nobles, however, Duke
Rotgund in Friaul, had ventured to take up arms, and he was quickly
defeated, taken prisoner, and made to do penance the rest of his life.
The remaining nobles were stripped of their possessions and the country
was divided into earldoms, governed by Frankish nobles.
As soon as the Saxons learned that Charlemagne was engaged in Italy,
throwing their promises to the winds, they rose again, destroyed a
number of Christian churches, and advanced to lay siege to Eresburg,
which was occupied by the Franks. Failing to capture the stronghold by
assault, they resorted to trickery. By a pretended retreat they induced
the Franks to make a sally, then turned upon them, slaughtered them, and
demolished the fortress. A few of the garrison saved themselves by
flight to Siegburg on the Ruhr,[32] which was attacked by the Saxons
without success. Charlemagne, in the meantime, having returned from
Italy, suddenly appeared in Saxony and overcame all opposition. He once
more pardoned those who implored mercy, restored Eresburg, and built the
fortress of Lippestadt. To appease the King, several of the nobles,
among them Bruno, son-in-law of Wittekind,[33] accepted Christian
baptism and remained as hostages with the King. Charlemagne did not
avenge this disloyalty upon his hostages, but continued his efforts to
overcome opposition by mild measures which were not altogether
satisfactory to his leaders. In his opinion the time had not yet come to
undertake forcible conversions, for he was convinced that Christian
belief and faith could not be imposed by violence. He was fully resolved
to Christianize the Saxons, but he had other methods in view of bringing
about that result. He was equally determined that the Saxons should
become a political element in the great German nation, but he was
cautious about taking any measures that were not absolutely necessary.
It was Charlemagne's custom to call an annual assembly of the leaders of
his people upon the Champ de Mai[34] to discuss affairs of state. He
decided that year (777) to hold it in Saxony, and selected for its
locality the district at the source of the Lippe near Paderborn. He
hoped the Saxons would regard this gathering as a peace measure. Their
leaders were invited to participate and appeared in a body, with the
exception of Wittekind, who bitterly hated the Franks. He had escaped
after the defeat; and as Adalgis sought assistance from the Greek
Emperor, so he appealed to his brother-in-law Siegfried, King of
Denmark, to aid him.
The Saxon chiefs beheld Charlemagne for the first time in the majesty of
peaceful surroundings. Heroes of the sword and dignitaries of the Church
were gathered around his throne. Many of these chiefs willingly
acknowledged such a master. It happened also that a Moorish Embassy from
Spain was in Paderborn at this time. The Saxons beheld the newcomers
with astonishment, so different was their splendid attire from that of
the northern peoples. The Moorish leaders had come to seek the help of
Charlemagne against Abderrahman, Caliph of Cordova, and promised to
transfer their allegiance to him in case he freed them from his power.
Charlemagne was glad of the opportunity to interpose in Spanish affairs.
He promised to help the petitioners, and in the meantime decided to
demand a district in northern Spain for himself as a defence, in case of
emergency, against the Moors of the southern part. The Saxons for the
first time realized the wide extent of his authority and fame. How could
they longer withstand him, they asked themselves. Ozanam says:
"Many of them swore allegiance and promised to surrender their country
and their freedom if they violated their word. Many renounced idol
worship and were baptized. A multitude of men, women, and children
went down to the river in white garments, accompanied by chanting
priests, and came back Christians; at their head the priests and
monks, who had thus laid the foundations of the Christian Saxon
Church. The world rejoiced at the conversion."
No one was more delighted than Charlemagne. It heightened his hope and
enthusiasm when he set out upon the Spanish expedition the following
year. He crossed the Pyrenees, overcame Pampeluna and Barcelona, and
made Navarre, Aragon, and Catalonia subject to his authority. Saragossa
was next invested, and after a short resistance its people submitted to
him and gave hostages and tribute. Thereupon he made northeastern Spain,
as far as the Ebro, the limit of the Frankish kingdom in Spain, and
established a barrier against the Moors, intending thereby to discourage
pagan invasions and prevent the disturbance of the Christian world, as
his grandfather had done before him.
Unfortunate news from home forced Charlemagne to leave Spain. While
crossing the Pyrenees a part of his army met with serious disaster. The
rear guard, led by Roland, was ambushed in a narrow valley near
Roncesvalles by the Basques and slaughtered to the last man. It was
impossible to offer resistance, for the enemy occupied an impregnable
position on the heights, from which they rolled down huge rocks and
hurled showers of missiles. The hero Roland and his brave comrades, the
paladin Anschelm and the seneschal Eckart, who were slain, were
celebrated at a later period in song and romance. Charlemagne
undoubtedly would have turned back to avenge them had not a new Saxon
uprising forced him to return as speedily as possible. He soon defeated
the Saxons and laid waste their country to the Elbe. The usual result
followed. Wittekind fled, the Saxons took the oath of allegiance and
gave securities.
Charlemagne well knew that the roots of the Saxon animosity were
grounded in their heathen religion. He determined to eradicate it by
force. His scheme was to pardon only those who consented to be baptized
and to remain faithful to the Christian faith. Death should be the
penalty of participation in the heathen service. Forcible measures of
this kind, imposed for the purpose of changing ideas and sentiments, are
improper, it is true; but under existing circumstances it seemed the
only preventive of their constant uprisings. It also promised to be of
great advantage, as the younger generation would be influenced by the
abandonment of the heathen religion to become loyal.
Charlemagne not only determined to introduce Christianity, but Frankish
laws as well. Saxony was divided into districts to which Frankish chiefs
were assigned. He deemed it of the highest importance that a people who
had violated their obligations so frequently should be restrained by
severe measures. The immediate outcome of this, however, was the almost
complete destruction of a division of the Frankish army and the massacre
of four princes and twenty distinguished nobles, by the Saxons, led by
Wittekind and his brother Albion. Charlemagne's grief at their loss was
as intense as his anger against the Saxons. His patience was exhausted.
He determined that justice should be inexorable in dealing with these
murderers and perjurers. If he overlooked their bloody deed it would
only incite the Saxons to perpetrate fresh atrocities. He determined to
execute a penalty severe enough to intimidate the Saxons ever after, and
to protect those who might be exposed to danger if the guilty went free.
Charlemagne acted upon the theory that a judge who releases a murderer
is equally guilty if that murderer commits fresh crimes. He put down the
uprising at once; and when the Saxons as usual implored mercy and
charged Wittekind (who had again fled) with the blame, he demanded the
surrender of the guilty persons. They were tried by a military court,
found guilty, and beheaded. Four thousand five hundred in one day! This
was the massacre at Verden![35]--a grewsome deed!