Second stay at Mogador — Plants obtained through native collectors
— Outrage committed by the Haha people — Story of the troubles
in Haha — Farewell presents to our servants and escort — An
unpunctual tradesman corrected — Exports from Mogador — Caravans
from Timbuktou — Jewish wedding — Voyage in the _Lady Havelock_
— Land at Saffi — Excursion ashore — Land at Mazagan —
Return to Tangier, and thence to England.
However pleasant were our recollections of the rough life we
had been leading for the past five weeks, we could not fail to
appreciate the physical comfort involved in a return to the habits
of civilised life at Mogador. A chair to sit upon, a table at which
to eat one’s meals, a hundred other things to which daily use
makes us quite insensible and indifferent, become luxuries to one
who has for some time been deprived of them.
We had no lack of occupation during the four days of our stay at
Mogador. The large harvest of dried plants collected during our
journey had to be put in order and safely packed for conveyance to
England. It had been our prime object to obtain as far as possible a
complete representation of the Flora of the territory which we had
been able to explore; and for that purpose we had made it a point
to carry away a specimen, or at least a fragment, of every species,
even the commonest, from each district that we traversed. In this
way our collections represent, not merely the constituents of the
South Marocco flora, but, to a great extent, the distribution of
the several species. Besides attending to this, our main object,
we did not fail to collect duplicates of most of the new and rare
species seen during our journey for distribution to the chief public
herbaria, and to the botanists who have illustrated the flora
of the Mediterranean region. To avoid chances of future error,
it was necessary to give much care to the labelling and packing
of our collections, which we could not expect to see again until
some time after our return to England. Fortunately our specimens
were nearly all quite dry, and in excellent condition; and we had
not to complain of the moist condition of the air which had given
us so much trouble during our first stay on the coast. The cool
breezes from the N. and NE., which make the climate of this region
so agreeable and healthful in summer, now steadily prevailed. The
air at this season is relatively dry and free from haze, and, as a
consequence, the daily range of the thermometer is greater than at
any other season. Yet, as compared with any other place we know,
the extremes are singularly moderate, and never exceed the limits
conducive to full health and enjoyment. The thermometer, observed
pretty frequently by night as well as by day, only twice rose during
our stay to 77° F. At about 3 A.M. it usually fell to 63° F.,
and on one occasion to 61°.
On our return we found awaiting us a small addition to our Marocco
herbarium. With the kind assistance of Mr. Carstensen, we had
arranged during our first visit that two natives, who had received
a first lesson in the art of drying plants, should start for Agadir
early in May, and should bring back whatever plants they could then
find in flower. The collection, which we now shared between us, was
not of much importance, including, as it did, but a single species
not found by us. We doubted, at the time whether the men had, as
they solemnly asserted, really reached the neighbourhood of Agadir;
but we have now reason to believe that the vegetation of the coast
region from Mogador southward to about the twenty-ninth parallel
of latitude is very uniform.
Since our return from Marocco our friend M. Cosson, with the active
assistance of the late M. Beaumier, has succeeded in engaging the
services of two native collectors, one of them a very intelligent
Jew, the other a Shelluh mountaineer. From the former large
collections from the country as far south as the borders of Oued
Noun, and as far east as the oasis of Akka, have been sent to Paris;
and the latter has contributed a few additions to the flora of the
Great Atlas, along with many of the species collected by us. With
his accustomed liberality, M. Cosson has sent us duplicates of
these fresh contributions to the flora of Marocco.
In the afternoon of June 4, we went to pay a farewell visit to
the banks of the Oued Kseb, which had been the scene of our first
botanical excursion in South Marocco. During the interval of
six weeks a great change had passed over the vegetation; most of
the annuals were completely dried up and had disappeared; but the
excursion was not altogether unproductive, and we were able to add
a few plants to our collections.
There remained a point of some botanical interest, which it was
very desirable to clear up before our departure. The curious
cactoïd _Euphorbia_, producing the Gum Euphorbium,[1] written of
by Dioscorides and Pliny, grows in the interior provinces of South
Marocco. The only modern writer who has given an account of it is
Jackson,[2] who, though no botanist, was a careful and conscientious
observer. In his account of the plant, and the accompanying plate,
we had been struck by some apparent discrepancies. The gum, as
he says, is obtained from the plant growing on the lower region
of the Atlas; but the same plant is, according to him, abundant
about Agadir, and is carried thence to Mogador for the use of
the tanners. The Agadir plant, however, he declares to produce no
gum. Further than this, in the plate annexed to his description,
the left-hand figure, giving a view of the whole plant on a reduced
scale, shows the thick fleshy branches, with four angles, as we had
seen them in the specimen given to Hooker by the Kaïd at Mesfioua;
while the right-hand figure, showing a fragment of the natural size,
represents the end of a branch, with numerous (about ten) projecting
fleshy ribs, beset with spines. Hooker came to the conclusion that
there were possibly two quite distinct plants known to Jackson, and
on returning to Mogador he proceeded to make inquiry on the subject.
Before long a native was brought to us who appeared to be well
acquainted with the Agadir plant, and who declared that it grows in
abundance about half-way between that place and Mogador. Upon this
Hooker became anxious to start at once for the purpose of personally
examining the suspected plant, and securing live specimens for
Kew. To this Mr. Carstensen felt it necessary to object. Matters,
as he informed us, had been getting from bad to worse in the great
province of Haha, which includes the whole sea-board between Mogador
and Agadir. Between the discontent caused by repeated acts of
unprovoked cruelty on the part of the Governor, and the results of
the war still proceeding between him and his neighbours in Mtouga,
the province had lapsed into a complete state of anarchy, and a
European attempting to travel at such a time would be exposed to
serious risk. It was reluctantly agreed by Hooker that our native
informant, with a companion, should depart for the spot, which
he professed to know, charged with the commission to bring back a
donkey-load of specimens of the living plant.
June 5 was a day of some anxiety in Mogador, and the news which we
received at breakfast brought full confirmation of Mr. Carstensen’s
apprehensions as to the disturbed state of the country. We had
already noticed that the camel-drivers arriving from Marocco, or
other places in the interior, are used, after discharging their goods
in the town, to litter their camels outside the wall at a place close
to the eastern gate. We now heard that during the preceding night
a party of marauders from Haha had pushed their audacity so far as
to attack and kill a camel-driver sleeping at the foot of the city
wall, and drive off seven camels that were in his charge. Whether
the guard at the gate close at hand slept soundly through the scene,
or had their own reasons for non-interference, we failed to learn.
This was one of a series of incidents that was not completed until
after our return to England; but as we were so directly concerned
in the results of the disturbances in Haha, and as we learned the
particulars in an authentic way from Mr. Carstensen, who had daily
intercourse with eye-witnesses and actors in the drama, it is as
well here to give the story as we learned it.
The Governor of Haha, the largest and most important province in the
empire, which long maintained its independence of the Sultan, had
hereditary claims to the government of the twelve cognate Shelluh
tribes who make up the population. Although miserably fallen away
from its ancient prosperity—in the time of Leo Africanus there
were six or seven populous towns and several fortified places,
where there is now nothing better than a village—the province
still furnishes much agricultural produce and live stock, and sends
hides, grain, oil, and other merchandise for exportation to the
port of Mogador. The Governor, at the time of our visit, had long
held his office; by liberal contributions to the Imperial treasury,
he had kept himself in the favour of the Sultan, while amassing for
himself vast wealth; and, according to the testimony of the French
naturalist, M. Balansa, confirmed by the consuls who had visited
him, he showed an appreciation of the advantages of civilised life,
and a desire to maintain friendly relations with Europeans.
Thus wealthy, powerful, and feared, this man might have maintained
his authority unbroken, but that by a continuous course of oppression
and cruelty he at length stirred up the spirit of resistance
amongst his own people. Vengeance, however atrocious, for acts of
revolt is so fully an admitted right of men in authority in Marocco
that it did not seem to count for much in the indictment against
him that on one occasion he inflicted on several hundred—some
said a thousand—insurgent prisoners the horrible punishment of
the _‘leather glove.’_ A lump of quicklime is placed in the
victim’s open palm, the hand is closed over it, and bound fast with
a piece of raw hide. The other hand is fastened with a chain behind
the back, while the bound fist is plunged into water. When, on the
ninth day, the wretched man has the remaining hand set free, it is
to find himself a mutilated object for life, unless mortification
has set in, and death relieves him from further suffering. But,
in addition to such acts as these, the Kaïd of Haha was accused of
capricious deeds of ferocity that revolted the consciences of his
people. Among other stories of the kind, we were told that on some
occasion when he was having a wall made round his garden, he happened
to see a young man jump over the low unfinished fence. Feeling in
some way annoyed at this, he had the unfortunate boy’s right foot
struck off, as a lesson not to repeat the experiment.
In such a country, where the danger of revolt is so terrible, the
discontent among the people of Haha might long have slumbered,
but for the occasion given by the war with the neighbouring
province of Mtouga. The spirit of resistance spread rapidly,
and it soon become apparent that the position of the old Kaïd
was becoming untenable. At last he resolved upon flight, after
previously securing the aid and protection of his neighbour, the
Governor of Shedma. Departing at night, with a train of women and
slaves, and with twenty-two mules laden with treasure, he reached
by daylight the borders of Shedma, just in time to forestall pursuit
from his outraged subjects. He escaped unharmed—although a bullet
intended for him by the pursuers struck in the hand his protector,
the Governor of Shedma—and continued his journey to the city of
Marocco. On reaching the capital, he at once placed himself under
the protection of the Viceroy,[3] and judiciously sacrificed half of
his wealth as an offering to the imperial treasury. He was received
with favour; a handsome house was assigned to him as a residence;
and for anything we know to the contrary, he may be still enjoying,
what is seldom granted to a high functionary in Marocco, a tranquil
old age.
When the flight of the Governor was noised abroad in Haha, the
people of the country proceeded, according to custom, to pillage
and destroy the castle of their oppressor. Among other things
brought to light were two skeletons built into the wall of one of
the inner chambers. The Kaïd had two nephews, who were, or might
have become, dangerous rivals, and it was in this way that he had
disposed of them.
Among the stores found in the _kasbah_ were several large earthen
jars of butter, and others of honey, and these furnished forth
a feast for the unbidden guests. The Kaïd was a thoughtful man,
and even in the hurry of his departure he had not forgotten his
disobedient subjects. The feast was not well over when the effects
began to be apparent, and a large number of those who partook of
it died in agony. The Kaïd had mixed a large quantity of arsenic
with the delicacies which he had been forced to leave behind him.
Meanwhile, as we had seen, the relations between the
people of Mogador and their neighbours had become very
unsatisfactory. Indignant at the outrage committed before our
departure, the Governor of Mogador thought it necessary to show
his strength and enforce respect. He accordingly despatched 200
men, under the command of our old friend Kaïd el Hadj, to demand
satisfaction for what had happened, and security for better conduct
in the future. The result was exactly what might have been expected
from the pious, but decidedly unwarlike, character of the leader. The
Haha people explained to El Hadj that they were more than a match
for him and his men, and that his wisest course was to return by
the shortest road to Mogador. The mind of the commander was always
open to prudent counsel, and he professed himself convinced; and
to save him and his men from trouble by the way they were escorted
to the gates of Mogador by ten men from Haha.
Policy, however, soon effected what valour had failed to achieve. A
virtual blockade was established, and all communication with Haha
suspended. This may have been inconvenient to the Mogador people;
but, at the worst, they could always obtain supplies from Shedma
by the road which we had followed from Aïn el Hadjar. To the
Haha people it soon became intolerable. Mogador is their chief
market. There they sell their provisions, and it is the Mogador
merchants who purchase their oil and hides and other exports. An
envoy was sent to re-establish friendly relations, and to entreat
the foreign Consuls to mediate in their favour. In token of entire
submission, they proposed that 2,000 men from the province should
come to make a peace-offering. The Governor judiciously thought that
number excessive—there was no knowing what these wild hill people
might do, if they fancied themselves masters of the town—and agreed
to receive a deputation of 200 representatives of the Haha tribes. On
the appointed day they came, driving before them several bullocks;
and, on arriving before the Sultan’s palace, proceeded to hamstring
and slaughter them as a propitiatory offering to the sovereign
authority, whereupon friendly relations were at once re-established.
While these events were undeveloped, the thoughts of the Mogador
people, European as well as native, were fully exercised, although
they felt secure from positive danger. A part of the day was
occupied by us in taking leave of our escort and attendants, and in
distributing among them presents and rewards, well earned by some,
and which could not be refused even to the less deserving. A great
change had come over the appearance of many of our men since their
return. Ambak and Hamed, who had made the journey on foot, with
none but the scantiest and the poorest clothing, now appeared fresh
from the bath and dressed in their best: Hamed looking especially
dignified in a snow-white turban, and formidable-looking dagger
stuck in his girdle. All seemed pleased and satisfied with the
very moderate sums awarded them—to which in the case of the
more deserving were added knives and other articles of English
cutlery. The soldiers who had travelled all the way from Mogador
received eight dollars (40 francs) each, while to the Marocco men
were given five dollars each.
When the rest were disposed of, there remained the two
officers. Towards Kaïd el Hadj, who had always maintained a friendly
and respectful bearing, we had none but kindly feelings. When,
in addition to the present of twelve dollars, Hooker handed him
a silver watch, a large sheath-knife, and a few smaller presents,
the old man was quite overcome; his eyes were filled with tears;
and he took leave of us with many pious wishes for our future
welfare. As regards El Hasbi the case was very different. He had
from the very day of our departure from Marocco done his utmost to
defeat our wishes and plans, and had not even the grace to veil his
opposition beneath a civil exterior. Hooker decided on writing a
letter to El Graoui, reporting our opinion of the conduct of his
subordinate, and sending this to the great man with a sum of ten
dollars, to be given to El Hasbi, or withheld, as he might decide.
The Haha troubles affected our pockets in an unexpected way. In
ordinary times there is a constant demand for baggage animals at
Mogador, and we were led to expect that we should sell at a profit
the mules that we had bought at Marocco. The usual price at Mogador
is from 8_l_. to 10_l_. for a serviceable beast. But in the present
state of the neighbouring country the roads were considered unsafe,
and traffic with the interior was almost completely stopped. We
were therefore considered rather fortunate in selling our team of
mules at about 5_l_. apiece.
In the course of the day we had a fresh illustration of native
manners that somewhat amused us, for we were no longer in the
frame of mind in which a slight abuse of authority could shock our
European ideas. The Mogador brass-workers have a high reputation
throughout Marocco, and during our first stay in the town we had
ordered a variety of articles from the man who was considered
the most skilful in his craft. The time fixed for delivering the
goods was fully a week before the actual date of our return. When
Mr. Carstensen heard that the order had not been executed at the
appointed time, he sent a message informing the Governor of the
fact; and the latter forthwith had the man thrown into prison,
and appointed a soldier to keep guard, and see that he did no other
work than that promised to us. After two or three days the prisoner
got some friend to intercede with Mr. Carstensen for his release,
and at the instance of the latter the Governor relented. To-day
the articles were all duly brought to the Consulate, and the maker
seemed well content with the very moderate payment agreed upon.
We should have gladly made our return voyage in the comfortable
steamer _Verité_, that had carried us from Tangier, but the date
of her arrival on her return from the Canary Islands to Marseilles
was uncertain. Meanwhile the _Lady Havelock_ steamer, plying between
the Marocco coast and London, had reached Mogador, and we resolved
to take our passage by that conveyance to Tangier.
Farewell visits and the packing of our collections occupied the
greater part of the day on June 6. At the wharf the port labourers
were busy in shipping large bales of esparto grass, which chiefly
comes from the adjoining province of Haha. This is now largely
consumed by paper-makers in France and England. It is said that
the greater part of what reaches England from Marocco is used in
the paper-mills that supply the ‘Times’ newspaper.
A caravan had lately reached Mogador from the Soudan, and we saw
several bales of ostrich feathers lying on the wharf. They were
imperfectly covered with coarse sacking; and the outer layer of
feathers, soiled and broken, seemed to be quite worthless, although
the total value of such a bale must be very considerable. Some trade
routes in Central Asia and elsewhere in the world involve terrible
hardships to those engaged in the transport; but it seems that there
is none nearly so formidable as that from Timbuktou to Marocco. In
several directions the way across the Great Desert is facilitated
by the occurrence of oases at moderate intervals; as in the way from
Tafilelt to Touat, and in the line followed by the Arab traders from
Tripoli to Murzouk. But throughout the greater part of the way from
Timbuktou to Akka there appear to be no true oases. Wells are few
and far between, and the supply of water often miserably scanty;
and even when a caravan escapes all the dangers of the long way,
and the bones of men and camels are not left to bleach upon the
burning-sands, the sufferings of the travellers must reach the
verge of human endurance.[4] At the present day the regular caravans
no longer attempt to reach Marocco or Fez by way of Tafilelt, the
routes over the Atlas being too insecure. The bad reputation of the
Oued Noun people is equally effectual in closing the coast route
from the south to Mogador; and the course adopted is by the oasis
of Akka, lying south of the Anti-Atlas range, and about 100 miles
east of Oued Noun. From Akka to Agadir the way rounds the western
extremity of Anti-Atlas, through a hilly and populous country,
which appears to be safe enough for any but Christian travellers.
Among other articles exported from Mogador is the brown gum arabic
of commerce, which comes chiefly from Demnet, and elsewhere on the
skirts of the Atlas east of Marocco. If native testimony is to be
credited, the _Acacia_ producing this gum is not different from that
which we saw growing abundantly in Haha and elsewhere through the
hilly country,[5] though we did not hear of any gum being exported
from the western provinces. It seems unlikely that this plant,
named by Willdenow _Acacia gummifera_, should be the only one of
a group of allied species extending across Northern Africa that
produces no gum. We were interested in finding that the parcel
shown to us, sent for export from Mogador, was packed in the dry
stems and leaves of a _Ceratophyllum_, a genus of aquatic plants
not hitherto seen in Marocco.
During the afternoon the two natives who were despatched two days
before returned safely from Haha, driving before them a donkey
laden with the Agadir _Euphorbia_. Hooker’s suspicion was at
once verified. The plant of the coast region is quite different
from the gum-producing species of the inland region, but in
appearance it comes near the East Indian species, _E. officinarum_
of Linnæus. Under the name _E. Beaumieriana_, the coast plant,
which has yet not been collected in flower or fruit, along with
_E. resinifera_ from Demnet, and another new species brought by
a native collector from the southern borders of Sous, has been
carefully described by our friend M. Cosson.
In the course of the evening we went by invitation to a Jewish
wedding, which was celebrated in the house of one of the chief
Israelite families in the town. The proceedings were quite
in accordance with the descriptions given by other travellers
in Marocco. The bride, who sat cross-legged, arrayed in gorgeous
attire, had regular features and large dark eyes, but seemed dazed
and stupified by the crowd, the noise, the glare of many lights,
and the heat of the close rooms, from which we were not sorry soon
to escape.
On June 7 the time for our departure arrived, and towards sunset we
went on board the _Lady Havelock_, accompanied by our kind host,
Mr. Carstensen, and by the late Mr. Grace, the representative of
one of the chief English mercantile houses engaged in the Marocco
trade, to whom we were indebted for numerous marks of attention
during our stay in South Marocco.
We found in Captain Bone, who commanded the _Lady Havelock_, an
old acquaintance; for it was in this steamer that, on our first
arrival, we crossed the Straits from Gibraltar to Tangier. He had
warned us not to expect much good from Marocco or the Moors, and
was always well pleased when in the course of conversation he was
able to extract any facts to confirm his unfavourable prepossessions.
The north wind had been blowing freshly all day, but, as usual, it
fell at nightfall. The moment for heaving the anchor had arrived;
we took leave of our Mogador friends, and soon found ourselves once
more gently rolling on the broad Atlantic waves.
On the morning of June 8 we were before Saffi. Mr. Hunot, the
British Vice-Consul, soon came on board, and we gladly accepted his
courteous invitation to spend the day ashore. Through his brother,
who had so kindly assisted us during our diplomatic struggle with
the authorities in the city of Marocco, Mr. Hunot already knew
of our journey in the interior, and kindly interested himself in
forwarding our wish to make the best use of our time at Saffi. This
place is considered to be much hotter in summer than Mogador; yet,
during an excursion of several hours, we found the heat much less
oppressive than it commonly is at the same season on the shores of
the Mediterranean.
The form of the land here at once dictated the best course to
be taken by a party of naturalists. On the north side a range of
lofty, almost vertical cliffs rises from the sea beach, and leaves
no space for any but a few marine plants. On the landward side of
the town the hills show gentle slopes, in great part under tillage,
and bare of trees. Along the shore southward the coastline is formed
by reefs of friable tertiary rock, rising from thirty to fifty feet
above the water’s edge, and forming a shelf of level land, in
great part overgrown with shrubs and small bushes. On the landward
side the hills rise at first with a gentle slope, and then more
steeply, until, about four miles from the town, they show a steep
escarpment of limestone rock, locally known as the Jews’ Cliff,
and this was fixed upon as the limit of our excursion.
Mr. Hunot, who had accompanied us, had kindly provided horses
for our use; but we found so many objects to interest us that the
greater part of the way was made on foot.
We had not gone far along the sea rocks when we found them
plentifully covered with a species of _Zygophyllum_ altogether new
to us. Though evidently allied to the _Z. album_, so common in Egypt
and elsewhere in North Africa, this differed at first sight in the
much greater size of the thick succulent branches and leaves. It
turned out to be the _Z. Fontanesii_ of Webb, a plant hitherto
known only in the Canary Islands. Another characteristic plant of
those islands was _Helianthemum canariense_; but this had already
been found by us near Aïn el Hadjar.
When we reached the foot of the Jews’ Cliff, which rises some
300 feet above the shelf of land at its seaward base, we resolved
to divide our forces. From fragments already picked up, and from
Mr. Hunot’s information, we were led to think that some of the
exposed beds of limestone must abound in fossils. Hooker resolved
to make a search; and, with Mr. Hunot, ascended the face of the
cliff, which is easy enough of access, and ultimately reached the
top. He was rewarded by getting good specimens of several fossils,
the most abundant being Echinoderms of a new type, since described
by Mr. Etheridge in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society.’[6]
Ball meanwhile was engaged in botanising on the sea rocks and
among the bushes at the foot of the cliff. In the former habitat
he found two species heretofore known only at Mogador, _Andryala
mogadorensis_ and _Frankenia velutina_. Among the bushes there
were no plants of special interest, but he nevertheless had an
unexpected encounter. While searching about among the bushes
a rustling in the dry grass caught his ear; he looked down,
and there, within a yard of his feet, was _el efah_, the dreaded
‘two minutes’ snake,’ nearly as thick and about as long as
a man’s arm. As the enemy was retreating, gliding gently among
the bushes, there was no occasion to move, and he watched it for
a few seconds till it disappeared. The glistening scales were of
many colours, forming a sort of mosaic on a ground of pale brown,
very much as represented in the plate to Jackson’s ‘Account
of Marocco.’ Even supposing that the virulence of the poison in
the bite of this snake has not been exaggerated by popular report,
it can scarcely be thought formidable to strangers unless they
happen to be botanists. It keeps habitually to the cover afforded
by the numerous small bushes of the coast region, and its form is
so ill fitted for active motion that it can only strike a near
object. The only danger arises from the chance of inadvertently
hurting it while moving about in the places which it frequents.
About 4 P.M. we returned to dine at the British Consulate. At
Mr. Hunot’s table we met Mr. Jordan, the son of a British merchant
engaged in the Marocco trade. He had been brought up in the country,
spoke Moorish-Arabic familiarly, was used to dress as a Moor, and had
established intimate relations with many of the natives. Emboldened
by custom, he had on one occasion joined a party of Moorish merchants
bound for Tarudant in Sous, and safely reached that place. Something,
however, either in his appearance, or accent, or gesture excited
suspicion; it was noised abroad that a Christian was in the town,
and an excited crowd soon gathered round the house in which he and
his companions were lodged. As the demeanour of the people became
more and more threatening, the travellers barricaded the entrance,
and prepared to defend themselves by force. After some hours,
as evening was coming on, the assailants became more determined,
and proceeded to pile up faggots round the building with the
obvious intention of burning the house with its inmates. Just as
matters were looking very serious, the Governor of the town made
his appearance with a party of soldiers; the doors were opened,
and the Governor said to Mr. Jordan: ‘You have a horse, and you
have from this till to-morrow morning to put a wide space between
you and Tarudant; you had better lose no time.’ Protected by the
soldiers, the Englishman rode out of the city, and made his way
towards Agadir by night, thence returning safely to Mogador.
Tarudant was once a large and flourishing city, and its gardens
were famous throughout Marocco; but, like the rest of the country,
it has fallen off from its former condition, and is now a poor and
decaying place.
It is clear that in that part of the empire increasing religious
fanaticism has accompanied declining prosperity. In the sixteenth
century Tarudant was resorted to by English and French merchants,
and it was the seat of active trade, and of manufactures in copper
which was extracted from mines in the neighbouring chain of the
Great Atlas. The population was apparently then altogether of the
native Berber stock. In the course of the continued efforts made by
successive Sultans to establish their authority in the Sous province,
the Moorish element became more and more predominant in the towns,
and to this we may reasonably attribute their subsequent decline.
When Leo Africanus travelled in Sous, early in the sixteenth century,
Tarudant was only one of many large and flourishing towns, and was
much surpassed in importance by Tagavost, a place whose very name
has disappeared from memory, and whose exact site is unknown to
modern geographers.
Mr. Hunot, who is well acquainted with the city of Marocco, estimated
the population at about 40,000, but admitted that there were no
materials for an accurate guess on the subject. Fully one-fourth
of the inhabitants had been carried off by the last visitation of
cholera, from which the coast towns, with the sole exception of
Mogador, had also suffered severely.
The main check to population in the greater part of the empire
arises, however, from the recurrence of famines. These sometimes are
caused by locusts, but are then of a partial and local character; but
those consequent on the occasional failure of the winter and spring
rains are not very unfrequent, and are of terrible severity. Among
the means resorted to at such times for supporting life, we
learned that the roots of a small plant of the _Arum_ tribe are much
used. This, known to botanists as _Arisarum vulgare_, is very common
throughout North Africa, as well as in many parts of the south of
Europe. It flowers in this country in winter, and the leaves wither
and disappear in the spring. The root, which is not so large as an
ordinary walnut, contains, as is usual in the Aroid tribe, an acrid
juice, which makes it quite uneatable in the natural state. This,
however, is easily removed by frequent washing of the pounded roots,
and the residue is innoxious and nutritive. The same process has been
applied with success to the common European plant, _Arum maculatum_,
as well as to many exotic species of the same tribe.
Among the many difficulties that beset commercial intercourse with
Marocco, the frequent interruption of internal traffic arising
from frequent petty warfare between neighbouring tribes is not to
be forgotten. A merchant may purchase a quantity of produce at what
appears a remunerative price; but if he be unable to have it conveyed
within a convenient time to the port whence it is to be shipped, his
bargain may turn out a very bad one. At Mogador we had left things
in a condition foreboding a complete suspension of communication
with the interior; we now heard that owing to some local troubles
the coast road from Saffi to Mogador was temporarily closed.
At nightfall we returned to our steamer, but found that we were to
remain for the night in the roadstead of Saffi. On the next morning
our obliging host, Mr. Hunot, again came on board, and we enjoyed
his agreeable conversation until the time came for starting on the
short run to Mazagan. We reached that place in the afternoon of June
9, and landed with Captain Bone at a wharf beside the Castle built
by the Portuguese. It was proposed that we should go through the
town, and visit the great cistern which was constructed during the
prolonged Portuguese occupation of this place, and which enabled
them to resist successfully the frequent sieges undertaken by the
Moors. We preferred, however, to make use of the short time at our
disposal in examining the vegetation near the shore on the north
side of the town.
The net result of our short excursion was not very large or
brilliant; but, in the case of a country so little known as Marocco,
the interest of his collections to a naturalist does not mainly
depend on the rarity or novelty of the objects he may happen to
meet. Each plant or animal carried away contributes an item of
information respecting the distribution of the organised world, the
value of which it is impossible at the time to estimate. Travellers
who happen to visit little-known countries would do well to remember
that, with the most trifling expenditure of trouble, they may make
useful contributions to natural science by preserving specimens of
even the most insignificant-looking objects, provided always that
these are afterwards placed in the hands of competent naturalists.[7]
We returned on board about sunset, but did not leave the roads of
Mazagan till about 10 P.M. When we came on deck next morning, June
11, we were nearing the coast opposite Casa Blanca, and cast anchor
soon after 7 A.M. We here found the _Sydney Hall_, belonging to the
same owners as the _Lady Havelock_. She had left London on June 2,
reached Casa Blanca on the 10th, and soon after our arrival started
again on her outward voyage to Mogador and the Canary Islands. We
had the pleasure of again seeing Mr. Dupuis, the active British
Vice-Consul at Casa Blanca; but as our stay was to be short, and we
had already made an excursion ashore, we did not now attempt to land.
During our return voyage our minds were once more exercised by the
peculiar climatal conditions of this portion of the African coast. It
did not appear that the cool temperature which had prevailed since
our return to the neighbourhood of Mogador on the 1st inst. was
considered in any way remarkable or unusual, although travellers
who have visited the city of Marocco at this season speak of a
temperature of 90° F. in the shade as not uncommon; and at Fez,
though in the immediate vicinity of high mountains, still higher
temperatures have been recorded. The direction of the wind on the
coast in summer, which to the south of Cape Cautin is constantly
between the north and north-east, is less uniform to the north of
that limit; but the prevailing sign is NE., and this no doubt is
the most important factor in determining the climate.
There is, however, another element that cannot be overlooked. When
we examine the chart exhibiting the oceanic currents in the
North Atlantic, compiled at our Meteorological Office, and fix our
attention on the portion lying between the 30th and 40th degrees of
latitude, and extending from the coasts of Portugal and Marocco to
20° of west longitude, we find that the currents throughout this
large area constantly move in a direction between SE. and SSE., with
an average velocity which increases from about five miles per day
in the longitude of Madeira, to at least ten miles as we approach
within 100 miles of the shores of Europe and Africa. This velocity
again diminishes with a nearer approach to land; and, from a few
observations, it would seem that along the Marocco coast the current
is deflected in a SW. direction, parallel to that of the coast line.
It is clear that in this continual flow of cool water from the
north-west we have a cause which cannot fail to produce its effect
on the climate of the adjoining coasts. It would be a matter of
interest to ascertain how far the direction and velocity of the
ocean currents are modified by the prevailing winds, which here set
in nearly opposite directions in winter and in summer; but an answer
to such an inquiry will require much time, and the accumulation of
a large number of careful observations.
We completed our cargo by taking on board at Casa Blanca considerable
quantities of maize, beans, oil, goat-skins and wool; and our
captain resolved not to touch at Rabat, but to run direct to
Tangier. Eighteen hours under steam carried us past Cape Spartel,
and in the afternoon of June 12 we lay off Tangier.
Hooker’s numerous and pressing engagements in England made him
resolve to forego the pleasure of revisiting the neighbourhood of
Tangier, and comparing the summer vegetation with that which we
had admired two months before; he therefore determined to reach
Gibraltar as soon as possible, with the hope of there catching
the Peninsular and Oriental Mail Steamer for England. Ball could
not deny himself the opportunity for a full day’s botanising on
ground so attractive, and therefore removed his baggage ashore;
while Hooker returned on board the _Lady Havelock_, which was to
cross the Strait during the night.
On arriving at the Victoria Hotel, we learned that Sir J. D. Hay
had taken up his residence at his charming villa on the Djebel
Kebir, but we found awaiting us a kind note enclosing a welcome
packet of letters from England. After a hasty dinner at the hotel,
the time for parting came, and Hooker got out through the sea gate
just before it was closed for the night. The mail steamer had left
Gibraltar for England on the same day that we returned to Tangier;
but on the following morning Hooker found the steamship _Burmah_,
bound from Bombay to London, about to depart from Gibraltar, and
after a rather slow voyage he reached the Thames on the morning of
June 21.
Ball enjoyed a capital day’s plant-hunting at Tangier. The morning
was given to the sandy tract near the shore and the course of the
stream that passes by the east side of the town. This now made a much
more brilliant show than it had done in the month of April. Many
fine _Umbelliferæ_ and _Labiatæ_, then barely in leaf, were now
in full flower and fruit. Of these the queen was _Salvia bicolor_,
a magnificent species, usually four or five feet, but sometimes
eight or even ten feet high, much branched, with leaves of varied
form from twelve to eighteen inches long, and great interrupted
spikes of large blue and white flowers.
The slopes of the Djebel Kebir, which had been so brilliant in the
spring, had now lost their splendour. The gum cistus, the golden
_Genista_ and _Cytisus_, the heaths, and many other ornamental
species had long since shed their petals, and had been succeeded
by new comers, most of them with comparatively inconspicuous
flowers. For the botanist, however, the fruit is often more important
than the flower, and the afternoon was not long enough to collect
all the interesting species that presented themselves.
On June 14 Ball crossed the Strait from Tangier to Gibraltar in
the ordinary small steamer. While awaiting conveyance to England
he was detained three days, which were made short and agreeable by
the hospitality of Sir W. Fenwick Williams, then governor of the
fortress, and returned to England by a steamer bound from Calcutta
to London, _viâ_ the Suez Canal.
Our large collections reached England by the _Lady Havelock_,
which arrived only about the end of June, and these, as well as
the cases containing sundry purchases made in Marocco, were all in
good condition.[8]
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: See Appendix D.]
[Footnote 2: Jackson, _Account of the Empire of Marocco_, p. 134,
3rd ed. London: 1814.]
[Footnote 3: The present Sultan of Marocco.]
[Footnote 4: The only European who is believed to have accomplished
the journey is Caillé. There seems to be no reason to doubt that in
some way he reached Fez from the south by land; but it is a question
whether his account of the direct route from Timbuktou to Tafilelt
is derived from native informants, or whether, in default of notes,
a defective memory led him into errors and inconsistencies that
throw a shade of doubt over his narrative.]
[Footnote 5: See Appendix D.]
[Footnote 6: See the description of _Rotuloidea_, in Appendix F.]
[Footnote 7: We have lately received a parcel not much larger than
an ordinary pocket-book, containing specimens, or fragments, of
about twenty plants, picked up by the commander of a Spanish ship
of war, who landed on the African coast south of Oued Noun. Most
of them are of great scientific interest and value.]
[Footnote 8: As a general rule packages sent by English ships
are rarely tampered with, unless they happen to contain wine or
spirits, in detecting which the British seaman shows a marvellous
readiness. When leaving England Hooker had carried out a nest
of wooden cases intended for sending home living plants. In the
innermost of these he had with his own hands placed two bottles of
brandy as a provision for the journey. The lid of the inner box was
screwed down, and this placed within the next, which was also screwed
down, and this again within another. When the cases, seemingly
untouched, were opened at Mogador, the brandy had disappeared.]