Departure from Mogador — Argan forest — Hilly country of Haha
— Fertile province of Shedma — Hospitality of the Governor
— Turkish visitor — Offering of provisions — Kasbah of the
Governor — Ride to Aïn Oumast — First view of the Great Atlas
— Pseudo-Sahara — Tomb of a Saint — Nzelas — Ascend the
‘Camel’s Back’ — Oasis of Sheshaoua — Coolness of the
night temperature — Rarity of ancient buildings — Halt at Aïn
Beida — Tents and luggage gone astray — Night at Misra ben Kara
— Cross the Oued Nfys — Plain of Marocco — Range of the Great
Atlas — Halt under Tamarisk tree.
The morning of Saturday, April 29, was fixed for our departure from
Mogador, and about 7 A.M. all were ready to start.
Mr. and Mrs. Carstensen, with a rather numerous party of the European
residents at Mogador, had arranged to escort us for a distance of
some seven miles; and it was agreed that, instead of following the
direct road to the city of Marocco, which runs about ENE. from
Mogador, we should make a detour nearly at right angles to that
direction, or about SSE., so as to gain a fuller acquaintance with
the Argan forest.
Our course lay in the same direction that we had chosen in our
first short excursion from the town. Between the belt of sandy shore
that is daily washed by the tide, and the sand dunes that rose in
undulations on our left, we rode past the mouth of the Oued Kseb,
and then began to ascend over sandy dunes, whereon the prevailing
plant is _Genista monosperma_, the R’tam of the Arabs, whose
slender silvery branches wave in the slightest breeze. Several
of the peculiar plants of this coast occurred at intervals, such
as _Cheiranthus semperflorens_, _Statice mucronata_, a curious and
somewhat ornamental species, and two or three kinds of _Erodium_. As
the track rises and recedes a little from the coast, the tertiary
calcareous rock that underlies the sandhills crops out here and
there, and the first Argan trees begin to show themselves. As
we advanced, the trees grew larger and nearer together, and as
we approached our intended halt, at a place called Douar Arifi,
they formed a continuous forest.
The Argan tree is in many respects the most remarkable plant of South
Marocco; and it attracts the more attention as it is the only tree
that commonly attains a large size, and forms a conspicuous feature
of the landscape in the low country near the coast. In structure and
properties it is nearly allied to the tropical genus _Sideroxylon_
(Iron-wood); but there is enough of general resemblance, both in its
mode of growth and its economic uses, to the familiar olive tree
of the Mediterranean region to make it the local representative
of that plant. Its home is the sub-littoral zone of South-western
Marocco, where it is common between the rivers Tensift and Sous. A
few scattered trees only are said to be found north of the Tensift;
but it seems to be not infrequent in the hilly district between the
Sous and the river of Oued Noun, making the total length of its area
about 200 miles. Extending from near the coast for a distance of
thirty or forty miles inland, it is absolutely unknown elsewhere in
the world. The trunk always divides at a height of eight or ten feet
from the ground, and sends out numerous spreading, nearly horizontal
branches. The growth is apparently very slow, and the trees that
attain a girth of twelve to fifteen feet are probably of great
antiquity. The minor branches and young shoots are beset with stiff
thick spines, and the leaves are like those of the olive in shape,
but of a fuller green, somewhat paler on the under side. Unlike the
olive, the wood is of extreme hardness, and seemingly indestructible
by insects, as we saw no example of a hollow trunk. The fruit,
much like a large olive in appearance, but varying much in size
and shape, is greedily devoured by goats, sheep, camels, and cows,
but refused by horses and mules; its hard kernel furnishes the oil
which replaces that of the olive in the cookery of South Marocco,
and is so unpleasant to the unaccustomed palate of Europeans. The
annexed cut, showing an average Argan, about twenty-five feet in
height, and covering a space of sixty or seventy feet in diameter,
with another, where goats are seen feeding on the fruit, exhibits a
[Illustration: ARGAN TREES]
scene which at first much amused us, as we had not been accustomed to
consider the goat as an arboreal quadruped.[1] Owing to the spreading
habit of the branches, which in the older trees approach very near
to the ground, no young seedlings are seen where the trees are
near together, and but little vegetation, excepting small annuals;
but in open places, and on the outer skirts of the forest, there
grows in abundance a peculiar species of Thyme (_T. Broussonnetii_),
with broadly ovate leaves and bracts that are coloured red or purple,
and the characteristic strong scent of that tribe. It is interesting
to the botanist as an endemic species, occupying almost exactly
the same geographical area as the Argan. As we afterwards found,
it is replaced in the interior of the country by an allied, but
quite distinct, species. Its penetrating odour seems to be noxious
to moths, as the dried twigs and leaves are much used in Mogador,
and found effectual for the preservation of woollen stuffs.
Not many flowering plants were seen in the shade of the Argan trees;
the only species worthy of note being a very slender annual Asphodel
(_A. tenuifolius_), and _Carum mauritanicum_—a plant somewhat
resembling our British pignut.
Meanwhile carpets had been spread under the shade of one of the
largest Argan trees, and a copious breakfast was displayed. Fully
an hour had been consumed between eating and conversation and the
parting cigar, when, bidding farewell to our friends, we finally
started on our road for the interior, under the guardianship of
the worthy old Kaïd who commanded our escort. Separated from our
interpreter and our luggage, we felt ourselves at first strangely
isolated; but thanks to the cheerful readiness of our Shelluh
attendants, and especially of Omback, who had been specially assigned
to Hooker, this impression soon wore off. Our men had been engaged
in unloading cargo from English ships in the port of Mogador, and
had commenced the study of the English tongue by picking up about a
dozen words from the sailors. They at once showed themselves anxious
to add to their store, and the result was that all, but especially
Omback, gained such a smattering of the language as served our
purpose for many of the ordinary purposes of life. ‘Catch him
flower’ became the ordinary way of desiring a man to gather some
plant by the wayside, and many similar phrases soon passed current
between us. The only term of disapproval in use with our men was
‘bloody dog,’ and this was not seldom applied to the mules
whenever they gave trouble, as those creatures are wont to do.
As we rode on, the Argan forest grew thinner, the trees were
gradually intermixed with other species, amongst which we noted a few
specimens of _Callitris quadrivalvis_—the _Arar_ of the Moors—and
before long we gained, from the brow of a low hill where the forest
ceased altogether, a rather wide view over a country not altogether
unlike some parts of England. The hills of the province of Haha rise
in successive undulations as they recede from the coast in sloping
downs, relieved at intervals by clumps of trees, and elsewhere
broken by masses of low shrubs. The calcareous rock, which seems
never far from the surface, is thinly covered over with red earth;
and patches of cultivation, chiefly barley or wheat, the former now
nearly ripe, here and there indicated the presence of man somewhere
within reach, but seemed to show that he plays a subordinate part
in fashioning the appearance of the country. The prevailing bush or
small tree is _Zizyphus Lotus_, whose double sets of thorns—one
pointing forward and the other curved back—were destined to plague
us throughout all the low country of South Marocco. The _Zizyphus_
was often quite covered over by climbing plants, that rise ten or
twelve feet from the ground. The most frequent of these, an _Ephedra_
and an _Asparagus_, do not appear to require any special organs of
attachment. Probably the intricate branches and complex spines of
the _Zizyphus_ render these superfluous.
Soon after this we first met bushes of one of the peculiar plants
of South Marocco, then little known, and of which we were not
able to learn much by personal inspection. The _Acacia gummifera_
of Willdenow is one of a group of allied species of which the
remainder inhabit Upper Egypt and Nubia, while one, at least, is
widely spread throughout Eastern Africa and Arabia. The tasteless
gum known as the gum-arabic of commerce is probably produced by
several of these species. Like its allies, the South Marocco plant
flowers late in the year, after the first autumn rains, and ripens
its pods during the winter. Hence, as seen by us in spring, without
flower or fruit, there was little to distinguish this from several
of the other forms of this group.[2]
Among herbaceous plants that attracted our notice was _Glaucium
corniculatum_ (here always orange, and never crimson as it is in
Palestine), with _Campanula dichotoma_, only just coming into flower,
whilst two or three degrees farther north, in Palestine and Syria,
it usually flowers three weeks earlier. More interesting, as being
one of the few local plants common to South Marocco and the Canary
Islands, was the _Linaria sagittata_ (_Antirrhinum sagittatum_ of
Poiret), very unlike any other toadflax in the form of its leaves
and its much branched twining stems that spread far and wide over
the low bushes.
Although the air was cooled by a pleasant breeze, the direct rays
of the sun were very powerful, and we were glad to make a short
halt for luncheon near a well, where a small ruined building of
rough masonry gave a narrow fringe of shadow. Resuming our route,
we soon after recrossed the sluggish stream of the Oued Kseb, whose
banks were fringed with _Vitex Agnus castus_, and with _Cyperaceæ_
not yet in flower. We took this at the time for one of the branches
of a river shown on the French map as falling into the Atlantic
north of the Djebel Hadid, some twenty miles from Mogador; but we
afterwards came to the conclusion that no such river is in existence.
At or near the ford is the boundary of the province of Shedma, much
less extensive than that of Haha, but apparently more fertile. The
soil now sensibly improved, and there were indications of more
careful husbandry. At the same time the larger portion of the surface
remained in a state of nature, and gratified our botanical appetites
by a display of many novelties. The varied species of _Genista_, that
are so conspicuous in North Marocco and the Spanish peninsula, were
here little seen, but are replaced by several allied genera. _Cytisus
albidus_ and _Anagyris fœtida_ are especially prominent. _Withania
fruticosa_, a curious Solanaceous shrub, which we had already seen
near Casa Blanca and during the morning ride, here became extremely
common; but what most interested us was _Linaria ventricosa_ of
Cosson, a large species, with stiff erect branches three or four
feet in height, first found in the adjoining province of Haha by
M. Balansa, and which we afterwards saw to be widely spread through
South Marocco, and one of the characteristic features of the flora.
The dwarf fan-palm (_Chamærops humilis_, or palmetto of the
Spaniards), much less common in Marocco than it is in the hotter
parts of Southern Europe, was here rather abundant, perhaps because
it is one of the few plants that the locusts are unable or unwilling
to devour.
As we rode onward, gradually ascending over a gently undulating
country, this became constantly more productive. In two or three
places the people were cutting tolerable crops of ripe corn; the
olive, fig, and pomegranate became frequent, and for the first
and last time we saw the former tree cultivated with care, pruned,
and apparently manured.
The sun had just set when we at length reached our camp outside the
large castle of the Governor of Shedma, and found our interpreter
and other attendants anxiously awaiting our arrival. The tents were
already pitched, and our heavy luggage was in its place. We should
have been glad to eat a moderate repast in peace, lay out the plants
collected during the day, and retire to rest; but that would have
been nowise suitable to the dignity of a party travelling under
the especial protection of the Sultan, and whose importance had
doubtless been exaggerated to the utmost by the inventive talents
of our interpreter. In the absence of the Governor, his son, a
stout overfed man of forty, welcomed us on our arrival, and invited
us to dine in the _kasbah_, and of course courtesy required us to
accept the invitation. After a brief toilet, we proceeded to enter
the castle, and were led through open spaces to the inner building,
which forms the dwelling of the Governor, and then through a court,
with flower-plots in the centre, to a large and handsome hall, where
we were to be entertained. As usual, there was little furniture,
save several showy Rabat carpets, but we noticed three or four
ornamental French timepieces in a recess where it would appear
that the Governor or his son were used to sleep. Besides our host,
there was present a grave man whose features differed much from the
ordinary Moorish type. He turned out to be a Turk who had already
passed several months as a guest in the Governor’s castle. We never
understood accurately what had brought him so far from Istamboul;
but we were led to believe that he had come on some informal mission,
and that its traditional jealousy of foreigners, nowise confined
to Christians, had led the Moorish Court to interpose obstacles in
the way of his advance into the country.
After a quarter of an hour’s interchange of civil speeches,
conversation began to flag; but the Governor’s cook, who perhaps
wished to display his professional skill on the occasion, was yet far
from completing his operations. Quite an hour passed, we were tired
and sleepy, and our fat host showed no talent for conversation,
so that the time hung heavily enough until the usual preface to
dinner, green tea, was introduced. Doubtless the entertainment was
everything that a Moorish connoisseur would have thought refined and
exquisite. Orange-flower water was provided for washing the fingers,
and incense was burned at the beginning of the repast. Our host
was attentive enough to pick out and present to us choice pieces
of meat or vegetable from the dishes that followed each other in
slow order, but he fortunately did not think it necessary to show
the utmost mark of hospitable attention by taking an especially
delicate morsel from his own mouth and thrusting it into that of a
guest. It was quite ten o’clock when, after further potations of
green tea, we returned to our tents. Presently Hooker was requested,
through Abraham, our interpreter, to receive the _mona_, or offering
of food, which, in accordance with the Sultan’s order, was to
be provided at each place where we stopped on our journey. The
_mona_ on this occasion befitted the dignity of the Governor of
an important province rather than the wants of three travellers
who had just been abundantly fed, and whose retinue could not,
with the best intentions, consume one half of the articles supplied.
Opposite the door of our large tent a number of the Governor’s
servants appeared, the whole group being lit up by torchlight. First,
five live sheep were dragged forward, then twenty fowls, then
followed a large hollow dish filled with eggs. To these succeeded a
very large earthen jar of butter, and another of honey, a package of
green tea, four loaves of sugar, candles of French manufacture, which
are largely imported, and finally corn for our horses and mules. As
if all this were not enough, there then advanced a procession of
men, carrying the usual large dishes with beehive covers, each of
which in turn was laid down before Hooker. It may be here mentioned
that the presentation of _mona_ was henceforward a daily ceremony,
repeated every evening, some time after our arrival in camp. The
requisition was made by the soldiers of our escort upon the local
authority, whether a governor or a mere village sheik; and this
was a part of their duties which they performed with unfailing zeal
and punctuality. On such an occasion as the present we had no fear
of pressing too hardly on the donors of the _mona_; but in poor
places, and especially in the valleys of the Great Atlas, we had
an unpleasant feeling that the exorbitant demands of our rapacious
escort imposed a heavy tax on the limited means of the population.
Struggling against sleep, we diligently worked at our plants till
long past midnight, and then, at length, sought rest after our
first day’s journey in South Marocco. On the morning of April
30, we were up betimes, and had an opportunity of viewing the
_kasbah_. It is a large pile of building, enclosed by a high wall,
within which there is space for great numbers of horses, camels,
and domestic animals of all kinds, with dwellings for the numerous
retainers and rooms for guests, all separate from the central block
which forms the residence of the great man, his family, and personal
attendants. Except that it is mainly built of _tapia_, or blocks of
mud, rammed into square moulds and hardened in the sun, this and
other similar buildings in Marocco differ little from the castles
which the semibarbarous feudal chiefs inhabited throughout a great
part of Europe in the so-called ages of chivalry, and down to the
beginning of the last century. A more extended acquaintance with
the country afterwards showed further points of comparison. There
is not one of these _kasbahs_ that has not been the scene of
atrocious deeds of cruelty and treachery, such as we find in the
records of most of our mediæval strongholds. When we shudder at
tales of Moorish atrocities we are apt to forget that they merely
disclose an anachronism, no way surprising in a country that has
stood altogether aloof from the influences that have brought Europe
to a condition of relative civilisation.
The _kasbah_ of Shedma is well placed, on nearly flat ground, at the
summit of one of the highest of the undulating hills that intervene
between the coast and the great plain of Marocco, standing, by our
measurements, 1,430 feet (436 mètres) above the sea level. The view
over the gently heaving surface of the lower hills to the south was
very pleasing. The slopes covered with short herbage, the green
now beginning to turn brown and yellow, are studded with trees,
chiefly Argan, olive, and fig, sometimes in clumps, sometimes dotted
over the surface. Close to us, adjoining the gate of the _kasbah_,
were several very fine Argan trees just coming into flower.
We were rather late in this morning’s start, and it was near 9
A.M. when, after the tents and luggage were packed, we got under
way, accompanied by our host of last night, the Governor’s son,
who volunteered to show us his father’s garden, of which he was
evidently proud. We rode down the hill, and soon reached a place
called the ‘Tuesday Market’ (Souk el Tleta), beside which we were
to inspect the first example we met of Moorish horticulture. The
enclosed space, about an acre in extent, was divided into oblong
beds, in which the only cultivated flowers were roses and marigolds,
growing amidst an abundant growth of weeds. Along with these we
noticed several beds of mint, which is in constant requisition for
mixing with green tea.
At the open space of the ‘Tuesday Market,’ our host took leave
of us. We had not thought it necessary to make him a present, but
he had no hesitation in asking for such small articles as caught
his fancy. Maw had beguiled the tedious hour of waiting for dinner
last night by exhibiting the combustion of magnesium wire, and
complied with a request to that effect by giving up a small portion
of his store. The Moor had spied a small lens in the hands of Crump,
Hooker’s servant, and now asked for that. He next begged for some
trifling European article belonging to Abraham, our interpreter,
and finally for a box of fusees, the last possessed by Ball.
In a country where shops are unknown, except in a few large towns,
the only chance for obtaining anything which the peasant cannot
raise on his own ground is at the nearest market. These are held at
some selected spot throughout the inhabited parts of the country,
not always near a village, and the place takes its name from the
day of the week on which the market is held. We found this place
to be 1,183 feet (360·3 m.) above the sea level.
Our way now lay for some distance amidst enclosed and cultivated
land, through green lanes bordered by shrubs covered with climbing
plants. As the enclosures came to an end, and we again found
ourselves in an open country dotted with trees, we observed the
Argan gradually becoming more scarce, and the _Zizyphus_ more
frequent, until the last of the former were seen about ten miles
east of the _kasbah_. Among the smaller shrubs _Rhus pentaphylla_
was prominent. The genus _Teucrium_ is especially characteristic
of South Marocco, as may be inferred from the fact that four new
species were found by M. Balansa, besides many of those common about
the Mediterranean. We here met one of the peculiar Marocco species
(_T. collinum_); and the ever varying _T. Polium_ constantly recurred
throughout our journey, from the coast up to over 4,000 feet above
the sea.
After several brief halts, requisite for collecting new and rare
plants by the way, we rested for half an hour in a shady spot near a
well. Up to this point our course since morning had varied between
due E. and SSE.; but for the remainder of this day’s journey
our general direction was about ENE. The track slowly wound its
way upwards amongst hills covered with _Retam_, till it reached
the brow of a rounded eminence that overlooks a wide expanse of
treeless plain extending eastward to the horizon, except where some
low flat-topped hills were seen in the dim distance. We had now
accomplished the first stage of our journey. We had traversed the
zone of hilly country lying between the coast and the great plain of
Marocco, on the verge of which we here stood. Leaving out of account
a few prominences to be spoken of hereafter, the plain appears to
the eye quite horizontal; but in fact there is a very perceptible
inclination of about forty feet per mile from south to north, as it
slopes from the foot of the Great Atlas towards the river Tensift,
and a further slighter dip of about ten feet per mile from east to
west, between the city of Marocco and Sheshaoua. The deficiency of
water at once explains the great change in the vegetation, which
was speedily perceptible in detail, but obvious to the eye from the
first view of the country newly opened before us. Corresponding to
this is a considerable change of climate, arising from the rapid
heating of the surface by day, and the no less rapid cooling by
radiation at night. We are already far from the equable climate
of Mogador; and although the air in the shade is only pleasantly
warm, we are happy to have the protection of pith helmets covered
by turbans between our heads and the direct rays of the sun.
The verge of the great plain over which we rode this afternoon
is far less barren than the portion which yet lay before us; and
we found several species characteristic of similar situations in
Spain and Africa, along with some others, hitherto undescribed,
that appear to be characteristic of this part of Marocco. Thus
_Artemisia Herba alba_ became conspicuous, in some places almost
covering the surface. Of the more noticeable herbaceous plants
here seen were _Matthiola parviflora_, _Gypsophila compressa_,
_Ebenus pinnata_ (rather common throughout the low country),
_Onobrychis crista galli_, an _Elæoselinum_, near to _E. meoides_,
and numerous _Compositæ_, of which _Cladanthus arabicus_ is one of
the most conspicuous. We did not notice the fragrant odour which some
travellers have found in the flowers of this species. To the same
natural Order belong several undescribed plants, which became more
abundant as we advanced into the interior of the country, belonging
to the genera _Anacyclus_, _Matricaria_, _Anthemis_, and _Centaurea_.
About half-past four we reached our appointed camping place, at
Aïn Oumast, one of the few wells of drinkable water found in the
region we had now entered. In the coast zone it would appear that
in ordinary years the rainfall is sufficient to enable the natives
to raise grain crops wherever the soil is suitable for the purpose;
but in the interior, cultivation is limited to the tracts that are
capable of irrigation from the streams descending from the Great
Atlas, or else to the immediate neighbourhood of wells. The ground
around Aïn Oumast had borne a scanty crop of grain, and the rough
surface, now baked hard by the sun, was not very comfortable for
sleeping upon, even with the intervention of a mattress of cork
shavings.
For a short way before our arrival, the main chain of the Great
Atlas had for the first time been in view, dimly apparent at a
distance of some sixty miles; but as the sun declined towards the
horizon, the outlines became clearer, and we naturally watched
with increasing interest every feature of that mysterious range
seen, even from a distance, by few civilised men, whose recesses we
hoped to be the first to explore. We discussed eagerly the question
whether some patches of lighter colour represented snow, or merely
surfaces of whitish limestone rock; and, as usual, the only effect
of discussion was to confirm each in the impression first formed,
which it was impossible to verify or disprove unless, by viewing
the range from the same direction under similar conditions at a
later season, we could discover whether the appearances in question
should have altered or disappeared.
The _mona_ presented by the Kaïd or sheik of the place was naturally
less profuse than that offered at Shedma, but yet abundant for the
needs of our camp. As almost everywhere, save in the remoter valleys
of the Atlas, green tea and a quantity of white sugar formed a main
feature in the entertainment, and doubtless the most expensive to
the poor people who had to provide it.
The day had been warm, though not oppressive, the thermometer
probably standing at about 80° Fahr. in the shade, and the fall of
temperature during the night was very sensible. Even after the sun
had risen on May 1—soon after five A.M.—the thermometer marked
only 54° Fahr., but by six A.M. it reached 67°. The observation
for altitude gave 1,132 feet (345·5 m.) above the sea; probably too
low by fifty or sixty feet, owing to the local effect of radiation
in depressing the temperature of the air in contact with the surface.
We were on our way soon after six; and, on leaving behind the
bushes and small trees that grow on the skirts of the irrigated
ground, we entered on a wide bare plain, stretching unbroken as
far as the eye can reach, which forms the most singular feature
in the aspect of this part of Marocco. The surface is covered
with calcareous rough gravel, mixed in places with siliceous
concretions. The scanty vegetation was already nearly all dried
up, and it was not without difficulty that we secured specimens
of most of the few species that can endure the parching heat and
drought. Conspicuous among these was _Peganum Harmala_, forming at
intervals green patches amid the general barrenness. _Stipa tortilis_
was frequent, but mostly dried up, and here and there occurred tufts
of a meagre variety of _Avena barbata_. More interesting than these
were a diminutive annual species of _Echium_ (_E. modestum_, Ball)
and two species of _Centaurea_—one hitherto known as _Rhaponticum
acaule_ of Decandolle, the other, before undescribed (_C. maroccana_,
Ball). In its general aspect, and in the character of its vegetation,
this region bears a striking likeness to the stony portions of the
Sahara, and we were not sorry to include this among our Marocco
experiences, though well pleased that the acquaintance was not to
be much prolonged.
Some six or seven miles east of Aïn Oumast we passed a short
way north of Sidi Moktar, the tomb of a saint much venerated in
this region, and the last spot where for a long distance water is
to be found at all seasons. This is one of the halting-places,
called _Nzelas_, frequented by ordinary travellers who follow
this road. The _Nzela_ is one of the peculiar institutions of
this country deserving of some notice. The Marocco Government
recognises, at least in theory, the duty of protecting travellers
from violence to their persons and goods; for without some provision
for the purpose the small amount of trade now existing between the
interior and the coast could scarcely continue to exist. As well
as all other executive functions, the sovereign commits this to the
Governor of each province, who accordingly stations a few armed men
at the places where travellers are accustomed to halt. Such a post
is a _Nzela_. It does not imply the existence of any shelter, and
still less of any supplies for the sustenance of men and cattle. In
a country where the sparse population lives in tents or temporary
sheds, the traveller must provide such things for himself; but at
a _Nzela_ the wayfarer may count on security from violence, and the
guards are entitled to a trifling payment for each beast of burden
that is committed to their protection. From any demands of this
nature, as well as from the tolls that are levied on passing from
one province to another, we were declared by our escort to be free,
as personages travelling under the direct authority and protection of
the Sultan. The boundaries of the three provinces of Shedma, Mtouga,
and Ouled bou Sba met at Sidi Moktar; but such places in Marocco
are proverbially unsafe, because they are the frequent resort of
robbers and outlaws. In case of a robbery or murder being committed,
the people of each tribe throw the blame upon their neighbours,
and the men of one province are very shy of attempting to pursue
malefactors who take refuge within the boundaries of another. After
the commission of many outrages at this place, it was found necessary
to transfer a portion of territory to the Ouled bou Sba, at the same
time making the Governor of that province and tribe responsible for
the safety of those whom business or piety lead to the sanctuary
of Sidi Moktar.
As we rode onward the Great Atlas chain remained in view, but dimly
seen through the haze that increased with the increasing heat of
the day, and ahead of us rose some flat-topped hills of singular
aspect which have attracted the attention of all travellers in this
region. Some of these hills extend for a considerable distance,
while others form small isolated masses; but they agree in two
respects—all are flat-topped, and all show a steep escarpment
especially on their westward faces. We afterwards saw reason to
believe that they all rise about 450 feet above the portion of the
plain near at hand, and reach nearly the same height as the plain
surrounding the city of Marocco. The general appearance suggested
the probability of a former wide extension westward of the latter
plain, and subsequent erosion by marine or fluviatile action. As
we approached the most conspicuous of these isolated hills, we
were struck with the singular appearance of the stunted bushes of
_Zizyphus Lotus_, which form the only arborescent vegetation of this
region. From a little distance they looked as if covered by some
white-flowered climbing plant, or else laden with white fruit. This
appearance was due to the extraordinary number of two species of
snails (_Helix lactea_ and _H. explanata_) that completely covered
the branches. We frequently noticed the same appearance afterwards,
but nowhere so markedly as here.
Towards the foot of the first and most conspicuous of the hills
above mentioned, which bears the inappropriate name Hank el Gemmel
(Camel’s back), the plain rises gently rather more than one hundred
feet in all; above this the slope of the hill becomes steep, and
finally exhibits an almost vertical face at the top. At the foot
of the steeper slope, about four hours’ ride from Aïn Oumast,
our track passed by an ancient well, now almost dry, and often
completely so; and here, under the imperfect shade of a lotus tree,
we made a short halt. The direct rays of the sun being very powerful,
we were somewhat surprised to find the temperature of the air to be
only 77° Fahr. Leaving our escort, we ascended the low but steep
hill above the well. The scarped face exhibited a section of the
yellowish-white limestone that appears to underlie nearly the whole
of the low country between the coast and the base of the Atlas. No
fossils were found; and in the present state of our knowledge,
or rather ignorance, of the whole region, it seems impossible to
fix its position in the geological series. The level summit is
capped by a thin layer of coarse chalcedony, in which we recognised
the origin of the siliceous fragments scattered over the plain
below. This layer would offer resistance to superficial denudation,
and account for the tabular forms of the hills, but where these
were attacked from below by marine or river action the covering
would necessarily be broken up and the fragments scattered over
the plain below. With reference to the opinion expressed by Maw in
his paper in the Proceedings of the Geological Society, and in the
Appendix to this volume, as to the origin of the tufaceous coating
of the plain between Aïn Oumast and Marocco, the only difficulty
that presents itself arises from the presence of these siliceous
fragments on the surface along with the disintegrated tufa. If,
as he and other geologists believe, such a superficial coating is
due to evaporation from the underlying mass of water charged with
carbonate of lime, it seems hard to account for the diffusion of the
chalcedony fragments, unless we suppose a submergence of the plain
subsequent to the formation of the tufa layer, and a renewed supply
of such fragments by further erosion of the hills that formed the
sea or river coast line. To confirm this conjecture, we may note the
fact that the fragments of chalcedony became progressively rarer as
we advanced from the lower portion of the plain over which we this
day travelled to the upper level surrounding the city of Marocco.
The summit of the hill was found to be 1,648 feet (502·4 m.) above
the sea and 303 feet above the well at its base. It was barren, yet
supplied a few additional plants to our collection. _Frankenia
revoluta_ was abundant, as was also a lavender somewhat
intermediate in appearance between _Lavandula multifida_ of the
Southern Mediterranean shores and _L. abrotanoides_ of the Canary
Islands. We also found a form of _Cotyledon hispanica_ of Linnæus
(_Pistorinia hispanica_ of Decandolle), with pale yellow flowers,
intermediate in some respects between the common plant of Southern
Spain and _P. Salzmanniana_ of Boissier and Reuter.
Resuming our journey, we bore somewhat south of east over a
country similar in character to that traversed in the forenoon,
but not showing such a complete dead level surface. On the way
we noticed for the first time _Cucumis Colocynthis_, one of the
characteristic plants of the desert region, extending from Arabia and
Southern Palestine across the entire of Northern Africa, but rarely
approaching the littoral zone. Here, as near Suez and elsewhere, so
far as we have observed, this plant is curiously infrequent. Growing
as it does in a region where it has few rivals to contend with,
and the surface is remarkably uniform, one yet finds but one or two
individuals scattered at comparatively wide intervals over the stony
plain. The fruits are used in Marocco to preserve woollen clothing
from moths, but their purgative qualities do not seem to be known
to the native doctors.
Here and there in this part of our route we encountered small blocks
of volcanic rock—trap or basalt—as to the origin of which we
have no information. We have no grounds for supposing eruptive
action to have occurred in this region within a period so recent as
that subsequent to the formation of the tufa which covers the whole
surface of the lower country, and it is not easy to account for
the transport of these blocks from a distance after its formation.
The direct heat of the sun was great in the afternoon, and the way
barren and monotonous, so that it was with thorough satisfaction
that, on reaching the summit of a slight swelling rise on the
plain, at near 5 P.M., we saw before us a green shallow basin, at
the farther end of which our eyes rested gladly on the abundant
foliage of gardens and orchards. A stream from the Great Atlas,
diverted into numerous slender irrigation channels, is the source
of this apparent fertility, but so much of the water is taken up
in this way that only a trifling surplus remains; and, save after
heavy rains, it seems that a mere streamlet flows northward to join
the Oued Tensift, the chief river of South-western Marocco. The
green that gladdened our eyes seemed to have given but deceptive
promise, for we at first entered on a scrub formed exclusively
of Chenopodicaeous bushes, including _Arthrocnemum fruticosum_,
_Caroxylon articulatum_, _Suæda fruticosa_, and _Atriplex Halimus_.
The same thing happens here that may be noticed in the neighbourhood
of the freshwater canal in the Isthmus of Suez. Where the soil
contains a quantity of soluble salts, the first effect of admitting
moisture by irrigation is to form a salt marsh, which becomes covered
with its own characteristic vegetation; but if the surface is so
disposed as to allow the percolation of fresh water, the salts are
gradually carried off, the salt marsh is converted into fertile
land, and the ugly _Chenopodiaceæ_ disappear. Accordingly, after
traversing a broad belt of scrub, we soon found ourselves amidst
luxuriant vegetation, and saw our tents, which had preceded us,
pitched under the shade of tall fig-trees, in one of the orchards
belonging to the village of Sheshaoua. This place is a true oasis,
and an abundant growth of fig, olive, pomegranate, apple, plum,
and apricot, with an undergrowth of grasses and herbaceous plants,
affords a striking contrast to the desert tracts surrounding it.
The vegetation of the irrigated land, excepting a few tall palms,
was almost exclusively European; and not without pleasure we gathered
many common English species, such as our common bramble, dandelion,
charlock, _Sisymbrium Irio_, _Geranium dissectum_, _Hypochæris
radicata_, _Sonchus oleraceus_, _Lycopus europæus_, _Plantago
major_, _Rumex pulcher_, _Carex divisa_, and _Scirpus Holoschænus_.
The usual _mona_ was sent soon after our arrival; and the local
governor, a deputy of the Governor of Marocco, paid a visit of
ceremony in the evening. He was a black of nearly pure Negro type,
and in all probability originally a slave. We were not then familiar
with the fact that slaves frequently rise in Marocco to the highest
posts in the State. The body-guard of the Sultan is exclusively
recruited among the black population, either voluntary immigrants,
or slaves imported young from Timbuctoo. These form the only troops
in the country that can be relied on to repress internal disorder,
though in case of war with a European Power there is little doubt
that the whole Moorish population would respond to an appeal to
their patriotism and fanaticism. Whether the same would hold good
as to the Bereber tribes of the Great and Lesser Atlas may be much
doubted. With these the sentiment of national, or rather tribal,
independence is the predominant feeling, and so long as an invader
kept aloof from their native valleys they could not be easily moved
to action. It naturally happens that an absolute ruler, too conscious
of his slight claim on the affections of his own people, is led to
prefer men whose prominent virtue is that of the dog—attachment
and fidelity to him who feeds them. When it is considered that, in
addition, the Negro often possesses far more energy than the Moor,
united to at least equal natural intelligence, it may be believed
that the rulers of Marocco have shown no want of policy in favouring
this section of the population.
The thermometer about sunset stood at 72° Fahr., while in the
water flowing beside our camp it marked but 62°. At 1 A.M., when
we had concluded our nightly task in laying out our plants, it had
fallen to 52°, and rose only to 57° an hour after sunrise, when the
barometer was recorded, and gave an estimated altitude of 1,141 feet
(347·8 m.), or almost exactly the same as that of Aïn Oumast. The
coolness of night temperature throughout this region of Northern
Africa doubtless contributes to make the climate not only healthy
but favourable to human activity; and it was impossible for us not
to speculate at times on a possible, though remote, future, when
this may become the home of a prosperous and progressive community.
Early rising does not always mean an early start, and many delays
occurred on the morning of May 2, before our caravan was fairly
under way at about 9 o’clock. On leaving our encampment, we
perceived, on rising ground close at hand, the remains of an
ancient town, with stone houses, for the most part in ruins, but
some of them still inhabited, and a _kasbah_ or castle of somewhat
imposing appearance. We failed to obtain any information as to these
buildings, which may probably be of considerable antiquity. It must
be remembered that throughout the portion of Marocco inhabited by
an Arab population permanent houses are unknown, excepting in the
coast towns and the royal cities of Marocco, Fez, and Mekines. The
country people live in _douars_, which are merely groups of rude
dwellings, half hovel half tent, usually formed of branches, over
which a piece of camel’s hair cloth is stretched, and leaving no
wreck behind when choice or necessity leads their inhabitants to
remove from one spot to another. Even the Governor’s _kasbah_,
though often a pile of large dimensions, rarely survives a single
generation. The great wall and massive towers surrounding it, as
well as the building itself, are constructed of unbaked bricks or
of blocks of mud half dried in the sun; and save in cases where a
son succeeds his father in power, the custom of the country is to
level the whole structure to the ground on the death or removal
of the occupant. A few seasons complete the work, and nothing
remains but a few mounds of clay to mark the site. Thus it happens
that in a country of which the greater part is naturally fertile,
the stranger may travel long distances without perceiving a trace
of human habitations, or any other buildings than the _zaouias_
and _koubbas_, which are scattered over the country at unequal
intervals. By these names are designated the tombs of persons,
who, when alive, attained a reputation for sanctity, differing
only in the rank which they hold in local estimation. The person
over whose remains a _zaouia_ is constructed may be regarded as
the patron saint of the tribe or province, while the _koubba_
marks the resting-place of a saint of less renown.
We soon left behind us the irrigated ground, and entered on a
barren region, less absolutely sterile than that of the preceding
day’s journey, and having a more varied vegetation. Blocks of black
volcanic rock were more frequent, and of larger size, indicating that
we were nearer to the place of their origin, wherever that may be. In
some spots _Artemisia Herba alba_ was the predominant plant, but we
met several new species not before seen. One of the most curious of
these is a white-flowered _Picris_ (_P. albida_), afterwards seen at
intervals in the low country, whose ligules wither so rapidly that
we failed to secure any satisfactory specimens. Without becoming
hilly, the surface lay in slight heaving undulations, the upward
slope being always longest towards the east; and the same remark
applied throughout the day’s ride. In about three hours we reached
Aïn Beida, where a copious spring of excellent water fertilises a
tract of about a square mile. We turned aside from our track to halt
beneath a very fine pistachio tree,[3] fully forty feet high and
two feet in diameter. The sun was very hot, though the temperature
of the air was not more than 80° Fahr., and we were assured that
our halting place for the night was only four hours’ distant; and
so it happened that between luncheon, and rest, and short excursions
into the blazing sunshine to botanise in the surrounding corn-fields,
we did not resume our journey until 3.20 P.M. The baggage train as
usual had gone on ahead; and as the evening light was fading fast,
about 7.20 P.M., when we expected to be near our night quarters,
some inquiry from our escort revealed two disagreeable facts: first,
that we were still nearly two hours’ ride from Misra ben Kara;
and secondly, that the baggage train had taken a different road. It
is not surprising that such intelligence coming suddenly on three
hungry and tired Englishmen, with the further prospect of passing
the night without food or shelter, led to a vehement row, in which
strong, if not intelligible language was discharged at the head of
the worthy Kaïd El Hadj, the commander of our escort. The whole
affair had probably arisen from some misunderstanding; but it was
settled by sending two of the escort to ride at full gallop after
the missing baggage train, while we jogged on sad and silent towards
our destined quarters for the night. Being pressed for time, we had
abstained from botanising by the way from Aïn Beida; but at one
place we stopped to gather some extraordinarily fine specimens of
_Phelipæa lutea_, which caught our eyes in the failing light. This
is the king of the broomrape tribe; the stems stood four or five
feet high, with sceptre-like spikes of large yellow flowers, nearly
two feet long, but it was quite too dark to ascertain on what plant
this curious parasite had attached itself.
The stars shone down with marvellous brilliancy on the desolate tract
over which we rode in single file, always ascending slightly, and
the chain of the Great Atlas stood out more definitely than we had
yet seen it, when, at past 9 o’clock we reached Misra ben Kara,
and found to our relief that the baggage train had just preceded
us. About 11 P.M. some food was prepared, and, being fairly tired,
we soon lay down for the night after a frugal meal. But not to sleep,
for the furious barking of the dogs from the adjoining village,
or _douar_, and the clatter kept up by our own people, did not let
us close our eyes till the night was far spent.
On this, as on many another occasion, we were forced to admire the
extraordinary endurance of the common people of this country. It
was not mainly the amount of work they are able to accomplish,
but their high spirits and cheerful demeanour under hardships
and difficulties. Four of our men travelled on foot, walking
or running at a jog trot under a burning sun, and on arrival in
camp the same men were always ready for work in setting up tents,
moving heavy luggage, and attending to the various wants of their
employers. Having often to wait till midnight for their food, they
would pass the time in lively talk, and after the stimulus of a
draught of green tea, their renewed spirits generally broke out
in the form of songs or chaunts that seemed interminable. Then,
after three or four hours’ sleep, they were ready to begin again
next morning with the same unflagging energy and spirit. During the
day the men on foot resorted to a curious expedient for diminishing
the effect of heat, by thrusting a stick down the back between the
skin and their scanty woollen garment, and thus securing ventilation.
We were up soon after daybreak on May 3. Our camp was close to the
wretched village of Misra ben Kara, a large collection of mere
hovels put together with mud and dried branches, and enclosed,
as the _douar_ generally is, within a sort of rampart formed of
the dried stems and branches of the _Zizyphus Lotus_, piled up to
a height of eight or ten feet, through which a single opening gives
admission to the inhabitants and their domestic animals. It stands
at a short distance from the Oued Nyfs,[4] one of the chief streams
flowing northward from the Great Atlas. We started about 7 A.M., and
soon reached the banks, fringed with magnificent oleanders in full
flower, below which the shallow stream runs in a deep bed. Like all
the rivers of this country, this is liable to great oscillations;
and though it seemed nowhere two feet deep when we crossed it,
travellers are said to be sometimes detained for days, owing to
the impossibility of fording the stream in rainy weather.
We found here a few plants not hitherto seen, but were especially
pleased with an undescribed _Statice_ (_S. ornata_, Ball), not
found elsewhere on our journey, whose numerous bright amethyst blue
flowers were scattered on long, slender, much-branched panicles.
On the east side of the river we fairly entered on the portion
of the great plain immediately surrounding the city of Marocco,
extending some thirty miles from west to east, and southward to the
base of the Great Atlas. This is inclined upwards from west to east,
and still more decidedly from north to south; but to the eye it
appears a dead level, and the hills represented on Beaudouin’s
map as approaching near to the city on the south and east have no
existence in fact. The north-western border of the plain is, on
the other hand, marked by prominent rough hills of a ruddy hue,
as seen from a distance, which rose on our left as we advanced
towards the city.
Some portion of these hills, seeming to form an interrupted range,
extending along the north side of the Oued Tensift and parallel to
its course, was traversed by Washington on his route from Azemor
to Marocco in December, 1829. He estimates their height above
the plain at from 500 to 1,200 feet, and describes the rock as
schistose, with veins of quartz, the line of strike from north by
east to south by west, and the dip 75°. To us it appeared that the
higher summits, which perhaps do not lie near Washington’s track,
must rise fully 2,000 feet above the plain. On the southern side
of the Oued Tensift, and nearer to the city, are some lower hills,
very similar in appearance to the others, and probably of similar
geological structure. One of these, visited by Maw, is described as
formed of very hard, dark, grey rock, with knotted white concretions
elongated in the line of stratification, the strike from north-west
to south-east, and the dip south-west, varying from 50° to 80°.
Our attention, commonly fixed on the vegetation of the country,
was on this day chiefly engaged by the great range of mountains, no
longer very distant, that bounded the horizon to the south. We had
expected to find no difficulty in singling out the peak of Miltsin,
described by Washington in the first volume of the Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society, as the highest peak of the Atlas visible
from the city of Marocco, and the altitude of which, as determined
by a rough trigonometrical measurement, he fixes at 11,400 English
feet. Approaching the city by a very different route from that of
Washington, we soon convinced ourselves that there is no summit
visible in the main range much surpassing its rivals in height,
and we subsequently came to the conclusion, that Miltsin, which
appears somewhat higher than its neighbours in the view from the
city, is situated somewhat on the north side of the watershed,
and therefore nearer to the observer than any other lofty summit
of the range. It may fairly be inferred from Washington’s account
that he had no opportunity for measuring a base-line—such as could
allow him to determine accurately the height of distant summits. The
conclusion to which we now came, and which was confirmed by our
subsequent observations, was that the part of the main range within
sight of Marocco and its neighbourhood is remarkably uniform in
height. There are many prominent points that probably approach the
limit of 13,500 English feet, and no depressions that fall more than
about 2,000 feet below that height, This, as will be seen hereafter,
does not apply to the westerly part of the chain lying west of the
sources of the Oued Nyfs, but this is only imperfectly seen from
the neighbourhood of Marocco.
The day was hotter than any we had yet experienced, the temperature
in the shade being about 85° Fahr., and the breeze which usually
rises during the hottest hours was scarcely felt. But the vicinity of
lofty mountains usually determines strong currents in the heated air,
and these must have been at work, though unfelt by us. As we looked
towards the mountain chain, we noticed lofty columns of sand or
dust, remarkably uniform in shape, that travelled steadily westward
across the plain in the opposite direction to the breeze, so far as
this could be detected. At one time as many as three of these were
seen at the same time, each moving independently. These miniature
cyclones, arising from the interference of opposite currents of
air, are not uncommon in the plains on the south side of the Alps,
but are rarely to be seen on so great a scale as here.
About two hours after starting, the great tower of the chief
mosque came into view, and one of our soldiers rode on ahead to
announce our approach. Not long afterwards we met a courier bound
for Mogador with letters for Mr. Carstensen, and we took the
opportunity of reporting progress and sending him a few details
as to our journey. In default of regular postal communication,
which is not to be thought of in such a country, the facility
for forwarding letters in Marocco is far greater than could be
expected. For a few shillings a native is easily induced to make
a journey of many days, and take care of letters, which always
reach their destination. The reverence with which Mohammedan people
generally regard all written communications—which may perchance
contain the name of Allah—serves as a protection so effectual,
that the loss of letters and despatches is scarcely ever heard
of. These couriers travel forty or even fifty miles a day, and
after a day’s rest are ready to return to the place whence they
came. The chief object of Mr. Carstensen’s letter to Marocco
had been to recommend us to the good offices of some wealthy and
influential Moors, correspondents of English mercantile houses,
and we were not long before experiencing the benefit of this piece
of kindly attention.
The heat of the sun was much felt as we rode over the open plain,
and it was suggested that we should do well to halt awhile, and
await the return of the soldier who was to report to us the state
of affairs in the city. The only spot on the way affording the
slightest shelter is under the reclining trunk of a fine tree of
_Tamarix articulata_, which had apparently been blown down, though
still adhering to the ground by its roots, and throwing out vigorous
shoots and branches. The remaining portion of the trunk was 24 feet
long, and at 8 feet from the roots the girth was 7 feet 7 inches
(2·32 m.) We saw no other specimen of this tree, characteristic of
the semi-tropical region of Northern Africa; but our opportunities
for exploring the country surrounding the city were very limited,
and it seems probable that it is here indigenous, though the extreme
scarcity of fuel may have led to its partial extermination. The
slender twigs into which the branches are divided gave no protection
from the sun; but, by throwing a carpet overhead, we extemporised a
serviceable roof, whose shade was most welcome. Though bare to the
eye, this part of the plain produced many small herbaceous plants,
such as _Notoceras canariensis_, our native _Coronopus Ruellii_,
_Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum_, and _Schismus calycinus_. The
_Mesembryanthemum_ is as common here as it is in the East; but the
last-named grass, so characteristic of the skirts of the desert in
Egypt and Arabia, seems to be rare in South Marocco.
Throughout our morning’s ride, as well as on the journey between
Sheshaoua and Misra ben Kara, we noticed the apparently unaccountable
way in which certain social species prevail over a considerable
tract, and then suddenly give place to others, without any apparent
reference to the composition of the soil. Where Chenopodiaceæ,
such as _Suæda_ and _Caroxylon_ prevail, it is reasonable to
conjecture the presence of nitre, gypsum, or other salts in the
superficial layer; but such plants as _Artemisia Herba alba_,
_Genista monosperma_, and a local form of _Helianthemum virgatum_
will sometimes take almost exclusive possession of the surface,
though this in some places is mainly composed of siliceous sand,
in others of disintegrated calcareous tufa, and in others of
decomposed volcanic rock, nowhere seen by us _in situ_, but derived
from scattered blocks of various sizes. In the plain near the city
siliceous sand predominates, and, as a consequence, the vegetation
is more meagre than elsewhere.
We hereabouts first saw the only works of public utility which
we encountered during our journey. What first struck the eye were
long lines of irregular earthen mounds traversing the plain in a
north and south direction, and we soon ascertained that these were
watercourses rudely arched over. The streams from the mountains south
of the city are distributed through irrigation canals over a large
part of the plain, and thus render it fit for cultivation. Early
experience must have taught the people that by protecting these
canals from evaporation, they could be made available to a much
greater extent; and it is probable that the construction of these
covered waterways, some of which were in a ruinous condition, goes
back to a remote period. In point of fact, the whole drainage of
three considerable valleys, whose torrents we afterwards crossed,
appears to be intercepted by this irrigation process, and absorbed
by the vegetation of the plain. It is probable that by the skilful
extension of the same system wide tracts, now barren, might be
made productive.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: For fuller particulars as to the Argan tree and its
economic uses, see Appendix D.]
[Footnote 2: It may be hoped that the plant will now become well
known to botanists, as our friend M. Cosson has obtained a good
supply of seed, which he has liberally distributed among many of
the chief botanic gardens of Europe. See Appendix D.]
[Footnote 3: This was apparently the _Pistacia atlantica_. The true
Pistachio tree (_P. vera_ of Linnæus), so extensively cultivated
in the warmer parts of the Mediterranean region, was not seen by
us in Marocco.]
[Footnote 4: The spelling here adopted is that used by M. Beaumier
in his sketch-map of the route from Mogador to Marocco, but it
is extremely difficult to fix the sounds expressing many of the
native names. Sometimes this sounded to our ears as Oued enfisk,
sometimes as Oued enfist; the latter, it will be remarked, is merely
a slight anagram of the name Oued Tensift, belonging to the main
river flowing westward on the north side of the city of Marocco.]