to him by a Moor from Agadir, and obtained, at a height of 1,500

feet, on the flanks of the maritime termination of the Great Atlas

range, 160 miles south of the Saffi section.

Two or three miles south of Saffi another section occurs, known

as the ‘Jew’s Cliff;’ and from this Dr. Hooker, who landed

on his homeward voyage, obtained a few fossils, viz. several

undeterminable species of _Pecten_; an _Ostrea_ allied to

_0. Virleti_, and a scutelliform _Echinus_ of an unknown type,

which Mr. Etheridge proposes to place under a new genus, and names

_Rotuloidea fimbriata_. All these Mr. Etheridge supposes to be of

Miocene age; and the ‘Jew’s Cliff’ section may probably give

the key to the age of the beds of the Marocco plain in which we found

no fossils. In connection with the occurrence of these Tertiary beds

at Saffi, I must refer to MM. Desquin and Mourlon’s observations

in the neighbourhood of Mazagan to the north-west, near which,

at a place called Sidi Moussa, calcareous tufas associated with

flints occur, containing

[Illustration: FIG. 2.

_Rotuloidea fimbriata_, Etheridge.

1. Dorsal aspect, showing the twelve fimbriations, subpetaloid

ambulacra and central madreporic tubercle.

2. Ventral aspect, showing mouth, position of vent, and ramifying

furrows.

3. Posterior border and height of test.

4. Apical disk, with the madreporic tubercle, the four genital

pores, and place of the five oculars.]

_Solen_, _Venus_, _Modiola_, _Cardium_, &c.; the deposit in its

main characters resembling the description given by M. Coquand

of the fluvio-marine travertines of the north of Marocco, and

also the Sahara beds described by M. Ville; with the difference

that the Sahara deposits are characterised by the presence

of little _Paludinas_, whilst those of Sidi Moussa are full of

vermiculiform perforations. The depressions are occupied by a very

porous conglomerate, passing into a calcareous sandstone used

for building. This conglomerate contains an abundance of _Helix

vermiculata_, a species living in the country, and also found in

the calcareous sands which are supposed to be of post-Pliocene

age. The plain of Doukala (_Ducaila_ of Washington), at a level

of about 140 feet above the sea, is covered with these sands. At

Sidi Ammer an escarpment was observed, the base of which consisted

of clay and red ferruginous marls, containing a stratum formed

for the most part of oysters, in which also _Teredina personata_

occurred, supposed by M. Nyst to belong to the Eocene formation;

succeeded by another fossiliferous bed containing

_Balanus sulcatus_,

_Pecten Beudanti_,

_Arca_,

_Buccinum prismaticum_, and

_Conus_,

supposed by M. Nyst to be Miocene, the upper part of the escarpment

resembling the beds of later age before described.

An examination of the higher points of the western coast near

Saffi, and at Azfi in the province of Abda, near Mazagan, tended

to establish the fact of the occurrence of Pliocene beds in the

district.

At Cape Saffi, 180 metres in altitude, a reddish calcareous sand was

met with abounding in _Cyclostoma_, _Cylindrellas_, and a species

of _Helix_ differing from that at Mazagan; and at other points,

including the hill of Aher and at Sidi Bousid, white marls and sands

associated with calcareous sandstones were met with analogous to

the supposed quaternary beds in the neighbourhood of Mazagan.

The only other point in the geology of the coast-line I have to

refer to is the great mass of blown sand surrounding Mogador,

presenting a weird expanse of sea-like waves of sand, on a scale

vastly greater than anything of the kind on our own coast, mimetic

of mountain-chains and bold escarpments in miniature, differing only

from true hill-and-valley structure in the absence of continuous

valley-lines, the hollows being completely surrounded by higher

ground. Many of the ranges of sand are from 80 to 100 feet in

height, and their perfectly straight scarped faces are produced by

the violent westerly gales blowing the sand up the angle of repose,

and accumulating it in fountain-like showers over the rounded backs

of the sand-hill ranges.

It is worthy of note that the sub-aërial ripple-markings

superimposed on the greater undulations, occupy a reversed position

with reference to the prevalent winds, their long side facing the

wind, with the more vertical straight scarps on the lee side. The

moving sand in this case is drifted up the long side, and falls

over the scarp at the angle of repose.

_The Plain of Marocco._—We now turn inland; and before referring to

the details of the structure of the Great Atlas range, it will save

repetition if I briefly describe the general contour of the district

under consideration. Leaving the sand-hills, which die out inland,

and travelling westward, we gradually ascend over an undulating

country, in aspect somewhat like the Weald of Sussex, covered for

30 miles with Argan Forest, till we reach, at 60 miles inland,

the average level of the plain, about 1,700 feet above the sea.

The fundamental rock is here rarely to be seen; for the entire face

of the country is shrouded over by a sheet-like covering of tufaceous

crust (fig. 3), rising over hill and valley, and following all the

undulations of the ground. Only in river-beds and here and there by

the side of a hill were the fundamental beds visible, and seen to

consist of alternations of hard and soft cream-coloured calcareous

strata, dipping and undulating in various directions at low angles,

and so closely resembling the surface crust that it was difficult

to distinguish the one from the other, unless the surface crust

happened to lap unconformably over the scarped exposures of the

stratified beds. This singular deposit varies in thickness from a

few inches to two or three feet, and is taken advantage of by the

Moors for the excavation of cellars in the soft ground, over which

the crust forms a strong roof. These are termed _matamoras_, and are

used for the storage of grain, and as receptacles for burying the

refuse from the villages. The calcareous crust in the neighbourhood

of Marocco is extensively burned for lime. In section it presents a

banded agatescent structure, often much brecciated. It is impossible

it can have been deposited by any waterflow, as completely isolated

hills are shrouded over by it as thickly as the valley bottoms;

and the only satisfactory explanation of its origin I can suggest

is, that it results from the intense heat of the sun rapidly

drawing up water charged with soluble carbonate of lime from the

calcareous strata, and drying it layer by layer on the surface,

till an accumulation several feet thick has been produced. The rapid

alternations of heavy rains and scorching heat which take place

in the Marocco plain are conditions favourable to this phenomenon,

which is unknown in northern temperate climates.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.

Surface.]

[Illustration: Section.]

A familiar illustration of the same kind of action is seen in what

brickmakers term ‘limewash.’ A brick formed of marl containing

soluble carbonate of lime, if rapidly dried or placed in the clamp

in a wet state, will have on its upper surface, after burning, an

unsightly white scum or crust, by the accretion of soluble matter

driven upwards and outwards by the quick evaporation. Before we

left Mogador on our journey inland, we were told of great beds of

shingle covering the plain, and fully anticipated some interesting

drift phenomena; but these shingle-beds were found to be nothing

more than the broken débris of the surface tufa, covering the plain

for hundreds of square miles with stony fragments. Of marine drift

there is not a vestige, the few isolated patches of waterworn stones

and alluvial shingle being always connected with river valleys,

excepting only the huge boulder deposits of the Atlas hereafter to

be referred to.

About midway between Mogador and the city of Marocco, the monotony

of the plain is broken by a curious group of flat-topped hills,

which rise two or three hundred feet above its

[Illustration: FIG. 4.

‘Camel’s Back,’ flat-topped hills in the Plain of Marocco.]

general surface. They present straight scarped sides, on which are

exposed cream-coloured calcareous strata capped with a flat tabular

layer of chalcedony, which seems, in arresting denudation, to have

determined their peculiar and symmetrical form. In these we found no

fossils; and I am doubtful whether they are an inland extension of

the Miocene beds observed by Dr. Hooker at the ‘Jew’s Cliff,’

near Saffi, or are some members of the Cretaceous series, of which

there are sections on the coast north of Saffi and on the flanks

of the Atlas.

At this point the main boundaries of the plain come into full

view,—on the north a rugged range of mountains trending east and

west, which we estimated at from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height; and

on our right the great chain of the Atlas, rising 11,000 feet above

us and between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, bounds the view

to the south, framing-in the great plain, here some 50 miles broad,

which is lost as a level horizon in the eastern distance.

_The Atlas Range._—Commencing at Cape Guer, on the Atlantic

sea-board, the range, which at a little distance has the aspect of a

single ridge, averages at its western extremity from 4,000 to 5,000

feet in height, from which it slightly falls off in height for a

few miles, and then gradually increases in height as it recedes from

the coast. In the eastern part of the province of Haha the summits

probably attain to a height of about 10,000 feet. At a point about

60 miles from the sea there is a comparatively deep breach in the

range, through which runs the main road to Tarudant. Eastward of

that pass the projecting summits appear to lie between 11,000 and

11,500 feet above the sea to a distance from the coast of about

100 miles, and about SW. of the city of Marocco, where a second

depression occurs, affording a pass to the south, at an altitude of

about 7,000 feet. Immediately east of this, and due south of the

city of Marocco, the range for 30 miles in length presents a long

unbroken ridge, 12,000 feet in height, on which are deposited a

few isolated crags and peaks rising from 500 to 800 feet above the

general level; and it is doubtful whether this part of the chain

attains an extreme height of 13,000 feet. Still farther east the

ridge-like character is lost, the range becoming broken up into a

series of less continuous peaks (including Miltsin, estimated by

Lieut. Washington to be 11,400 feet in altitude, and supposed by

him to be the highest point in the chain) of diminished height:

beyond this, eastward, little or nothing is known either of the

altitude or character of the range, excepting that it trends NE. by

E. towards the southern borders of Algeria on the Sahara.

Rohlfs, in his journal of his overland journey from Marocco

to Tripoli, speaks of mountains to the east of Marocco being

covered with _perpetual_ snow; but this is a character which has

been erroneously attributed to the Maroccan section of the Atlas

range. When we arrived at Marocco in the first week of May, the

snow was limited to steep gullies and drifts—all the exposed

parts, including the very summit, being entirely bare. There

were, however, frequent storms, which intermittently covered the

range down to 7,000 or 8,000 feet; but it is certain that these

occasional falls would be rapidly cleared off by the summer heat;

and we came to the conclusion that there was nothing like perpetual

snow on any portion of the chain we visited, included in the section

(apparently the highest part) lying due south of the city of Marocco.

As seen from the city, the great ridge appears to rise abruptly

from the plain some 25 miles off; and so deceptive is the distance,

that it looks as though it were a direct ascent from the plain to

the snow-capped summit, even too steep to scale; but in reality

this wall-like ridge represents a horizontal distance of 15

miles or more from the foot to the summit. As we approached it, an

irregular plateau four or five miles wide was seen to form a sort of

foreground to the great mass of the chain, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet

above the plain, and 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level. This

is intersected by occasional narrow ravines, which wind up to the

crest of the ridge; and its face, fronting the plain, is for the

most part exposed as an escarpment of red sandstone and limestone

beds dipping away from the plain, and again rising from a synclinal

against the crystalline porphyrites of the centre of the ridge,

and unconformably overlying nearly vertical grey shaly beds with a

strike ranging with the general trend of the Atlas range. Against

the plateau escarpment rest enormous mounds of boulders spreading

down to the level plain.

These, then, are the general features of the chain of the Atlas and

plain of Marocco, the further details of which it will be convenient

to consider under the following heads:—

(_a_) Surface Deposits and Boulder Beds.

(_b_) Moraines of the higher valleys.

(_c_) Stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone Series.

(_d_) Grey Shales.

(_e_) Metamorphic Rocks.

(_f_) Porphyrites.

(_g_) Eruptive Basalts.

(a) _Surface Deposits and Boulder-beds._—Next to the Tufa crust

already described, which extends over almost the entire plain of

Marocco, perhaps the most remarkable feature in the physical geology

of the country is the enormous deposit of boulders that occurs in

the lateral valleys, and flanks the great chain on its confines

with the plain. Of marine drift there is not a trace; and alluvial

drift and valley gravels are very limited in their distribution,

being confined to the borders of a few insignificant rivers that

intersect the plain and the localities of occasional waterflows;

but as soon as the flanks of the Atlas are reached, new and distinct

drift phenomena present themselves. It was on our second day’s

journey from Marocco to the Atlas that the great boulder-beds came

under our notice, first in a valley leading up from Mesfioua to

Tasseremout, as scattered blocks of red sandstone, remarkable for

their large average size, many of them of from ten to twenty cubic

yards; but here the method of their disposition scarcely enabled

us to decide that they were other than stream-borne masses from

the higher ground. From Tasseremout we turned west, and at the

[Illustration: FIG. 5.

Boulder-mounds, skirting Atlas Plateau Escarpment. (Section.)]

mouth of a second valley, two miles from the village, suddenly came

upon a huge development of these Red Sandstone boulder-beds as great

ridge-like and very symmetrical masses with terminal faces three or

four hundred feet high, and, like the more scattered blocks NW. of

Tasseremout, intermixed with but a very small proportion of fine

matter. From this valley we turned out northwards, skirting the

escarpment facing the plain; and for more than ten miles no lateral

valley breaks into the cliff-like face; but below it the great

boulder-beds (figs. 5, 6) still occur in huge masses not resting

directly against the escarpment, but as isolated mounds two or three

hundred feet in advance, sloping down towards the escarpment in one

direction, and in the other rolling away in great wave-like ridges

and undulating sheets, which terminate at a well-marked line of

demarcation, just where the level portion of the plain commences. I

measured by aneroid the height of these mounds; and at one point

their summit was 3,950 feet above the sea-level, from which they

spread down uninterruptedly to the edge of the plain nearly 2,000

feet below. They bear a striking resemblance to the glacial ridges

or escars between Edinburgh and Perth; their mound-like structure is

distinctly visible from the city of Marocco, twenty-five miles off,

appearing like a row of pyramidal tali resting against the face of

the escarpment as though they had been cast down from its edge on

to the plain. The internal structure of the mounds also suggests

such a deviation from the

[Illustration: FIG. 6.

Boulder-mounds, skirting Atlas Plateau Escarpment.]

disposition of the boulders in layers sloping away from the

escarpment towards the plain; and on a nearer approach it is seen

that the individual mounds are not connected with channels or

valleys breaking through the escarpment.

The depression between the escarpment and the drift-mounds is a

remarkable feature, and suggests an entire change of conditions since

the boulder-beds were deposited. If they are a mere sub-aërial

talus, they should rest directly against the cliff face, and

the depression separating them must have been formed after the

accumulation had ceased; and yet no satisfactory reason can be

assigned for such cessation, if rain and river action were the only

operating causes. The form of the mounds in the valley west of

Tasseremout at once conveyed to me the impression that they were

of glacial origin; and the discovery of undoubted moraines in the

higher valleys strengthened my conviction that the boulder-mounds

and ridges flanking the Atlas plateau can only be satisfactorily

explained as the result of glaciers covering the escarpment,

leaving on their recession the intermediate depression.

(b) _Moraines of the Higher Atlas._—Kindred phenomena occur higher

up in the Atlas valleys, most notable in the case of unquestionable

moraines, commencing at the village of Adjersiman, in the province of

Reraya, at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Here we met with a gigantic

ridge of porphyry blocks, having a terminal angle of repose of

between 800 and 900 feet in vertical height, and grouped with

several other mounds and ridges of similar scale, all composed of

great masses of rock with little or no admixture of small fragments,

and completely damming up the steep ravine and retaining behind it

a small alluvial plain 6,700 feet above the sea-level.

We failed to detect any scratched blocks or striæ; but that

these ridges are true glacial moraines no one who has seen them and

compared them with other glacial phenomena would for a moment doubt;

and their interrupted occurrence at various heights is strictly in

accordance with the distribution of moraines in many of the Swiss

and Scotch valleys.

Lieut. Washington, in referring to the pointed mountainous hills

NW. of the city of Marocco, crossed on his homeward journey,

describes one of them as being ‘covered with masses of gneiss

and coarse-grained granite (? diorite), many of the blocks being

several tons in weight,’ and asks, ‘how got they there?’

‘If granite, the nearest granite mountains are at a distance of

twenty-five to thirty miles: can they be boulders?’ As far as my

own observations go, there was no rock _in situ_ in the part of this

range I visited near Marocco resembling granite or diorite; and in

connection with the boulder-mounds of the Atlas, the occurrence of

foreign blocks north of the plain of Marocco so far from the parent

source, is a circumstance of great interest.

(c) _Stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone Series._—A long

line of comparatively low and flattish hills, forming a plateau,

with an average height of about 4,500 feet above the sea, and 2,800

feet above the plain of Marocco, intervenes between it and the main

ridge of the Atlas. The edge of this plateau facing the plain is for

some distance an escarpment, exposing stratified beds of limestone

containing bands of chalcedonic concretions, underlain by grey

and puce-coloured marls. As this plateau is crossed from north to

south towards the Atlas ridge, its central line would represent a

synclinal, from which the beds rise northwards towards the plain

and southwards towards the Atlas; but it is locally broken and

contorted, and near Tasseremout the limestone beds stand up nearly

on end. South of the synclinal, _i.e._ between the centre of the

irregular plateau and the Atlas, great deposits of red sandstone

and dark-red conglomerate, interstratified with cream-coloured

shelly limestone, occur, which appear to be inferior members of the

series of limestones and marls exposed in the escarpment facing the

plain. Lieut. Washington, who ascended Miltsin to a height of 6,400

feet, describes hard red sandstone with an east and west strike

dipping 10° south, as occurring at this elevation, which is nearly

2,000 feet higher than we observed the Red Sandstone series in the

province of Reraya farther west, and also both in his approach

and descent from Miltsin of ranges of limestone running NE. and

SW. dipping 70° SE. with abrupt sterile sandstone mountains rising

above them. From the few obscure fossils, including an _Ostrea_,

I was able to collect from the limestone bands, Mr. Etheridge

considers that they are of Cretaceous age. They are, like the beds

of the plain, remarkable for containing great deposits of chalcedonic

concretions; but the latter may possibly be of more recent age. They

rest unconformably on the upturned edges of grey shaly beds, and

extend also over the porphyries that form the great mass of the

Atlas chain. They appear to have been deposited subsequently to

the porphyry ridge assuming its present hill-and-valley contour,

as little isolated fragments are seen clinging to the sides of

a narrow ravine leading out of the valley we ascended through

the province of Reraya to the Atlas. Their relation to the few

exposures of stratified beds in the plain is somewhat uncertain,

as no fossils were obtained in the latter, and there are no direct

connecting links; but, judging from petrological similarity, and

from the fact that Neocomian fossils occur in exposed beds on the

coast cliffs, and Cretaceous fossils in the beds forming the crest

of the plateau, it seems possible that an unbroken series occurs

from the cliff north of Saffi to the plateau skirting the Atlas,

representing the whole of the Cretaceous epoch; but it is also

open to question whether the level beds of the plain may not be an

inland extension of the strata of Miocene age from which Dr. Hooker

obtained fossils at the Jew’s Cliff south of Saffi.

(d) _Grey Shales._—At several points on entering the lateral

valleys of the Atlas, almost vertical shaly beds are crossed,

having a strike nearly east and west, corresponding with the trend

of the chain. They clearly underlie, and are unconformable to,

the Red Sandstone and Limestone series; and their almost vertical

position appears connected with one of the several upheavals

that have affected the chain. Of their geological age there is no

evidence, except that they are pre-Cretaceous. In places, as at

Assghin, they abound in nodules of carbonate of iron. Pale shales,

containing quartz veins, crop up near the village of Frouga,

in the plain south-west of Marocco, which may possibly belong to

this series; and if the porphyries forming the mass of the Atlas

are contemporaneous, they are probably interbedded with these grey

shaly beds. Lieut. Washington speaks of the occurrence of clay-slate

dipping 45° east between El Mansoria and Fidallah, and again of a

hilly country of clay-slate near the plain of Smira, and at Peira,

farther south; but it is impossible to say whether these beds are

related to the grey shales of the Atlas.

(e) _Metamorphic Rocks._—The most important development of

metamorphic rocks in the neighbourhood of Marocco is on the north

side of the city. In its immediate neighbourhood, three miles to

the north-west, a low rugged hill occurs, composed of a very hard

and compact dark-grey rock, containing knotted white concretions

elongated in the line of stratification, which dips from 50° to

80° south-west, the strike being north-west and south-east. The

whole of the north side of the plain is bounded by ranges of rugged

hills of similar form, and apparently rising from 2,000 to 3,000

feet above the plain. We had not an opportunity of visiting them;

but, judging from their outline, they are identical in formation

with the hill close to Marocco. We observed nothing in the Atlas

resembling it. Lieut. Washington, who crossed these hills on his

journey to Marocco at about the point I visited, and again forty

miles to the east, near the source of the river Tensift, on his

homeward journey, speaks of them as from 500 to 1,200 feet in

height, consisting of micaceous schist and a schistose rock with

veins of quartz dipping 75°, with a strike north by east and

south by west. The strike may vary a little at different points,

and, taking Lieut. Washington’s and my own observations together,

would average about north and south; and it is worthy of note that

these apparently ancient rocks are nearly at right angles to the

strike of the rocks of the Atlas chain a few miles to the south.

The only other metamorphic rocks that came under our notice

were:—first, white marble or metamorphic limestone, intercalated

with the porphyrites at the summit of the ridge of the Atlas south

of Arround; secondly, mica-schists, pierced by red porphyry dykes,

forming the mass of Djebel Tezah, a peak 11,000 feet in height,

and fifteen miles farther west, ascended by Dr. Hooker and Mr. Ball

after my return. It is possible that the mica-schists may be a

portion of the grey-shale series, metamorphosed by the intrusion of

the porphyry dykes. Lieut. Washington, on his first day’s journey

south of Tangier, refers to the occurrence of rounded schistose hills

about 300 feet high, strike north-west and south-east, dip 75°

south-west, containing mica-slate with veins of foliated quartz;

but I have no recollection of observing any such metamorphic rocks

between Tangier and Tetuan.

(f) _Porphyrites._—Of the eruptive rocks of the Atlas, porphyrites

and porphyritic tuffs occupy by far the most prominent position,

forming the great mass of its ridge.

On entering the lateral valleys, after crossing the vertical shaly

beds, great masses of red porphyrites and tuffs are met with,

associated with specular iron and occasional green porphyries. The

harder portions of the latter are seen as _Verde antique_ pebbles

in the river-beds; but we failed to detect this _in situ_. From the

large proportion of tuffs that occurs the porphyrites appear to be

interbedded, and are possibly contemporaneous with the vertical grey

shales to which they are adjacent. They are overlapped unconformably

by the Red Sandstone and Limestone series of Cretaceous age. The

late Mr. D. Forbes informed me that they bear a strong likeness

to the porphyrites of the Andes, of Oolitic age; but beyond the

fact that they were in existence and had undergone denudation into

hill-and-valley contour before the Cretaceous beds were deposited

over them, there is no certain evidence as to their age.

There may have been at least one or two subsequent intrusions of red

porphyrites, viz. of the dykes of Djebel Tezah, metamorphosing grey

shales into mica-schists, and of the dykes that break up through the

stratified beds of the plain east of Sheshaoua—which may probably

be more recent than the porphyrites of the Atlas, as they appear

to penetrate strata which extend over the denuded surface of the

Atlas mass; but I cannot speak with certainty as to the relative

age of the stratified beds and the porphyritic bosses which rise

up out of the plain.

(g) _Eruptive Basalts._—Of these we met with three distinct

species:—

(1) Black vesicular basalt (porous and compact pyroxenic lava with

olivine) on the coast near Mogador, and imbedded in the base of

the post-Tertiary concrete sandstone cliffs: but it was nowhere

seen _in situ_; and I think it possible that the fragments may have

been derived from the Canary Islands, which are only 70 or 80 miles

distant, or possibly from some point of eruption nearer the land.

(2) Amygdaloid green Basalt, which rises up in dykes, in many

places penetrating the Red Sandstone and Limestone series on the

flanks of the Atlas, and also piercing the diorite of the Arround

valley. We observed numerous dykes at Tasseremout, Tassgirt, and

Asni, south-east and south of Marocco city. Beyond the fact that

they are probably post-Cretaceous, there is no evidence as to their

age. From what we could see of their distribution, the whole range

of the Atlas seems abundantly intersected by these dykes.

(3) Diorite rises up in considerable masses among the porphyrites

in the valley of the Arround, due south of Marocco, but forms no

great proportion of the bulk of the ridge. Its intrusion may have

been contemporaneous with the dislocation and upturning of the Red

Sandstone and Limestone series overlying the porphyrites.

_General Summary._—It now only remains briefly to recapitulate

the order of sequence of the geological phenomena observed in the

plain of Marocco and the Atlas.

The oldest rocks that have been noticed are:—

(1) The ranges of rugged metamorphic rocks north of the city of

Marocco, and forming the northern boundary of the plain, respecting

the age of which, and the period of their upheaval and metamorphism,

there is no evidence.

(2) The interbedded porphyrites and porphyritic tuffs of the Atlas,

forming the backbone of the ridge, the age of which, and of the grey

shales with which they seem to be interbedded, is also uncertain.

(3) Mica-schists of Djebel Tezah, in the Atlas, south-west of

Marocco, pierced with eruptive porphyritic dykes, which may be

an altered condition of the vertical grey shales adjacent to the

interbedded porphyrites.

These rocks are our starting point, respecting which there is no

evidence of their age, or even relative age.

(4) We now come to a long period of denudation of the Atlas ridge,

and its sculpturing into hill-and-valley contour, before the

deposition of the Red Sandstone and Limestone series.

(5) The deposition over what is now the Marocco plain, of the

Cretaceous Red Sandstone and Limestone series (and beds possibly

of Miocene age), which also occupies pre-existing valleys in the

older porphyrites of the Atlas.

(6) The intrusion of diorite into the porphyrites and porphyritic

tuffs, probably accompanied by a further elevation of the Atlas

range, disturbing the stratified Red Sandstone and Limestone series,

throwing them into a synclinal trough, from which the beds rise

northwards towards the plain, and southwards towards the Atlas.

(7) A further long period of denudation of the Red Sandstone and

Limestone series, rescooping out the lateral valleys of the Atlas,

in continuation of the valleys that existed in the porphyrite ridge

prior to their deposition, and also denuding the beds in the Marocco

plain to the extent of at least 300 feet, leaving isolated remnants

as flat tabular hills rising above the present general level of

the plain.

(8) A further possible emission of red porphyrites through the

stratified beds of the plain, which may have been contemporaneous

with the eruption of the red porphyry dykes of Djebel Tezah, in

the High Atlas; but I could not clearly ascertain whether these

bosses really pierced the stratified beds, or were existing before

their deposition.

[Illustration: SKETCH ACROSS PLAIN OF MAROCCO TO WATERSHED OF

GREAT ATLAS

(Note _The Camels Back Hills & Frouga are West of the back of

section_)]

(9) A post-Cretaceous eruption through the Red Sandstone and

Limestone series of a multitude of dykes of amygdaloid basalt,

the age of which is uncertain.

The more recent changes commence with:—

(10) The formation of gigantic boulder-beds flanking the northern

escarpment of the Atlas plateau, and spreading down in great mounds

and undulating ridges from a height of 3,900 feet to the borders of

the plain, 1,900 feet above the sea, with a range in vertical height

of about 2,000 feet, and extending up the entrances of several of

the lateral valleys, as well-defined and symmetrical moraines.

(11) The formation of moraines at the heads of the Atlas valleys,

commencing at a height of 5,800 feet, and spreading up to the cliffs

of the Atlas ridge, to a height of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet,

with a terminal angle of repose 850 feet in vertical height.

(12) The formation of a plain of shingle behind the moraines,

at a height of about 6,700 feet, which seems to be the bed of a

small lake.

(13) The recession and extinction of glaciers in the Atlas range,

on which there is now not even perpetual snow.

(14) An elevation of the coast-line of at least 70 feet, represented

by the height of the raised beaches of concrete sand at Mogador and

other parts of the coast, which may possibly be contemporaneous with

the elevation of similar raised beaches on the coasts of Spain and

Portugal, and with the raised beaches of our south-western coast.

(15) A slight subsidence of the coast-line, now going on, with an

accumulation of extensive deposits of blown sand at Mogador.

(16) The formation of a tufaceous surface-crust over almost the

entire plain of Marocco, due to the drawing up to the surface, by

rapid evaporation, of water from the subjacent calcareous strata,

depositing, layer by layer, laminated carbonate of lime.

* * * * *

APPENDIX I.

MOORISH STORIES AND FABLES.

From much information that has been kindly furnished to us by

Mr. Freeman Rogers, a gentleman who was several years resident

in Marocco, and had become familiar with the people and their

language and manners, the following extracts have been taken for

the sake of the light which they throw on the condition of the

country. It being the main object of this volume to relate our

personal experiences, we have not been able to avail ourselves of

much information supplied to us by Mr. Rogers, and other competent

witnesses; but it has appeared to us that the extracts here given

form a useful supplement to the facts which came to our knowledge

during our short stay in Marocco, and will help the reader to form

a truer conception of its present condition.

The stories, which may be said to have a political character,

furnished to us by Mr. F. Rogers, all refer to events that have

occurred during the last twenty-five years, and are precisely

similar in character to others which were passing at the time of our

visit. They are accepted as substantially accurate by our informant,

and we see no reason to refuse them credence. They certainly tally

with the universal belief of the natives as to the conduct of their

rulers. Any one who is familiar with the chronicles of the Middle

Ages, who has marvelled at the deeds of ferocious cruelty recorded

of German petty rulers, or the more refined atrocities of Italian

princes, must sometimes have felt a wish to know what manner of men

they were who committed these deeds. To satisfy such a curiosity,

he cannot do better than pay a visit to the interior of Marocco. If

duly commended to their good offices, he will be received by

men of stately and courteous manners, prompt to display a lavish

hospitality, who will inevitably send him away with a favourable

impression; but before he has been many weeks in the country, he

will become aware that these amiable hosts are habitually guilty

of deeds of combined ferocity and treachery that equal, if they do

not surpass, those of the dark periods of European history.

The popular fables, which were taken down from the mouth of an

old Moorish story-teller, and literally translated by Mr. Rogers,

complete the impression derived from the fragments of contemporary

history. They all turn upon the success of fraud and force in the

affair’s of life. The moral, so to speak, of all is ‘woe to

the weak and the confiding;’ but admiration is mainly given to

those who supply the place of strength by successful perfidy.

_Abd el Saddock, Kaïd of Mogador, Duquallah, Abda, and Sous._[1]

On one occasion this Kaïd was sent to Sous by the Sultan

to reduce some provinces to submission. When arrived there,

a grand entertainment was given to him by the refractory Sheiks,

and immense quantities of provisions sent in to supply the guests,

among which was a large quantity of a particular dish of which the

Kaïd was known to be very fond, and this was all poisoned. The

Kaïd, suspecting from the Sheiks’ importunity for him to eat of

it that it was poisoned, ordered his soldiers to guard the doors

and let no one escape, and then called upon the Sheiks one by one

to partake of the dish. Most of the Sheiks refused to eat, and some

few came cheerfully forward at the Kaïd’s call; those who refused

were compelled to eat, and those who came cheerfully forward were

not allowed to eat; and so the Kaïd in one day not only got rid

of his enemies, but saved his friends, whom he rewarded by putting

them in the place of those who fell by their own treachery.

_Kaïd Boh Djemma._

Some short time after the news of the foregoing had spread over

the country, a revolt took place at Shedma, and many of the Sheiks

made themselves conspicuous by their opposition to the Kaïd, who

determined to get rid of all his enemies at one blow; he therefore

made peace with them, and all seemed well and tranquil for some

time. At last came the holiday _l’ashora_, or the day of the

Sultan’s tenthing, when an invitation was issued by the Kaïd to

all his Sheiks to appear at his entertainment; none dare refuse,

and so all went. The Kaïd had, in the meantime, prepared a large

room, into which he sent the Sheiks known to be his enemies, and

another into which he sent those known to be his friends. When

all had feasted until they could eat no more, the Kaïd quietly

ordered the windows and doors to be closed, the men to be bound,

burning charcoal to be placed in the room, and the doors then to

be built up, and all left to their fate. Nine days afterwards,

when the room was opened, nothing remained of all those men, some

twenty-two or twenty-three, but bones, attesting the fatal effects

of burning charcoal and the daring ferocity of the rats; except

one man whom the Kaïd pardoned, believing him to be innocent,

as his life seemed to be so miraculously preserved.

_What the Sultan means when he bestows a Wife._

The Kaïd of Shedmah, Boh Djemma, had distinguished himself

against some rebels who had risen against the Sultan, and the praise

bestowed upon him openly by his enemies in the hearing of the Sultan,

excited the suspicious sovereign’s anger and jealousy to such an

extent that he was determined to get rid of such a dangerous enemy;

in order to which he called for the Kaïd and praised his exploits

in the presence of all his great men, ordered him a suit of his own

royal clothing and a favourite horse, and promised him a wife out

of his own seraglio. The Kaïd rejoiced, and his enemies too: the

Kaïd, because he regarded himself as a favourite; and his enemies,

who were older and knew better, because that he was doomed. In a

few days the Kaïd was sent home and his new wife along with him

in great state, and in ten days more the Kaïd was carried to the

grave, he having died suddenly (poisoned by the Sultan’s female

executioner) in the night.

A similar occurrence took place with the Kaïd of Haha; but he had

a watchful and wise mother, who watched the new wife until she saw

her prepare a dish for her son, when she presented herself before

him, charged the new wife with her intended crime, and dared her

to eat of her own dish. The Kaïd’s eyes were opened, and he

compelled the Sultan’s lady, his new wife, to eat of the dish

which she had prepared for him, when she immediately died from the

effects of her own poison. This Kaïd ever after kept away from the

Sultan until, a few years ago, his evil genius prevailed on him to

obey the Sultan’s call, when he died within an hour after taking

supper with the Sultan.

_Abd el Saddock, Kaïd of Mogador, Duquallah, Abda, and Sous,

and his False Friend._

Some years since, the Kaïd of Mogador[2] (father of the Kaïd Hadj

Amara who entertained you when there) ruled over the provinces of

Duquallah, Sous, and Abda, and made a great deal of money during his

administration, and secured the love of all good Moors by his making

the Jews acknowledge their inferiority to the Moors. But suspecting

that his time to be squeezed by the Sultan had nearly arrived,

he determined to prepare for it, and so outwit a false friend, who

was an enemy of his, and the Sultan at the same time; in order to

which, he called upon his false friend, and invited him to dine with

him that evening in private as he had something to tell him. After

dinner the Kaïd told his guest that he was getting afraid of the

Sultan seizing him in order to get his money. ‘Now,’ said he,

‘I have a favour to ask of you, which is that you will carefully

preserve the treasure which I will show you, and when I am seized

upon take the keys of my house, but do not live in it, and when my

son Hamara knows how to use my money, then tell him of the box and

give him the keys; and further, I want you to swear that you will

never tell where I have hid my treasure, and that you will not tell

any one of what has passed this night.’ The false friend took the

oath with mental reservations, as would appear from the sequel. The

Kaïd then ordered four slaves to attend upon him, and all descended

to the cellar, where the money was concealed in a large strong wooden

box, buried in the ground. The box was then opened and was seen to be

full of silver and gold, &c. The Kaïd then had the box covered up,

and the false friend took his departure. After he went away, the

Kaïd returned with his slaves and had the money, but not the box,

removed to a really secure place, and had the box filled with bits

of stones and broken pottery and recovered over in the same manner

as it was before, when seen by the Kaïd’s false confidant; he

then had his slaves carried off to prison and put to death on some

pretext or other. The next day when the Kaïd’s confidant heard

of the slaves being dead, he knew it was to prevent their telling,

and concluded that it was the secret which he possessed which the

Kaïd wanted to guard, and that he alone knew of the secret of the

Kaïd’s wealth and its hiding place. In some short time afterwards,

an order came from the Sultan ordering Abd el Saddock up to Marocco;

upon which the Kaïd told his confidant of his trouble and begged

him to be true to his oath, blessed him, kissed him, and then went

to wait upon the Sultan. The Sultan upon seeing him ordered his

arrest and torture, accusing him of robbing him and his people, &c.;

upon which the Kaïd was carried off to the torture, when he kept

denying having any money, and being guilty of the charges brought

against him. At last the Sultan, losing all patience, sent him word

that he had received information, so the Kaïd had better speak the

truth at once, for such a one (the false friend) had declared that

he had a large box full of treasure, but was sworn not to tell of

its whereabouts. The Kaïd, therefore, must either tell or suffer

death by torture. At this the Kaïd pretended to be much alarmed,

and declared that nothing could be concealed from Seedna, so he

would confess the whole truth, and that what such a one said was

true and that it was concealed in such a place, and put there in

presence of such a one (the informer, the Kaïd’s confidant),

and that if the Sultan sent for it he would have it all. The Kaïd

was then put in prison, and notaries and soldiers sent for the money

under the guidance of the informer who was in great glee, thinking

that now his fortune was made and his favour with the Sultan secure;

but upon arriving at the cellar and the box being opened, nothing

but stones and broken pottery was found where there had been gold and

silver. Imagine the wretch’s horror as the notaries said he himself

must inform the Sultan, as they dare not do so; however, as there

was no use in lamenting, they returned to Marocco, and the informer

had to tell Seedna that there was nothing in the box but rubbish;

upon which the Sultan ordered the Kaïd to be brought before him and

demanded the meaning of such a thing. The Kaïd answered, ‘True,

our lord, it is that I did not oppress your people, and the money

hidden in that box was made by lawful means, and I reposed confidence

in my friend here, and left the money for my son; and so I told your

majesty truly that I had nothing, because it then became by my gift

my son’s money, and this, my false friend, has broken his trust,

robbed my son and Seedna, and then to cover his knavery, sought my

life by trying to turn our lord against me. I therefore beg that

our lord will make him confess what he has done with Seedna’s

money.’ The Sultan thought the informer simply wanted to make

him a fool to cover his knavery, and at once, in a passion, ordered

him to be flogged until he confessed. But as he could not confess

that he had taken the money and had none of his own to replace it,

the lash was continued until the wretch died under it. The Kaïd

was set free and restored to Mogador, and the informer’s son is

now assistant weigher at the Custom House, Mogador.

SIX MOORISH FABLES.

1. _Fable of a Hedgehog and a Fox._

Once upon a time a fox accidentally meeting a hedgehog addressed

him as follows, ‘I am much oppressed with thirst;’ to which

the hedgehog replied, ‘So am I, and I know a well where we can

drink.’ The fox then said, ‘Come along.’ They travelled on

till they reached the well where they found two buckets worked by a

pulley, one ascending whilst the other descended. ‘Now,’ said the

hedgehog, ‘I will go in first, and when I tell you, jump into the

other bucket.’ The hedgehog went down and had his drink, and then

shouted to the fox, ‘Now you jump in.’ He did as he was told, and

as he went down met the hedgehog coming up in the ascending bucket;

upon seeing which he said, ‘What does this mean?’ The hedgehog

answered thus, ‘It is the world goes round:’ and when he was

safely at the top, and the fox had reached the bottom, he called

down to him and said, ‘Those who want to kill me I catch them in

a trap, and to those who do me a good turn I do the same to them.’

2. _The Camel, the Hedgehog, and the Lion._

Once upon a time there was a camel who met with a hedgehog, and

the camel tried to trample on him. The hedgehog said to the camel,

‘Wait till I call my brother, he is able to kill both you and

me.’ ‘No,’ said the camel, ‘if he comes he will perhaps kill

me.’ ‘No, no,’ said the hedgehog, ‘if you wish to see him,

lie down on your belly or on your back, open your mouth and let the

flies come in, and appear as if you were dead.’ The camel said,

‘All right.’ ‘Well, well,’ said the hedgehog, ‘I will go

call my brother.’ The hedgehog went away to look for a lion, and

meeting with one, said, ‘Your servant, my lord; there is a wild

beast which wishes to eat me.’ The lion replied, ‘Will he eat

_me_?’ The hedgehog said if he were there he certainly would; but

he has gone away to get food, ‘but my lord, if you would like to

see what he has procured for his breakfast, come along with me.’

The lion said, ‘You go first.’ ‘Very well I will do so,’

said the hedgehog, ‘and when you follow and get near, roar with

all your might.’ The lion said, ‘All right.’ The hedgehog

said, ‘I shall go first.’ So away went the hedgehog, and said

to the camel, ‘Now, he is coming you lie still; don’t stir or

he will eat you.’ The camel said, ‘All right;’ and whenever

they heard the roarings of the lion, the camel said to the hedgehog,

‘Listen to the noise he makes while talking.’ The lion then drew

nearer and roared again; when the camel exclaimed, ‘In the name of

the most merciful God, is he going to eat me?’ The hedgehog said,

‘Don’t stir, don’t fear.’ The camel said, ‘All right.’

They waited till the lion came, when the hedgehog addressed him,

and said, ‘This is a morsel of the breakfast the monster is going

to eat.’ The lion and the hedgehog now bade each other adieu; and

when the lion had departed the hedgehog said to the camel, ‘Now

you may get up, but tell me which of the two is master.’ The camel

replied, ‘It is you, it is you; good morning.’ The hedgehog said

to the camel, ‘Are you going away?’ The camel replied, ‘Yes,

my lord, I am;’ and from that day to this they have never spoken.

3. _The Snake, the Hedgehog, the Man, and the Hunters._

The Hedgehog personates the Kadi.

The Hunters „ the Soldiers.

The Snake „ the People.

The Man „ the Sanctuary.

Once upon a time there were some hunters, who went out to hunt a

fairy embodied as a snake. The snake being pursued meeting with

a man passing by, said to him, ‘Will you afford me protection,

for there are hunters following, who want to catch me?’ The man

answered, ‘Very well,’ and allowed the snake to be concealed

in his clothes; presently the hunters came up to the man and

asked him whether he had seen a snake, to which he answered no,

and the hunters passed on in pursuit. After the hunters had left,

the man asked the snake to go down. The snake said, ‘No, and if

you attempt to force me down, I will kill you.’ The man said to

the snake, ‘Very well, let us go to the Kadi and hear what the law

says.’ The snake said, ‘Very well, come along.’ So they went

on till they came to the hedgehog, who was Kadi; and the man said,

‘Your servant, my lord; here is a snake that I have saved from

the hunters, and I have told him to get down, but he would not.’

The hedgehog addressed the snake, and said, ‘I will decide the

law for you, but first get down.’ The snake at once got down,

and then demanded of the hedgehog what the law said. The Kadi then

addressed the man as follows: ‘The snake is on the ground and

a stick is in your hand.’ The man, taking the hint, struck the

snake on the head and killed it.

4. _The Sheep, the Fox, the Lion, and the Shepherd._

Once upon a time a fox met a lion, and the lion, addressing the

fox, said, ‘Will you be my servant to catch sheep for me? The fox

said, ‘I will, if you will give me my share.’ The lion said,

‘No, and if you eat a single bit, I will kill you.’ ‘Very

well,’ said the fox, ‘if that is the bargain, I will agree to

go hunt for you.’ So away went the fox and hunted about till he

found some sheep, one of which he killed and ate. He then went off

to the owner of the sheep and said, ‘The lion sent me to hunt

your sheep for him, but I would not do so, and he came himself

and ate one, and I have run to tell you.’ ‘Very well,’ said

the shepherd, ‘you shall be the guard over my sheep, and let me

know when the lion comes;’ and the fox said, ‘All right.’ So

he waited till the evening, and then went to guard the sheep; and

whilst on guard he killed and devoured two more, and afterwards,

making a little wound in his own leg, he ran off to the shepherd,

and said, ‘The lion has come and eaten two sheep, and wanted to

eat me also; see the wound he made in my leg.’ The shepherd said,

‘I see it is true; I will put two men to assist you to guard.’

The fox said, ‘All right; I will go hunt for something to eat,

and then return.’ So he went off in search for the lion, and

meeting him, said, ‘I know where there are lots of sheep; they

are in such a place, you come in the evening to eat them.’ The

lion said, ‘All right.’ The fox then ran back to the shepherd,

and said, ‘The lion is coming to-night,’ and directed the men

who were to assist in guarding to conceal themselves, but before

doing so to bring a big sack into which the fox put a great stone,

and waited till the lion came. When the lion came he said to the fox,

‘Why have not you killed me a sheep?’ The fox said, ‘Because

I was afraid of a great monster that none but you can master, and

there he is in that sack; go in and kill him.’ The lion said,

‘All right,’ and went in, when the fox tied securely the mouth

of the bag, so that the lion could not get out. The fox then said

to the lion, ‘Have you found him?’ The lion replied, ‘No,

no, I have not, and it is funny I cannot get out.’ The fox said,

‘Push away, try and get out.’ The lion said, ‘I cannot.’

The fox said, ‘Probably the monster holds you there.’ The fox

said to the lion three times, ‘Can’t you get out?’ and three

times the lion replied, ‘I cannot.’ The fox said, ‘He who

wishes to kill me I catch him in a trap, and to him who does good

to me I will do good in return.’ So he went away and called the

guard, and said, ‘There he is, beat him;’ so they beat him,

and beat him till they were tired; and at last broke his leg. The

fox said to the guard, ‘Now let him out, he has broken his leg and

cannot escape;’ and when the lion got out the fox, addressing him,

said, ‘Now, which is master?’ The lion replied, ‘You are my

master;’ and the fox said, ‘Whoever wishes to eat me at one

time will try again,’ and turned to the men and ordered them to

kill him. After which the fox said, ‘Now that we have killed the

lion, good-bye;’ and the men replied, ‘Good-bye.’ He went

away, and waiting till evening, and returning at supper time, he

wounded the leg of each remaining sheep, and ran off to the owner

and said, ‘A monster bigger than the last has come and wounded

all your sheep.’ Previous to this the fox went to the market,

and bought a suit of clothes, and sprinkled them with the blood

of the sheep, and made it appear as if the big monster of whom he

spoke had also killed a man. He then said to the owner, ‘All your

sheep are spoiled; we had better kill them and make a feast.’ So

the shepherd killed the rest of the sheep, and ate them with the

fox; and when they had finished, the fox filled a bowl with dirty

water. The owner after he had finished his breakfast, said, ‘What

am I to do now? The sheep are killed.’ The fox said, ‘Now I

will tell you how it all happened.’ The man said, ‘How?’ The

fox said, ‘Not till you open that door so that the light is let

in;’ and then said quickly, ‘It is I who killed your sheep;’

he then threw the dirty water in his face, and made off.

5. _The Pigeon and the Monkey._

Once upon a time as a pigeon was passing by he met with a monkey. The

monkey said to the pigeon, ‘Come, let us play;’ and the pigeon

said, ‘Very well, what shall we play at?’ The monkey put up

a stick and proposed they should get up it. The pigeon agreed,

and the monkey said, ‘Which shall go up first?’ The pigeon

said,‘You.’ The monkey said, ‘All right,’ and tried but

could not manage it; upon which the pigeon immediately flew to

the top. The pigeon said, ‘Now it is my turn to say, ‘What

shall we next try?’ The monkey said, ‘All right.’ So the

pigeon challenged the monkey to tie his tail to his leg, and when

he had accomplished it, and untied it, he said, ‘Come, let us see

whether you can tie your wing to your leg.’ The pigeon said ‘All

right,’ and fastened his wing to his leg, but could not undo it;

and the monkey devoured him.

6. _The Hyena and the Hedgehog._

Once upon a time there was a hedgehog travelling in quest of

something to eat, and saw a hyena coming towards him with intent

to devour him. As soon as the hyena had reached him, he said, ‘My

lord, I observe that you are dirty and stand in need of a bath, and

if you require one I have a bath at your service in my house.’ The

hyena replied, ‘Yes, it is true, I am much troubled with fleas,

please come along and give it me; but first come to my house and

breakfast, and then we will go to the bath.’ The hedgehog said,

‘That is just what I want, for I am out now looking for food.’ So

the hedgehog went to the hyena’s house and had his breakfast. The

hedgehog then said, ‘Now come along and take your bath.’ The

hyena said, ‘All right.’ So they went to the hedgehog’s

house and the bath was heated to boiling. The hedgehog said to the

hyena, ‘Now jump into the bath, and scratch yourself.’ So the

hyena jumped in; whereupon the hedgehog closed down the lid, and

tied it with a string. The hyena said, ‘This is too hot for me,

I want to get out.’ ‘No, no,’ said the hedgehog, ‘it is

far better for you to be there than for me to be in your belly;

bawl away till you are dead.’

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: Abd el Saddock was the father of Hadj Hamara, the Kaïd

of Mogador, by whom we were hospitably entertained soon after our

arrival. The father appears to have cumulated important offices to

an extent now rare, if not unknown, in Marocco. As the Sultan’s

hold over the province of Sous is very feeble, and limited to

the occasional receipt of tribute, there is no resident Kaïd,

but the title is given to any official sent, _pro hâc vice_,

to represent the Sultan. But the provinces of Duquallah and Abda,

like the rest of the settled country, are ordinarily administered

by resident governors.]

[Footnote 2: The same of whom the first story is related above.]

* * * * *

APPENDIX K.

_On the Shelluh Language._

By JOHN BALL.

Jackson in his ‘Account of Marocco’ refers to the opinion of

Marmol, that the Shelluhs of Marocco and the Berebers (Kabyles)

of Algeria speak the same language, as altogether incorrect,

and positively affirms, on the contrary, that these languages are

quite distinct. In proof of this assertion, he gives a short list

of Shelluh words or short phrases, with the Bereber equivalents of

most of them, and concludes, from the differences between these,

that the languages are profoundly, if not radically, different. A

comparison of this kind is so notoriously misleading that no

importance would have been attached to the conclusion derived from

it, were it not for the fact that Jackson was well acquainted with

the Shelluh language, probably better than any other European has

since been; and that although not versed in comparative philology,

a science not yet come into existence in his time, he was a man of

good general intelligence who seems to have had frequent occasion

to compare the two languages.

The first person who was able to speak on the subject with any

authority was Venture de Paradis, a man of remarkable linguistic

attainments, who died prematurely while accompanying the French

Syrian Expedition in 1799. His grammar and vocabulary of the Bereber

language were not published until 1844, and his conclusions were

not until then made known to the world. It appears that in the

year 1788 two Shelluhs, one a native of Haha, the other from Sous,

went to Paris. Notwithstanding the difficulty of communicating with

men who possessed no written language, Venture de Paradis contrived

to obtain from them a list of Shelluh words and short phrases. He

was very soon after attached to a mission sent to Algiers, where

he was detained for more than a year. He made acquaintance with

two Kabyles, theological students, at Algiers, and, finding that

his list of Shelluh words corresponded very nearly with the Kabyle

equivalents, he devoted himself to the study of the Kabyle dialect

of the Bereber tongue, and prepared the grammar and dictionary

which remained for more than half a century unpublished. It might

be sufficient to refer the reader to the judgment of so competent

an authority; but a slight examination of the subject has afforded

such confirmation to the conclusions of Venture de Paradis as seems

to place them beyond the reach of controversy.

It must be remarked in the first place that, from the want of sacred

books or other written records among the races of the Bereber stock,

there is no one of the many dialects spoken by them that can be taken

as the classical standard to which others may be compared. French

writers in treating of what they style ‘la langue Berbère’

usually mean the Kabyle, spoken by most of the mountain tribes of

Algeria. The same language, with dialectic differences, is used by

many tribes of the Sahara; but throughout the larger part of the vast

region lying between the southern borders of Algeria and Marocco and

the Soudan, the prevailing tongue, though unquestionably belonging

to the Bereber family, deserves to rank as a distinct language from

the Kabyle. A slight examination of the latter shows that it has

been largely adulterated by contact with the Arab population, who

from an early period have ruled the open country and carried on all

commercial intercourse; while the characteristic grammatical features

have been in many respects obscured or effaced. On the other hand,

it appears from a recent publication by General Faidherbe[1] that

the dialect spoken at the south-western limit of the Bereber races,

adjoining the river Senegal, while preserving the chief Bereber

grammatical characteristics, has undergone much etymological

alteration, whether from contact with the Negro tribes, or from

inherent causes. As far as the available materials enable us to

form a judgment, it seems clear that the best living representative

of the Bereber language is that spoken by the Touarecks of the

Great Desert, and especially by the great tribes, the Azguer and

Ahaggar, who occupy between them a territory measuring at least

half a million of square miles. Of this, which is properly called

Tamashek’, a grammar was published by General Hanoteau in 1860,

and another by Mr. Stanhope Freeman in 1862. The Tamashek’ is

distinguished from the other languages of the same family by the

greater regularity and completeness of its grammatical system, by the

comparative absence of Arab words, of which the Kabyle shows a large

infusion; but especially by the possession of a system of writing,

rude, indeed, and imperfect, but not known to any other branch of

the Bereber stock. This privilege has not led to the growth of a

national literature; the written characters are used only for rock

inscriptions, for mottoes on shields, and occasionally for verses

on festive occasions; but their use is widely spread among men of

the higher class, and still more among the women, and, however

restricted, has doubtless tended to give comparative fixity to

the language.

Of the Shelluh tongue the materials available are, indeed, very

scanty. The most considerable document is contained in the ninth

volume of the ‘Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society,’ where

Mr. Francis Newman has given a literal Latin version of a story

written in Arabic characters by a native of South Marocco. It would

require far more knowledge of the Shelluh language and familiarity

with Arabic writing than I possess to enter on any examination

of that document; and there is the further difficulty that the

natives who learn to write their own language in Arabic characters

are usually those who also acquire the Arabic language, and in so

doing learn to adopt Arabic phrases and forms of speech. In the

following table I have introduced all the Shelluh words given by

Jackson and Washington, of which I have been able to find equivalents

in Kabyle or Tamashek’, and have endeavoured to adopt a uniform

mode of orthography. The vowels are intended to have the sounds

to which they correspond in most European languages, and not those

peculiar to England. _Th_ and _sh_ have nearly the same sounds as

in English; _gh_ before _e_ or _i_ has the hard sound; and _r’_

indicates the peculiar sound intermediate between the guttural and

the ordinary _r_, which European travellers indicate sometimes by

_r_, and sometimes by _gh_. In several instances synonyms are given

in brackets.

+------------+--------------+---------------+---------------+

|English |Shelluh |Kabyle |Tamashek’ |

+------------+--------------+---------------+---------------+

|Man |argaz |ergaz |ales |

| | | | |

| |{tamraut} |{themthout} |{tameth |

|Woman |{ } |{ } |{ |

| |{tamtout} |{themgart } |{tamethout |

| | | | |

| | | |{abaradh |

|Boy |ayel |ashish |{ |

| | | |{amaradh |

| | | | |

|Girl |tayelt |tehayalt |tamarat |

| | | | |

|Slave |issemgh |ismigh |akli |

| | | | |

| | |{eïss } | |

|Horse |ayiss |{ } |ayiss |

| | |{aghmar} | |

| | | | |

| |{aroum } |{aram } |{amnis |

|Camel |{ } |{ } |{ |

| |{algrom} |{elgroum} |{amagour |

| | | | |

| |{izimer } |{thiksi} |{izimer |

|Sheep |{ } |{ } |{ |

| |{djellib} |{thili } |{ekraz |

| | | | |

|Mule |tasardount |aserdoun | — |

| | | | |

|Boar |amouran |mourran |azibara |

| | | | |

|Cow |tafounest |tefonest |tes |

| | | | |

|Green lizard|tasamoumiat |tesermoumit | — |

| | | | |

| | |{eman} | |

|Water |amen |{ } |aman |

| | |{aman} | |

| | | | |

| |{tagora } | | |

|Bread |{ } |aghroum |tagella |

| |{aghroum} | | |

| | | | |

| | |{aifki } | |

|Milk |akfaï |{ } |akh |

| | |{aghfaï} | |

| | | | |

|Meat |ouksoum |aksoum | — |

| | | | |

| | |{tighliim } | |

|Eggs |tikellin |{ } | — |

| | |{thimillim} | |

| | | | |

|Barley |toumzīn |toumsin |timzin |

| | | | |

| |{tena } | | |

|Dates |{ } |tini |teini |

| |{tinie} | | |

| | | | |

|Green figs |akermous |tibaksisin | — |

| | | | |

|Honey |tamint |thament | — |

| | | | |

|Sun |atfoukt |tefoukt |tafoukt |

| | | | |

|Mountain |adrar (_plur_ |edrar (_plur._ |adrar (_plur._ |

| |idrarn) |ouderan) |idrarn) |

| | | | |

|Palm tree |taghinast |jat faroukt | — |

| | | | |

|Year |aksougaz |ezoughaz |aouétai |

| | | | |

|Morning |zir |ighilwas |ifaout |

| | | | |

|To-morrow |azgah |ezikka |toufat |

| | | | |

|Village |thedderth |tedert | — |

| | | | |

| |{tikimie } |{tighimi} | |

|House |{ } |{ } | — |

| |{tigameen} |{akham } | |

| | | | |

|Wood |asr’oer |esghar |asr’er |

| | | | |

|Dinner |imkelli |elles |amekchi |

| | | | |

| | |{ikf } | |

|Head |akfie |{ } |ir’ef |

| | |{akfai} | |

| | | | |

|Eyes |alen |ellin |tiththaouin |

| | | |(_sing._ tith) |

| | | | |

|Nose |tinzah |inzer | — |

| | | | |

|Feet |idarn |idaren | — |

| | |(_sing._ adar) | |

| | | | |

|Go |aftou |eddou |eg’al |

|(_imper._) | | | |

| | | | |

| | |{as } |as (come, or |

|Come |ashi |{ } |go) |

| | |{eshkad} | |

| | | | |

|Give |fikihie |efki |ekf |

| | | | |

|Eat |aïnish |itch |eksh |

| | | | |

|Call |irkerah |kera | — |

| | | | |

| | |{ghaouer} |{r’im |

|Sit down |gaouze |{ } |{ |

| | |{aguim } |{ekk’im |

| | | | |

|Good |egan ras |delâli |elkir r’as |

+------------+--------------+---------------+---------------+

It will be seen that, as regards thirty out of thirty-five

Shelluh substantives here enumerated, the Kabyle equivalents are

distinguished only by dialectic differences, and the same holds as

to at least four out of six verbs. It thus appears, as far as the

evidence goes, that there is as much verbal resemblance between these

tongues as between Italian and Spanish, or other allied languages

belonging to the same stock. The comparison with the Tamashek’

shows a less close etymological relationship. Out of twenty-four

substantives for which Tamashek’ equivalents have been found,

twelve only, and two only out of five verbs, show identity of

origin. But it is interesting to find indications that the Shelluh

retains a closer conformity to the rules of Tamashek’ grammar than

does the better known Kabyle language. In the very few cases where

a comparison is possible we find, indeed, absolute identity. Thus

the Shelluh word for boy (_ayel_), is apparently not found either in

Kabyle or Tamashek;’ but the feminine form (_tayelt_), for girl,

precisely follows the rule of Tamashek’ inflexion for gender,

and a slight modification of this (_tehayalt_) is found in the

Kabyle. A somewhat similar example is the word _tasardount_

for mule, this being the regular feminine form of the Kabyle

name, _aserdoun_. The word _adrar_ (mountain) forms its plural

_idrarn_ exactly according to rule, and both singular and plural

are identical with the Tamashek’ forms; while the Kabyle shows

dialectic differences, especially in the plural where the final

_r_ of the singular is lost. The last word in the list affords an

illustration of the liability to error incurred by a traveller

attempting to form a vocabulary of a language with which he has

but a slight acquaintance. _Good_ is here used in the sense of a

satisfactory answer to inquiries, pretty much as _all right_ is

adopted in colloquial English. Jackson was doubtless familiar with

the expression _egan ras_, which he gives as the Shelluh equivalent,

and which we also often heard from the natives; but the _ras_ of the

Shelluh is obviously the same as the Tamashek’ adverb _r’as_,

meaning _only_, or _exclusively_, which invariably follows the word

_elkir_ in the corresponding Tamashek’ reply, _elkir r’as_.

It has not appeared necessary to add to the table given above a

column for the corresponding words in the Zénaga language from

the vocabulary given by General Faidherbe. The amount of verbal

similarity between this and the Shelluh is very trifling, and the

distinguished author referred to was doubtless misinformed when

led to express a belief in their close connection.

The time is perhaps not yet come for forming a definitive judgment

as to the origin of the Bereber languages, and the precise nature of

the relations between them and the ancient language of Egypt on the

one hand, and those of the Semitic family on the other. The present

writer feels his own incompetence to grapple with questions of such

difficulty, and will merely refer the reader to the conclusions

recently announced by M. de Rochemonteix as those which appear to

carry with them the greatest weight.

In his essay, published in 1876,[2] the learned writer finds that

the ancient Egyptian and the Bereber possessed the same pronominal

roots, and employed the same methods for forming their inflexions

and derivatives; and he arrives at the same opinion with reference

to the inflexions of the substantives. He further asserts that the

modifications which time and external conditions have effected

are of a superficial character, and in no way conceal the close

grammatical affinity of these languages. Whether this affinity be

due to direct inheritance, or to common descent from a more remote

ancestral stock, is a question not touched by the writer, who bases

his conclusions on a study of two only of the Bereber dialects,

the Kabyle and the Tamashek.’[3]

With reference to the relation indicated by the conjugation of the

Bereber verb, in which the grammatical processes show a considerable

affinity with those of the Semitic languages, while the comparison

of the verbal elements shows no token of common origin, M. de

Rochemonteix expresses the opinion that at an early period of

their development, the Bereber people must have been brought into

contact with the Semitic stock, and may well have been struck by

the advantage of precision obtained by systematic conjugation of

the verb, and thus gradually moulded their own rude tongue on the

model supplied to them.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: _Le Zénaga des Tribus Sénégalaises._ Paris, 1877.]

[Footnote 2: _Essai sur les rapports grammaticaux entre l’Egyptien

et le Berbère,_ par le Marquis de Rochemonteix. Paris, 1876.]

[Footnote 3: It is of some interest to remark that the latest

conclusions of philologists on the affinity of the North African

dialects, substantially agree with the testimony of the earliest

writer who came in contact with them. The following passage is

taken from the original version of the description of Africa by

Leo Africanus, published by Ramusio in his famous work ‘Delle

Navigationi et Viaggi:’ Venetia, 1563, vol. i. p. 2 f. The Moorish

writer divides the indigenous white population of Northern Africa

into five races, enumerated by him, and then continues: ‘Tutti

i cinque popoli—i quali sono divisi in centinaja di legnaggi, et

in migliaja di migliaja d’habitationi, insieme si conformano in

una lingua la quale comunemento è da loro detta Aquel Amarig, che

vuol dir lingua nobile. Et gli Arabi di Africa la chiamano lingua

barbaresca, che è la lingua africana nathia. Et questa lingua

è diversa et differente dalle altre lingue: tuttavia in essa pur

trovano alcuni vocaboli della lingua araba, di maniera che alcuni

gli tengono et usangli per testimonianza, che gli Africani siano

discesi dall’ origine d’i Sabei, popolo, come s’è detto

nell’ Arabia felice. Ma la parte contraria afferma, che quelle

voci arabe che si trovano nella detta lingua, furono recate in lei

dapoi che gli Arabi entrarono nell’ Africa, et la possederono. Ma

questi popoli furono di grosso inteletto et ignoranti, intanto che

niun libro lasciarono, che si possa addurre in favore nè dell’

una nè dell’ altra parte. Hanno ancora qualche differenza tra

loro non solo nella pronontia, ma etiandio nella signification di

molti et molti vocaboli. Et quelli che sono più vicini a gli Arabi,

et più usano la domestichezza loro, più similmente tengono de loro

vocaboli arabi nella lingua. Et quasi tutto il popolo di Gumera’

(the Rif Country) ‘usa la favella araba, ma corrotta. Et molti

della stirpe della gente di Haoara parlano pure arabo, et tuttavia

corrotta. Et ciò aviene per haver lunghi tempi havuta conversazione

con gli Arabi.’]

* * * * *

APPENDIX L.

_Notes on the Roman Remains known to the Moors as the Castle of

Pharaoh, near Mouley Edris el Kebir._

Communicated by Messrs. W. H. RICHARDSON and H. B. BRADY, F.R.S.

Learning that a party of English travellers had visited these ruins

in the spring of 1878, and believing that they had not been seen

by any European traveller since Jackson visited the place early

in the present century, we were anxious for information respecting

them; and in reply to our request we received an account of their

visit kindly drawn up by Messrs. W. H. Richardson and H. B. Brady,

F.R.S. We have also been favoured with the loan of a sketch executed

by Mr. G. T. Biddulph, who formed one of the same party, from which

the vignette given p. 487 is taken.

After the notes were in the hands of the printer the appearance in

the ‘Academy,’ No. 32, p. 581, of a very full account of the

ruins by Dr. Leared, already well known as a successful Marocco

traveller, informed us that the ruins had been visited by him in

1877, in company with the members of the Portuguese mission to

the Sultan, and about the same time by some members of the German

Diplomatic Mission. Dr. Leared has fully succeeded in establishing

the identity of the so-called Castle, or Palace, of Pharaoh with

the Roman town of Volubilis, and has left little to be said on that

point. Nevertheless the ruins are interesting enough to make the

additional notes of other travellers useful and valuable; and we

have therefore availed ourselves of the greater part of the paper

kindly sent to us by Messrs. Richardson and Brady.

‘One of the points we had determined to visit on our tour

was the ruin known by the Moors as “Pharaoh’s Palace,” or

“Pharaoh’s Tomb.” The time of our journey was in some respects

unfortunate for visiting places held in veneration by the natives; we

were, in fact, staying in Fez at the time of Mohammed’s birthday,

when religious fanaticism exhibits itself, not merely in holidays

and powder-play, alternating with devotional exercises, but in

processions to the shrines of saints, and in sundry manifestations of

ill-will to unbelievers. We had considerable difficulty in obtaining

intelligible information as to the exact site of the ruins. Our

idea had been that they ought to have been accessible from the

road between Alcazar and Fez, striking off near Sidi Guiddar. The

interpreter and the mounted soldiers who were with us, overruled this

when it was proposed, and we therefore continued our journey. They

were probably right; but in our various conversations with them on

the subject they managed to convey the impression that either they

did not themselves know the precise locality, or that they did not

intend that we should visit the place.

‘During our stay in Fez we were joined by two Englishmen,

Messrs. G. T. Biddulph, and F. A. O’Brien, whose acquaintance we

had made in Tangier, and we proceeded to Mekinez in company. Mekinez

is a sort of Mecca to the Aissowies—the most fanatical of all

the sects of western Mohammedans—and the road was thronged with

devotees returning from their annual pilgrimage to the city of

Mohammed-ben-Aissa, their prophet. We were kindly received by the

Lieutenant Bashaw (Kaïd Hamo), who seemed desirous to forward

our views in every way in his power. He thought it necessary on

our departure to provide us with a soldier who knew the district

thoroughly, so that altogether we had a guard of four regular

soldiers. Thus furnished, the tone of our interpreter changed,

and we had no more obstacles thrown in our way.

‘We proposed to make the Roman station the first stage on our

road from Mekinez to Rabat. Whether it would have been better to

have taken it, as we had originally intended, on the way to Fez,

or subsequently, between Fez and Mequinez, it is needless now to

inquire; it certainly is a good deal out of the direct route between

Mekinez and Rabat, if maps are to be trusted. However, we got on

the way on March 23 a little after 10 A.M. The site of the ruin is

some fifteen miles north-west of Mekinez, at no great distance from

Mouley Edris el Kebir; both are on the southern slopes of one of

the ranges that constitute the Lesser Atlas. There was little of

interest by the way. Part of the road was on the horizon of a bed

of white, friable, microzoic, tertiary limestone, which forms a

conspicuous feature in the mountain strata of this district. This

is traceable for a great distance, and its exposure at one or two

points in the heights to the far east, we had at first mistaken

[Illustration: Roman ruins of Volubilis.]

for snow. After about four hours’ riding we had to diverge from

the main road; and here we learned that it would be necessary to

encamp at some distance to the south-west, in the last _douar_

within the government of Mekinez. The hill-country, it was said,

was so infested by a lawless set of Berebers that we should not

be safe out of the jurisdiction of the Bashaw. Before the evening

was out we had reason to know that these fears were not entirely

groundless. Leaving our servants with the luggage, therefore, we took

two soldiers and rode across country to the object of our journey.

‘The ruins stand on a little hill, a mile or more from the road. At

the base of the hill runs a bright little mountain stream. The ground

for many acres is strewed and heaped with squared stones, the débris

of ancient buildings; lines of wall-foundations appear in every

direction, and pillar bases in rows or squares, arranged as though

for the support of colonnades surrounding courts or _patios_. The

demolition is no doubt largely due to spoliation, but it is also

partly the result of the unstable character of the mortar, which has

to a great extent weathered out from between the stones. In some of

the walls still standing the stones appear to retain their places

by their own weight rather than by the help of any cement that is

left to hold them together. Two perfect Roman arches still remain,

and one or two nearly complete, but even these look as though they

might not long withstand the mountain winds.’[1]

+---------+

| A X C |

| P I A E |

| B S I |

| T I |

+---------+

‘In the present condition of the place it is impossible even

to guess what was the original ground-plan of the buildings. The

principal frontage appears to have had the west aspect, and there is

still the remnant of a sort of façade. Amongst the fallen stones of

this front is part of an entablature which has borne an inscription

in four lines. We could only find one stone of it; and this bore

the following letters, about eight inches in height. There were the

shafts of many marble columns amongst the fallen stones, and not a

few capitals, some simple, others more or less carved with volutes,

Ionic fashion, and one at least with the remnant of acanthus leaves,

as though derived from a Corinthian building. Some of the mouldings

had the common egg and arrow ornament, and there was a portion of

a narrow frieze on the western side with one of the common frets

of classic architecture formed of a double series of interlacing

[Illustration]

curved lines; but beyond these there was but little decorative

sculpture. There is clearly a basement storey of very large

stones lying underneath the present ground level. Here and there

the subsidence of the ground, or the falling in of the masonry,

reveals passages and what appear to be small rooms or vaults, with

solid, well constructed walls. In the short hour that circumstances

permitted us to linger, it was impossible to do more than observe

things as they stood. The mere removal of the loose stones would

do a good deal, and a very little excavation would do much more, to

indicate the history of the original structures, and we have little

doubt that many inscribed stones might still be found that would

help materially to the same end. On the north side of the western

arch and façade is a sort of enclosure formed of loose stones piled

together as a rude wall, and whitewashed. This wall has been reared

by pilgrims, each of whom has carried and placed a stone, according

to their custom, at what they regard as a “saint’s place.”’

Up to the year 1877 no traveller appears to have visited the ruins

since Jackson, who twice refers to them in his ‘Account of the

Empire of Marocco.’ In a note to p. 21 (3rd Edition, 1814) he says:

‘The father of the Sultan Sulieman built a magnificent palace

on the banks of the river of Tafilelt, which bounds his dominions

on the eastward; the pillars are of marble, and many of them were

transported across the Atlas, having been collected from the (Ukser

Farawan) Ruins of Pharaoh near the sanctuary of Muly Dris Zerone,

west of Atlas.’ In another place (p. 146) he says: ‘When I

visited these ruins in my journey from the sanctuary of Muly Dris

Zerone, near to which they are situated, in the plain below, the

jealousy of the (Stata) protecting guide sent by the Fakeers to

see me safe to the confines of their district was excited, and he

endeavoured to deter me from making any observations by insinuating

that the place was the haunt of large and venomous serpents,

scorpions, &c. A good number of cauldrons and kettles filled with

gold and silver coins have been excavated from these ruins.’

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: The vignette is taken from a sketch by G. T. Biddulph,

Esq.]

[Illustration: A NEW MAP OF SOUTH MAROCCO

BY JOHN BALL, F.R.S]

INDEX.

ABDA, province of, 73

— horses of, 73

Abraham, 79, 156, 209

Acacia gummifera, 99, 337, 393

Achliz, 172, 180, 181

Adenocarpus anagyrifolius, 175, 197

Adjersiman, 199, 203

Adonis, crimson, 16

Africa, tropical, mountain flora of, Appendix, 421

Agadir, 80, 374, 382

— plants from, 327

Agave americana, 10, 28

Aïn Beïda, halt at, 117

Aïn El Hadjar, 317

Aïn Oumast, 107, 108

Aïn Tarsil, defile of, 300

— rock dwellings at, 300

Aït, definition of, 184

Aït Mesan, 190

— camp in, 194, 237

— halt in, 193

— people of, 235

— valley, ascent of, 195

— vegetation of, 210, 424

Aizoon canariense, 161

Akassa, 373, 376

Akermont, plain of, 320

Akka, oasis of, 336

Alaternus, 10, 210

Algeciras, 58

Algerian flora, characteristic species of, 255

Allium nigrum, 27

Almond, 29, 39

Altitudes in Morocco, Appendix, 357

Alyssum montanum, 261

— spinosum, 219

Ambak, or Omback, 98, 195, 334

American aloe, 10, 28

Amsmiz, town of, 246

Amsmiz, governor of, 247

— position of, 249

— return to, 272

— valley, geological structure of, 254

— — head of, 258

— — vegetation of, 255, 424

— — view of, 252

Anagyris fœtida, 101

Ancient buildings, rarity of, 116

Ancient town, remains of, 116

Andrachne maroccana, 297

Andropogon laniger, 153

Andryala mogadorensis, 87, 340

Angera mountains, 5, 45

Anti-Atlas, 262

Antirrhinum ramosissimum, 245

Ape’s Hill, 5, 37, 45

Apteranthes gussoniana, 87

Aquilegia vulgaris, 268

Arab village, 24

Arabis pubescens, 48

Arar, 99, 389

Argan tree, 96, 311, 395

Arisarum vulgare, 342

Arround, 199, 214, 226

— our house at, 215

— villagers in trouble, 272

Artemisia Herba alba, 107, 117, 124

Arthrocnemum fruticosum, 114

Artichoke, wild, 322

Asfi, or Saffi, 73

Ash, southern species, 29, 210

Asperula hirsuta, 172

Asphodels, 17

Asphodelus cerasiferus, 28

— tenuifolius, 98

Asplenium Hemionitis, 20

— marinum, 23

— Petrarchæ, 295

Assghin, 180

Asteriscus imbricatus, 87

Atlantic rollers, 66

Atlas, Great, central range of, 200

— approach to, 161

— aspect of, 200

— elevation of chain, 227

— fauna of, 233

— first view of, 106, 108

— geology of, Appendix, 457

— height of, 121, 155, 227, 242, 263, 265

— hill forts of, 166, 241, 293, 297

— last view of, 321

— mountain flora of, 202, 230, Appendix, 423

— mountain tribes of, 184, 187, 233

— outer rampart of, 159

— outer ranges, vegetation of, 189

— panorama of, 154

— sterile aspect of Western, 296

— summit ridge of, 223

— topography of, Appendix, 385

— trees and shrubs of middle region, 177, 209, 251

— trees of upper region, 218, 267, 268

— view of, from Sektana, 242

Atlas, Lesser, 35

Atractylis macrophylla, 194, 302

Atriplex Halimus, 114

Aurora Borealis, 14

Avena barbata, 109

Azemour, 72, 120

BAD ROUB, gate, 137

Balansa, M., 82, 191, 280, 300

Barberry, 267

Barley, 197, 200, 216

Beaudouin’s map, 151, 276, 303, 384

Beaumier, M., 87, 129, 154

Bedis, Belis, 57

Bee eater, 30

Bellis annua, 17

Ben Daoud, Governor of Morocco, 126, 136

Ben Dreis, palace of, 137

Beni, definition of, 184

Beni Hassan, 9, 37

Beni Hosmar, 37

— ascent of, 41

— vegetation of, 41-47

Berberis cretica, 268

Bereber, or Riffian families, 46

Berebers, 84, 85

— their language, Appendix, 478

Blanco, Cape, 73

Boissier’s ‘Voyage en Espagne,’ 62

Boucerosia Maroccana, 87

Boulder deposits of the Atlas, 170, 458

Brady, Mr. H. B., Appendix, 485

Brass workers, 335

Brassica geniculata, 145

— a new species of, 285

Broom-rape, 118

Broussonet, M., 82, 164

Bulbo, 25, 33

Bupleurum canescens, 315

— spinosum, 219

CABO NEGRO, 51

Caillé, his journey from Timbuktou, 336

Calendula suffruticosa, 16

Callitris quadrivalvis, 99, 177, 323, 389

Calluna vulgaris, 18

Calycotome villosa, 42

— spinosa, 42

Camel’s back, ascent of, 111

Campanula dichotoma, 100

Canals for irrigation, 124

Canarians, of Pliny, 375, 377

Canary Islands, flora of, Appendix, 404

Cantin, Cape, 73

Capparis ægyptica, 243

Carex divisa, 115

Carob trees, 10, 29, 31. _See_ Ceratonia

Caroxylon articulatum, 114

Carstensen, Mr., 75

— meeting with, at Shedma, 311

Carum mauritanicum, 98

Casa Blanca, 67, 68, 69, 344

Castle of Pharaoh, Appendix, 485

Catananche cærulea, 189

Cedar, Atlantic, 46

Celastrus europæus, 177

— senegalensis, 177

Centaurea Clementei, 44

— incana, 308

— maroccana, 109

Cerastes, or el efah, 319, 340

Ceratocnemum rapistroides, 161

Ceratonia Siliqua, 169, 178, 183, 193

Ceratophyllum, 337

Ceuta, 7, 45, 54

Chalcedony, 112

Chamærops humilis, 17, 28, 101, 165

Charlock, 114

Cheiranthus semperflorens, 95

Chrysanthemum Catananche, 232

— coronarium, 26

Cistus ladaniferus, 18

— monspeliensis, 165, 322

— polymorphus, 165

— species of, 321

Citrus wood of the Romans, 390

Cladanthus arabicus, 107

Clematis cirrhosa, 28, 176

— flammula, 176

Cleonia lusitanica, 165

Coast climate, humidity of, 70, 92

Cock, sacrifice of, 223

Convolvulus sylvatica, 41

Coronilla ramosissima, 189

— viminalis, 164

Coronopus Ruellii, 123

Cosson, M., 3, 327

Costume, travelling, 78

Cotyledon hispanica, 113

Cuckoo, 32

Cucumis Colocynthis, 113

Cynara acaulis, 291

— eatable roots of, 292

— humilis, 28

— hystryx, 192

Cytisus albidus, 101

— tridentatus, 19

DAISY, blue, 17, 198

Dandelion, 114

Dar el Beïda, 67

Daucus maximus, 307

Davallia canariensis, 20

Demenet, province, 147, 152, 367, 394

Diet, bad effects of, 287

Diorite, 222

Diotis maritima, 23

Diplomatic conversation, 146

Djebel Aoulouse, 262

— Hadid, 313, 321

— — iron mines of, 317

— Kebir, 5, 9, 10, 17

— — vegetation of, 10

— Tezah, 252

— — ascent of, 259, 261

Djinns, or demons, 223

Douar, or native village, 24, 116

Douar Arifi, 96

Douerani, 280

— hospitable chief of, 281

Drosophyllum lusitanicum, 19, 22, 48

Dupuis, M., 67

Dust columns, 122

Dyris, ancient name of Atlas, 295, 375

EBENUS pinnata, 107

Echinoderms, fossil, 340, 451, 452

Echinops strigosus, 153

Echinospermum barbatum, 192

Echium modestum, 109

El efah, 340

El Fondak, 32

El Ghoreb, 82

El Graoui, governor of Great Atlas, 76, 125, 136

— house of, 146

— interview with, 126, 145

— parting with, 153

— present to, 148

El Hadj Hamara, 75, 471

El Penon de Velez, 56

Elæoselinum exinvolucratum, 286

— new species of, 107

Elder trees, 197

Ephedra altissima, 164

Erica, species of, 18

Erodium atlanticum, 289

— petræum, 45

Eryngo, 26

Escort, rapacity of, 174, 212

— trouble with, 182

Euphorbia Beaumieriana, 337

— pinea, 297

— resinifera, 337, 388

— rimarum, 297

Euphorbium, 163, 328, 388

Europa Point, 62

Evax Heldreichii, 232

Fanaticism, Moorish, 235

Fashook gum, 386

Ferula communis, 68

Fez pottery, 9

Fish, fresh water, 72

Flora of North Marocco, 18

Forests, neglect of, 177, 235

Forskåhlea tenacissima, 153

— Cossoniana, 153

Frankenia revoluta, 112

— velutina, 37, 340

Fraxinus dimorpha, 176

Fraxinus oxyphylla, 29, 210

Fringillaria Saharæ, 156

Fuertaventura, vegetation of, 417

Furbioun, 163, na, 84

Furbioun, 163, 388

GENISTA, species of, 320

— clavata, 28

— monosperma, or R’tam, 95, 124

— triacanthos, 19

Geranium dissectum, 114

Gers, river, 375, 377

Gibraltar, rock of, 60, 347

— voyage to, 1

Glacier, ancient moraine of, 199

Glaucium corniculatum, 100

Goats feeding in trees, 97

Gooseberry, 198, 261

Governor in chains, 37

Grass, esparto, 335

Gum ammoniacum, 386

— arabic, 337, 393

— cistus, 10, 18

— Sandrac, 177

Gurgouri, 243, 244

Guzula, 264

Gypsophila compressa, 107

HAHA, Kasbah of, 309

— Kaïd, cruelty of, 309, 330, 331

— — hospitality of, 309

— people, outrage by, 330

— province of, 99

— — disturbed state of, 298, 329

Hamed, 212, 334

Hand mills, 22

Hank el Gemmel, 111

Hanno, Periplus, 301, 372

Hanoteau, General, his Tamashek’ grammar, 430

Hardman, Mr., 52

Hasni, camp at, 194, 207, 237

— departure from, 239

Hay, Sir J. D., 2, 8, 9, 11, 64

Hedysarum membranaceum, 176

Helianthemum, species of, 322

— lasianthum, 58

— umbellatum, 48

— virgatum, 124

Helix, clusters of, 27

— explanata, 111

— lactea, 111

Hemicrambe fruticulosa, 41

Hercules, cave of, 22, 23

Hercules, straits of, 62

Hills, origin of flat-topped, 112

Hollar, engraving by, 13

Horticulture, Moorish, 105

Hunot, Mr., 127, 138, 338

Hypochæris radicata, 114

IBERIS, gibraltarica, 44

Imintanout, district of, 293

Iminteli, 253, 269

— Jew’s house at, 254

— night ride to, 269

Import duties, Moorish, 53

Indian fig, 27, 169

Information, difficulty of procuring, 149, 275

Instincts, barbarous survival of, 190

Interpreter, 25, 33

Iris germanica, 200

— sysyrhynchium, 17

— tingitana, 63

Iron mountain, 313

Irrigation, native skill in, 196

Isatis, 197

JACKSON’S ‘Account of Marocco, 80, 296, 384, 489

Jewish exports and industries, 49, 50

— festival, 50

— suppliants, 169

Jews’ Clift, 339

Jews, condition of, 157

— friendly, 254

Jordan, Mr., his journey to Sous, 341

Juba, King, 374

Juniperus oxycedrus, 210, 252

— phœnicea, 42, 55, 178, 210, 219

— thurifera, 218

KABYLES, 84, 85

— their language, 478, 479

Kaïd el Hasbi, 157, 173, 185, 245, 248, 334

Kelaart’s Flora Calpensis, 62

Keskossou, 93

Kief, 46

Koubba, 117

Koutoubia, tower of, 131, 142

‘LADY HAVELOCK,’ return on board, 338

Lanzarote, vegetation of, 417

Laraish, 26

Lavandula abrotanoides, 113

— multifida, 113

Leared, Dr., Appendix, 386, 483

Lempriere, Mr., his journey, 383

Lentisk, 10, 31, 42, 68, 210

Leo Africanus, 203, 264, 379, 484

— his account of the Berebers of Djebel Hadid, 318

Leontodon hispidulus, 145

Leopard, anecdote of, 14

Lighthouse of Cape Spartel, 21

Linaria heterophylla, 240

— maroccana, 240

— sagittata, 100

— ventricosa, 101, 197

Lithospermum apulum, 35

— fruticosum, 19

Lixus, river, 301, 372

Lizard, remarkable, 289

Locusts, destroyed, 158, 159

— ravages of, 82

Lonicera etrusca, 210

Lotononis maroccana, 176

Lotus creticus, 23

— marrocanus, 176

— Salzmanni, 23

Lowe, Rev. Mr., 82

Lupin, blue and yellow, 16

Lycopus europæus, 115

Lygeum Sparteum, 192

MACARONESIAN flora, Appendix, 405, 420, 444

Madder, 216

Maize in the Atlas, 200, 216

Malcolmia littorea, 26

— nana, 56

Mamora, forest of, 67

Map, French War Office, 36, 384

Marabout, 9

Marmol, prisoner at Fez, 378

Marocco, city, 125, 133

— — approach to, 125, 126

— — bazaars of, 153

— — behaviour of people of, 129, 145

— — carpets of, 153

— — current coin of, 141

— — difficulty as to lodging in, 129, 130

— — distant view of, 182, 290

— — elevation of, 153

— — gardens of, 143

— — unfriendly Governor of, 127

— — Great Square of, 134

— — interior of, 128, 129

— — map of, 150

— — plain of, 120

— — population of, 342

— — routes from, Appendix, 366

— — serpents of, 156

— — start from, 157

— — vermin of, 131

Marocco, empire, barbarism of, 12, 349

— — climate of, 15, 317, 345, 349

— — economic plants of, Appendix, 386

— — Flora of, compared with tropical African, Appendix, 421

— — geology of, Appendix, 446

— — native races of, 85

— — prisons of, 229, 230

— — prospects of, 350

— — resources of, 348

— — table of altitudes in, 362

— — wild animals of, 14

— — wild birds of, 156

Marocco, South, geography of, Appendix, 371

Marrubium, new species of, 249

Matthiola parviflora, 107

Maw, Mr., departure of, from Sektana, 243

— — his return to Mogador, 293

— — on geology of Marocco, Appendix, 446

Mazagan, 71, 72, 344

— European origin of, 72

Medicago suffruticosa, 232

Medical advice, native desire for 186, 187, 209, 241

Mediterranean, change of level of, 23

Melilla, 56

Mercator’s Atlas, 378

Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum, 123

Mesfioua, district of, 159

— Kaïd of, 162

Milhain, 196, 299

Miltsin, peak of, 121, 154

Mint tea, 93, 105

Misra ben Kara, 118, 119

Mogador, arrival at, 75

— climate of, 88-90, 327

— departure from, 95

— disturbances at, 329, 333

— exports of, 91

— final departure from, 338

— Governor, dinner with, 92, 93

— island, 80, 86, 450

Mogador, neighbouring country of, 81, 82

— return to, 325

— society of, 91

— town of, 80, 81

‘Mogador et son climat,’ by V. Seux, 91

Mona, or offering of food, 103, 108, 115, 198, 203, 292

Monanthes, new species of, 268

Montefiore, Sir Moses, 137

Montia fontana, 219

Moorish escort, 79

— government, defects of, 235

— ideas, 140

— stories, Appendix, 466

Moors, diet of, 288

— endurance of, 119

Moulai Ibrahim, 191, 192, 241

Mountains, native names for, 295

Mskala, 309

Mtouga, hostilities at, 305

— Kasbah of, 303

— return of envoy from, 293

— treatment of prisoners at, 305

Mules, sale of, 334

Muley Hassan, Viceroy of Marocco, 131, 135

Mzouda, 277

NEGRO Governor, 115

— moral sense of, 286

Notoceras canariensis, 123

Ntifa, province, 147, 368

Nurzam, 245

Nzela, 109, 110

OAK, cork, 67, 253

— evergreen, 20, 189, 253, 268

Observations for altitude of stations, 357

— requisite corrections, 358

Ocean currents, 345

Odontospermum odorum, 316

Oil mills, 190

Oleanders, 29, 120, 210

Olive, 10, 29, 31, 101, 114, 197, 204

— wild, 320

Onobrychis crista galli, 107

Ophrys apifera, 190

— lutea, 32

Opuntia vulgaris, 10, 28, 169

Orange, 10, 39, 114

Orchis latifolia, 176

— pyramidalis, 190

Orobanche, species of, 240

Osmunda regalis, 64

Ostrich feathers, 336

Ouanzerout, 195

Oued Bouregrag, 65, 67, 373

— Enfist, 191

— Ghaghaia, 192

— Kseb, or El Ghoreb, 82, 95, 100

— — affluence of, 303

— Moulouya, 35, 36, 376

— Nfys, 119, 191, 245

— Noun, 96, 245

— — course of, 276

— — source of, 264

— Oum-er-bia, 71, 72, 147, 151, 374

— — current of, 72

— Sebou, 67, 373

— Tensift, 96, 107, 114, 122, 152, 163, 191

— Tessout, 147, 367, 368

— Usbi, 281

— Za, 36

Ourika valley, 155, 168, 172, 175

— opening of, 172

— — vegetation of, 175, 176

PALMETTO, 17, 28, 42

Pan, 43

Papilio podalgyrius, 197

Partridge, red legged, 233

Peaches, 39

Peganum Harmala, 109

Periploca lævigata, 315

— græca, 316

Phaca bœtica, 55

Phelipæa lutea, 118

Phillyrea, 10, 210

Phytographia Canariensis, 406, 409, 419

Phytolacca arborea, 62

Picris albida, 117

— pilosa, 145

Pimpernel, blue, 16

Pinus halepensis, 256

Pirates, Riff, 57

Pistachia atlantica, 117

Pistorinia hispanica, DC., 113

— Salzmanniana, 113

Plantago major, 115

Platanthera diphylla, 22

Plants, climbing, 28

Pliny, on Marocco, 374, 375

Pliny, on Citrus wood, 391

Poisoning, 312, 332

Polybius, his voyage, 374

Polygala Balansæ, 165

— Webbiana, 48

Pomegranate, 10, 101, 114

Porphyry rocks, 197, 222

Portuguese buildings on the coast, 72, 73, 343

— exploration, 378

— in South Marocco, 167, 383

— maps, 379

Prickly pear, 10, 28

Prinsep, Mr. W., drawing of Great Atlas by, 155

Pseudosaharan vegetation, 109

Pulicaria longifolia, 160

Purpurariæ, vegetation of, 417

QUERCUS Ballota, 268

— coccifera, 10, 20, 189

— Ilex, 253

— lusitanica, 20, 189

— suber, 253

RABAT, 65

Ranunculus, species of, 43, 44

Ravensrock, 9, 10, 24

— view from, 10, 11

Reraya, 180, 184

— district of, 184

Reseda, species of, 291

Retam, 95, 106

Retama monosperma, 27

Rhamnus oleoides, 189

Rhaponticum acaule, 109, 242

Rhododendron ponticum, 18, 58

Rhus, species of, 320

— pentaphylla, 106

Richardson, Mr. W. H., Appendix, 485

Riff tribes, 84

— Mts. or Lesser Atlas, 2, 9, 35

Riffian families, 46

Rochemonteix, M. de, 483

Rock dwellings at Aïn Tarsil, 300

— — Mtouga, 307

Rogers, Mr. Freeman, Appendix, 468

Rohlfs, Gerhard (note), 46, 260, 385

Rosa canina, 164

— sempervirens, 41

Rubia tinctorum, 216

Rumex pulcher, 115

Rumex vesicarius, 293

Rye, 197, 200, 216

SAFFI, or Asfi, 73, 338

— view of, 73

Sagina Linnæi, 219, 231 (note), 445

Sallee, 65, 67

— pirates of, 65

Salomon ben Daoud, 150, 366

Salvia ægyptiaca, 245

— tricolor, 346

Sand hills, formation of, 325

Saxifraga Maweana, 42

Schismus calycinus, 123

Schousboë, 82

Scilla hemisphærica, 17

— maritima, 17

Scirpus Holoschænus, 115

Scorpions, 319

Sedum modestum, 177

Seksaoua, arrival at, 283

— hostilities at, 283

— rock vegetation at, 286

Sektana, plateau of, 240

Selaginella rupestris, 189

Senecio Doronicum, 45

— giganteus, 172

— (Kleinia) pteroneura, 83

Serrania de Ronda, 11, 45

Shad fish, 71

Shedma, arrival at, 101, 309

— camp at, 101

— Governor of, 310

— — poisonings by, 312

— — hospitality of, 102, 311

— Kasbah of, 104, 311

Shedma, province, 101, 110

Sheep, sacrifice of, 229

Shelluh or Shleuh, characteristics, 187, 188

— cloak, 216

— diet 203

— houses, 215

— language, 84, 91; Appendix, 478

— market, 251

— medical practice among, 209

— mountaineers, 216

— population, 187, 188

— serious demeanour, 297

— superiority, 233

— taste for ornament, 235

— villages, 179, 180

Sheshaoua, oasis of, 107, 114

Sibthorpia europea, 58

Sidi Boubikir, 127, 136, 138

Sidi Mohammed Hassanowe, 127, 138

— Moktar, 109

Sierra Morena, 18

Siss, river, 377

Sisymbrium Irio, 114

Smilax aspera, 28

— mauritanica, 28

Snake charmers, 30, 31

Snow, absence of perpetual, 291

— beds of, 201, 259, 260, 263

— storm on Great Atlas, 222

Sonchus oleraceus, 115

Souk el Ileta, 105

Sous, pass over Atlas to, 207, 226, 264

— river, 96, 301, 373, 379

— valley, 259, 264, 265

— view of, 264, 265

Spanish campaign in Marocco, 1859-1860, 52

Spartel, Cape, 5, 16, 20

— excursion to, 16

Sparteum junceum, 165

Spergula saginoides, 231

Spergularia diandra, 161

Stachys saxicola, 302

Stapelia europea, 87

Statice mucronata, 95

— ornata, 120

— sinuata, 23

Stellaria uliginosa, 219

Stipa tortilis, 109

Stork, 30

Strait of Gibraltar, comparison of sides, 58, 59

Succowia balearica, 42

Suetonius Paulinus, his expedition, 375

Sultan, body-guard of, 115

— letters of, 64, 75, 76

— orders of, 9

Suæda fruticosa, 114

TAGANAGURT, fort of, 297

Tagherot pass, 226

— height of, 227

Tagovast, 342, 379

Tamarix africana, 65

— articulata, 123

— gallica, 163

Tamashek’ language, 480

Tangier, 4, 64, 346

— climate of, 8, 63

— history of, 7

— interior of, 6

Tangier, return to, 24, 62, 345

— trade of, 8

Tapia, 104

Tarudant, 294, 341, 379, 383

— pass leading to, 294, 376, 383

Tasseremout, 159, 160, 165, 166

— fort at, 166

Tassghirt, 194

Tassilunt, camp at, 183

Tent, Alpine Club pattern, 134, 237

Tetuan, 2, 9, 39, 50

— Jew quarter, 39

— Jewish population of, 48

— start for, 25

— valley of, 37

Teucrium, species of, 286

— collinum, 106

— Polium, 106

Thevenin, Dr., 81, 87

Thuja, of the ancients, 390

Thymus Broussonneteii, 98

— maroccanus, 65

Tifinout, pass of, 226

Tilli, Professor, 291

Timbuktou, caravans from, 336

Touareggs, or Touarecks, 85, 480

Trachelium, species of, 296

Trafalgar, cape, 11

Trap, or basalt, 113

Trees, destruction of, 178

— scarcity of, 20, 296

Tres Forcas, cape, 56

Troglodytes, 301

ULEX bæticus, 47

VEGETABLES, absence of cultivated, 288

Vegetation and agriculture of low country, 27

Velez de Gomera, 56, 57

Venture de Paradis, on the Kabyle language, 479

Veronica Beccabunga, 219

Villages, ruined, 252

Vine, wild, 28, 216

Vitex Agnus-castus, 100

Volubilis, town of, Appendix, 485

WALNUT, 169, 178, 269

Washington, Admiral, 2, 384, 447

Washington, Admiral, excursion of, 168

— observations of, at Marocco, 155

— route of, 120

Water, colour of, 71

Webb, Mr. Barker, 41, 42, 44, 57

Wedding, Jewish, 337

Wheat, red-bearded, 182

White, Mr., 64

Williams, Sir W. F., 61, 347

Withania fruticosa, 101

XIPHION tingitanum, 63

ZAFFARINE ISLANDS, 57

Zaouia, 117

Zénaga, or Zanaga tribe (note), 377

— their language, 480, 483

Zizyphus lotus, 99, 106, 111, 119, 143

Zygophyllum Fontanesii, 339

LONDON: PRINTED BY

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE

AND PARLIAMENT STREET

Transcriber's note:

pg 22 Changed: _Plantanthera diphylla_ to: _Platanthera_

pg 28 Changed: _Genista elevata_ to: _clavata_

pg 41 Changed: by liberal expediture to: expenditure

pg 57 Added period after: destroyed by the Spaniards

pg 153 Changed: vary form the mean to: from

pg 225 Changed: sudden illlumination to: illumination

pg 255 Added period after: the general result

pg 260 Added period after: infer from his narrative

pg 310 Added period after: outbreak of hostilies

pg 331 Changed: plunged into water, to: water.

pg 332 Changed: under he protection to: the

pg 337 Changed: Wildenow to: Willdenow

pg 344 Changed: 90 F. to: 90° F.

pg 365 Added § to last cell of last row

pg 387 Changed: Lybia to: Libya

pg 408 Changed: Rhammus to: Rhamnus

pg 413 Moved: PAROLINIA from left column to right (genera) column

pg 425 Changed: Verbascum calnycium to: calycinum

pg 437 Changed: .07 to: 0.07

pg 494 Changed: Gibraltar, rock of, 60, 743 to: 347

pg 496 Changed: Plantanthera diphylla to: Platanthera

pg 496 Changed: Peganum Harmata to: Harmala

The changes suggested in the Errata have been made.

Multi-column tables without headers, that span more than one page

have been changed to single column.

Other spelling and formatting inconsistencies have been left

unchanged.