_Radiolites_, _456_
_Radius_, _419_
_Radsia_, =403=
Radula, 213 f.;
of _Littorina_, =20=;
of _Cyclophorus_, =21=;
of parasitic Mollusca, 79
_Raëta_, _454_
_Ranella_, 256, _420_
Range of distribution, 362 f.
_Rangia_, 15, _453_
_Ranularia_, _420_
_Rapa_, _423_
_Rapana_, _423_
_Raphaulus_, 305, 309
_Rathouisia_, 316, _440_
Rats devouring Mollusca, 57
_Realia_, 316, 327, _414_
_Recluzia_, _411_
Rectum, 241
_Registoma_, _414_
Relationship of Mollusca to other groups, 5
_Renssoellaria_, 512
Reproductive activity of oyster, 112;
system in Mollusca, 123, 134 f.
_Requienia_, 269, =455=, _455_
Respiration, 150 f.
_Retzia_, 508
_Revoilia_, 331, _414_
_Reymondia_, 332
_Rhabdoceras_, _398_
_Rhagada_, 311, 324
_Rhenea_, 325, _440_
_Rhinobolus_, _504_
_Rhiostoma_, 247, =266=, 309, _414_
Rhipidoglossa, 225, _405_
_Rhizochilus_, 75, _423_
_Rhodea_, 356, _441_
_Rhodina_, 307, 310, _442_
_Rhynchonella_, 466, 470, 471, 472, 474, 483, _487_;
distribution, 487;
fossil, 492, 497, 499, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 506, 507, 508, 511
Rhynchonellidae, _487_, 501, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508, 511
_Rhysota_, 67, 310, 314, 316, 319, _440_
_Rhytida_, 319–326, 333, 359, _440_;
habits, 54;
radula, =232=
_Rillya_, _442_
_Rimella_, _418_
_Rimula_, 265, _406_
_Ringicula_, _430_;
radula, 230
_Risella_, _413_
_Rissoa_, _415_
_Rissoina_, _415_
_Robillardia_, 77
_Rochebrunia_, 331, _414_
Rock-boring snails, 49
_Rolleia_, 349
_Rossia_, _389_
_Rostellaria_, _418_
Rudistae, _456_
_Rumina_, 260, _442_
_Runcina_, _431_;
protective coloration, 73
_Sabatia_, _430_
_Sactoceras_, _394_
_Sagda_, =348=-351, _441_
_Sageceras_, _398_
_Salasiella_, 353, _440_
Salivary glands, 237
Sandford, on strength of _Helix_, 45
Sandwich islanders, use of shells, 99
_Sanguinolaria_, _456_
_Sarepta_, _447_
_Sarmaticus_, _409_
_Satsuma_, 314, 316, _441_
_Saxicava_, 447, _457_
_Saxidomus arata_, money made from, 97
_Scalaria_, 247, 263, _411_;
radula, 224
_Scaldia_, _452_
_Scalenostoma_, _422_
_Scaliola_, _415_
_Scaphander_, =428=, 429, _430_;
radula, =231=;
gizzard, =238=
_Scaphites_, =399=, _399_
Scaphopoda, _444_;
defined, 6;
breathing organs, 160;
nervous system, 205;
radula, 236
_Scaphula_, =14=, 305, _448_
_Scarabus_, =18=, 278, =439=, _439_
Scharff, R., on food of slugs, 31;
on protective coloration in slugs, 70
_Schasicheila_, 347, 351, 354, _410_
_Schismope_, =266=, _407_
_Schizochiton_, 187, 402, _403_
_Schizodus_, _448_
_Schizoglossa_, 325, _440_
_Schizoplax_, _403_
_Schizostoma_, _413_
_Schloenbacia_, _398_
_Scintilla_, 175, _453_
_Scissurella_, 265, _407_;
radula, 226
_Sclerochiton_, _403_
_Scrobicularia_, 15, =164=, _453_;
siphons, =164=
_Sculptaria_, 333
_Scurria_, _405_
_Scutalus_, 356, _442_
_Scutellastra_, _405_
_Scutus_, 245, =406=, _406_
_Scyllaea_, _433_;
jaws, =212=;
stomach, 239
_Segmentina_, 320
_Selenites_, 339, 341, _440_
Selenitidae, radula, 231
_Selenochlamys_, 296
Self-fertilisation, 42–44
_Semele_, _453_
_Semicassis_, _420_
Semper, K., on habits of _Limnaea_, 34;
of _Helicarion_, 45, 67;
on mimicry, 67;
on parasitic _Eulima_, 79;
on development of _Limnaea_, 84, 94;
on sexual maturity in snails, 129;
on _Onchidium_, 187
_Sepia_, 381, 385–=387=, _389_;
egg-capsules, =127=;
glands, 136;
jaws, =214=;
radula, 236;
alimentary canal, =238=;
ink-sac, =241=;
hectocotylus, =389=
_Sepiadarium_, _389_
_Sepiella_, _389_
_Sepiola_, _389_;
glands, 136;
radula, 236
_Sepioloidea_, _389_
Sepiophora, _388_
_Sepioteuthis_, _390_;
hectocotylus, 139
_Septaria_, 337, 338, _410_
Septibranchiata, 145, 167, _459_;
branchiae, =166=
_Septifer_, 274, _449_
_Sequenzia_, _420_
Sergius Orata, 104
_Serrifusus_, _424_
_Sesara_, 305, _440_
Sex, differences of, 133
Shell, 244 f.;
internal, 174;
shape of bivalve, 445
Shell-gland, primitive, 132
Shells as money, 96 f.;
as ornament, etc., 98 f.;
various uses of, 98 f.;
prices given for rare, 121;
sinistral, 249
Shores of N. Asia, no littoral fauna, 2
Showers of shells, 47
_Sigaretus_, =186=, =245=, 267, _411_;
foot, =198=
Sight, 180
_Silenia_, _459_;
branchiae, 168
_Silia_, _425_
_Siliqua_, 274, _457_
_Siliquaria_, =248=, _418_
_Simnia_, _419_
_Simpulopsis_, 345, 350, _442_
_Simpulum_, _420_
Simroth, on recent forms of _Helix_, 22;
on food of slugs, 31;
on crawling of _Helix_, 45
Singular habitat, 48
Sinistral shells, 249
_Sinistralia_, _424_
_Sinusigera_, 133
_Sipho_, _424_
_Siphonalia_, _424_
_Siphonaria_, 18, _431_;
classification, 19;
breathing organs, 151, =152=
Siphonarioidea, _431_
_Siphonodentalium_, _444_
Siphonostomata, 156
_Siphonotreta_, 493, 496, _504_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
Siphons, 173;
in burrowing genera, 165;
branchial, 155
_Sistrum_, 75, _423_;
radula of _S. spectrum_, 79, =222=
_Sitala_, 301, 304, 310, 314–319, 333, _440_
Skärgard, Mollusca of the, 13
_Skenea_, _415_
_Skenidium_, _505_, 508
Slit, in Gasteropoda, 265, 406
Slugs, habits and food of, 30 f.;
bite hand of captor, 33;
in bee-hives, 36;
in greenhouses, 36;
protective coloration, 70;
eaten in England, 120
_Smaragdia_, 21
_Smaragdinella_, _430_
Smell, sense of, 192
Smith, W. Anderson, quoted, 98, 111, 114, 191
Snails as barometers, 50;
plants fertilised by, 102;
cultivation for food, 118 f.;
used for cream, 119;
as medicine, 120;
banned by the Church, 121
_Solariella_, _408_;
radula, 225
_Solarium_, =264=, _412_, =413=;
radula, 224
_Solaropsis_, 343, 353–357, _442_
_Solecurtus_, =165=, _457_
_Solen_, 171, 446, _457_;
vision, 190;
habits, 45
_Solenaia_, _452_
_Solenomya_, 275, _448_
_Solenotellina_, _456_
Solomon islanders, use of shells, 98
_Somatogyrus_, _415_
_Sophina_, 305
Spallanzani, experiments on _Helix_, 163
Spat, fall of, 113
_Spatha_, 294, 331, 336, _452_
_Spekia_, =333=
Spermatophore, in Cephalopoda, 137;
in _Helix_, 142
Spermatozoa, forms of, 136
_Sphaerium_, _453_
_Sphenia_, _456_
_Sphenodiscus_, _398_
_Sphyradium_, _442_
Spines, use of, 64
_Spiraculum_, 266, _414_
_Spiraxis_, _442_
_Spirialis_, 249
_Spirifera_, 468, =501=, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508, 511, 512
Spiriferidae, 501, _505_, 508
_Spiriferina_, stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
Spirobranchiata, 464
_Spirotropis_, _426_;
radula, 218, =219=
_Spirula_, 247, 386, _387_, =388=
_Spirulirostra_, 380, 386, _388_
Spondylium, 500
_Spondylus_, 257, 446, =450=, _450_;
ocelli, 191;
genital orifice, 242
_Spongiobranchaea_, _437_
_Spongiochiton_, _403_
_Sportella_, _453_
Starfish eat oysters, 110
Stearns, R. E. C., on tenacity of life, 38
_Stegodera_, 306
_Stenochisma_, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Stenogyra_, 324, _442_;
_S. decollata_, 279;
food, 34;
smell, 194;
_Goodallii_, 279;
_octona_, sudden appearance, 47
Stenogyridae, radula, 234
_Stenopus_, _440_;
habits, 45
_Stenothyra_, _415_
_Stenotis_, _416_
_Stenotrema_, 340, _441_
_Stephanoceras_, _399_
_Stepsanoda_, 358
_Stilifer_, 76, 77, 79, _422_
_Stiliferina_, 76, _422_
_Stiliger_, _432_
_Stilina_, 76
_Stoastoma_, 348–351, _410_
_Stoloteuthis_, _389_
Stomach, 239
_Stomatella_, _408_
_Stomatia_, _408_
_Stomatodon_, 302, _417_
_Strebelia_, 353, _440_
Strength of _Helix_, 45
_Strephobasis_, _417_
_Strepsidura_, _424_
_Streptaulus_, _414_
_Streptaxis_, =302=, 306, 309, 314–331, 343, 357–359, _440_;
variation, 87
Streptoneura, 203, 404
_Streptosiphon_, _424_
_Streptostele_, 329, 338, _440_
_Streptostyla_, 343–355, =353=, _440_
_Stricklandia_, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Strigatella_, _425_
Stringocephalidae, _506_, 508
_Stringocephalus_, 492, 497, =498=, 500, 501, _506_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Strobila_, 340, 345–353
_Strobilops_, _442_
Strombidae, habits, 64;
penis, 136
_Strombina_, _423_
_Strombus_, =69=, =200=, 252, _418_;
mimicking _Conus_, 69;
operculum, =78=, =269=;
pearls from, 101;
metapodium, 199;
stomach, 239
_Strophalosia_, _504_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Stropheodonta_, 497, _505_, 508
_Strophia_, 343–355, _442_;
_S. nana_, 278
_Strophochilus_, 358, _441_
_Strophomena_, 499, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
Strophomenidae, 500, _505_, 508
_Strophostoma_, 248, _414_
Structure of shell, 252
_Struthiolaria_, 99, _418_;
radula, 216
_Styliola_, _437_
_Stylodonta_, 339, _441_
Stylommatophora, 11, 181, _439_;
origin, 19
_Subemarginula_, _406_
Submytilacea, _451_
_Subularia_, _422_
_Subulina_, 332, 352, _442_
_Subulites_, _420_
_Succinea_, 325, 327, 358, _433_;
jaw, =211=;
_S. putris_, parasite of, 61
Succineidae, _443_;
radula, 234
Sudden appearance of Mollusca, 46
_Suessia_, stratigraphical distribution, 507
Sulphuric acid, 237
_Surcula_, _426_
_Sycotypus_, _424_
_Synaptocochlea_, _408_
_Syndosmya_, _453_
_Syringothyris_, 500, 508
_Syrnola_, _422_
_Syrnolopis_, 332, =333=
_Systrophia_, 356, 357
_Tachea_, _441_
Taenioglossa, 223, _411_
_Taheitia_, _414_
_Talona_, _457_
_Tanalia_, 304, _417_
_Tancredia_, _453_
_Tanganyicia_, 332, _415_
Tanganyika, L., fauna of, 12
_Tanysiphon_, _454_
_Taonius_, =391=, _391_
_Tapes_, _454_
Taste, 179
_Tebennophorus_, 143, 340, _440_
_Tectarius_, _413_
Tectibranchiata, 10, _429_
_Tectura_, 305, _405_
_Tectus_, _408_
Teeth in aperture of the shell, 63
_Teinostoma_, 247, _408_
_Teinotis_, _407_
_Telescopium_, 252, _416_
_Tellina_, 440, =453=, _453_;
_T. balthica_, variation, 84
Tellinacea, _453_
Telotremata, 511
Tenacity of life, 37
Tenison-Woods, on red blood, 171;
on shell-eyes, 189
Tennent, Sir J. E., on musical sounds produced by Mollusca, 50
_Tennentia_, 304, 314, 338, _440_
_Terebellum_, _418_;
jumping powers, 64
_Terebra_, =246=, 263, =426=, _426_;
radula, =219=
_Terebratella_, 468, _487_;
distribution, 486;
fossil, _506_;
stratigraphical distribution, 508
_Terebratula_, 467, 468, _487_;
size, 484;
distribution, 485, 486;
fossil, 492, =499=, _506_;
stratigraphical distribution, 506, 507, 508
Terebratulidae, _487_;
fossil, 500, _505_, _506_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Terebratulina_, =466=, 479, _487_;
larva, =482=;
distribution, 486;
fossil, _506_;
stratigraphical distribution, 508;
form of shell, 510
_Teredina_, _457_
_Teredo_, 262, =457=, _458_;
nervous system, =206=;
intestine, =241=
_Tergipes_, _432_
_Terquemia_, _450_
_Testacella_, 22, =52=, _440_;
habits, etc., 49, 51 f.;
pulmonary orifice, 160;
eyes, 186;
radula, 231;
anus, 241
Testicardines, 466, _487_;
muscles, 476;
fossil, 497, _504_;
external characters, 497;
internal characters, 499;
attachment of muscles, 501;
stratigraphical distribution, 508
Testis, 135
Tethyidae, 216
_Tethys_, _432_
Tetrabranchiata, _391_ f.
_Thala_, _425_
_Thalassia_, 319
_Thalotia_, _408_
_Thapsia_, 329
_Thaumasia_, 349, _442_
_Thaumastus_, 356, _442_
_Thecacera_, _434_;
radula, 229
Thecidiidae, _487_;
fossil, 501, _506_, 508
_Thecidium_, 475, 479, =480=, 483, _487_;
fossil, _506_, 508
Thecosomata, _435_
_Thelidomus_, 346–351, =350=, _441_
_Theora_, _453_
_Therasia_, _441_
_Thersites_ (Helicidae), 322, 325
_Thersites_ (Fasciolariidae), _424_
_Thetis_, _454_
_Thracia_, 245, _459_
Thread-spinning, 29
_Thridachia_, _432_
_Thyca_, 76, 79
_Thyrophorella_, 330, _440_
_Thysanoteuthis_, _390_
_Tiedemannia_, veliger, =132=
_Tiphobia_, 332, =333=, _417_
Titicaca, L., Mollusca of, 25
_Todarodes_, _390_
_Tomichia_, _414_
_Tomigerus_, 334, 356, 358, _442_
_Tomocyclus_, 354
_Tomostele_, 330, _440_
_Tonicella_, _403_
_Tonicia_, _403_;
eyes, 188
_Torellia_, _411_
_Torinia_, _413_;
radula, 224;
operculum, =269=
_Tornatellina_, 278, 319, 323–327, 338, 358, _443_
_Tornatina_, 250, _430_
_Torquilla_, _442_
_Toucasia_, _455_
Touch, sense of, 177
Toxoglossa, 218, _426_
_Trachia_, 314
_Trachyceras_, _397_
_Trachydermon_, _403_
_Trachyteuthis_, _389_
_Tralia_, _439_
_Transovula_, _419_
_Trematis_, 492, 493, _504_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Trematonotus_, _407_
_Tremoctopus_, _384_;
radula, 236;
hectocotylus, 137
_Trevelyana_, _434_
_Trichia_, 316
_Trichotropis_, 275, _411_
_Tricula_, 302
_Tridacna_, =273=, _455_
_Triforis_, _416_;
radula, 224
_Trigonellites_, =397=
_Trigonia_, =15=, 254, 269, _448_;
jumping powers, 65;
distribution, 370
_Trigonochlamys_, 296, _440_
_Trigonostoma_, _426_
_Trimerella_, =495=, _504_, 508, 511
Trimerellidae, 493, 494, 496, _504_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
_Trinacria_, _448_
_Triodopsis_, 340, _441_
_Triopa_, _434_
_Triopella_, _434_
_Triopha_, _434_
_Tritaxeopus_, _385_
_Triton_, 256, =275=, _420_;
jaws, =212=
_Tritonia_, _433_;
protective coloration, 71
_Tritonidea_, _424_
_Trivia_, _419_
Trochidae, egg-capsules, 125
_Trochiscus_, _408_
_Trochita_, 248, _412_
_Trochoceras_, _395_
_Trocholites_, _395_
_Trochomorpha_, 306, 321, 324, 327, 333, _441_
_Trochonanina_, 331, _440_
Trochosphere, 5, 130
_Trochotoma_, 266, _407_
_Trochus_, 263, _408_;
eye, 182;
stomach, 239
_Trophon_, _423_
Tropical beach, Mollusca of a, 3
_Tropidophora_, _414_
_Tropites_, _397_
_Troschelia_, _424_
_Truncaria_, _423_
_Truncatella_, 260, _414_
_Tryblidium_, _405_
_Trypanostoma_, 340
Trypho of Lampsacus, prayer against snails, 121
Tubed operculates, 157, 266, 300, 307, 309
_Tudicla_, _424_
_Tudora_, 291, 349, 351, _414_
_Tugonia_, _456_
_Tulotoma_, 340, _416_
_Turbinella_, 100, 262, =264=, =424=, _424_
_Turbo_, _409_;
eye, =182=;
osphradium, 195;
operculum, =268=
_Turbonilla_, 250, 332, _422_
_Turcica_, _408_
_Turricula_, _425_;
radula, 221
_Turrilites_, =399=, _399_
_Turritella_, 252, _417_;
radula, 215, 224
_Tyleria_, _459_
_Tylodina_, _431_
_Tylopoma_, _416_
_Tympanotonus_, _416_
_Tyndaria_, _447_
_Typhis_, _423_
Ultra-dextral shells, 250
_Umbonella_, _409_
_Umbonium_, _409_
_Umbrella_, =10=, _431_;
radula, 217, 230
_Uncites_, _505_;
stratigraphical distribution, 507, 508
Underground snails, 48
_Ungulina_, _452_
_Unicardium_, _452_
_Unio_, _452_;
shell, =254=, 259, =273=, 341;
variation, 92
Union of _Limax_, 128
Unionidae, origin of, 15;
eaten by rats, 57;
larvae, 146
_Urocyclus_, =331=, _440_
_Urosalpinx_, _423_
_Utriculus_, _430_
_Uvanilla_, _409_
_Vaginula_, 245, 319, 343, 352, _443_
Vaginulidae, radula, 234;
anus, 241
_Valletia_, _456_
_Vallonia_, _441_
_Valvata_, 133, _416_;
branchia, =159=
Valves of Chitonidae, 401 f.
_Vanganella_, _454_
Variation, 82 f.
_Varicella_, 346, 348
_Velates_, 260, _410_
_Velifera_, 353, _440_
Veliger stage, 131;
mistaken for perfect form, 133
_Velorita_, 302, _453_
Velum, 131
_Velutina_, 275, _411_;
radula, 223
Veneracea, _454_
_Venericardia_, _451_
_Venerupis_, _454_
_Veniella_, _451_
_Venilicardia_, _451_
_Venus_, =270=, =271=, 446, _454_;
_V. mercenaria_, 97, 374
_Verania_, _391_
_Vermetus_, 247, _418_;
radula, =223=
_Veronicella_, _443_
_Verticordia_, _458_
_Vertigo_, 327, _442_;
_V. arctica_, 287
_Vexilla_, _423_
_Vibex_, _417_
_Vitrella_, 289
_Vitrina_, 22, 296 f., 332, _440_;
hardy habits, 24;
jumping powers, 65;
shell, 175;
radula, 217
_Vitrinella_, _408_
_Vitriniconus_, 314, _440_
_Vitrinoidea_, 314, _440_
_Vitrinozonites_, 340, _440_
_Vitularia_, _423_
_Vivipara_, 324, 343, _416_
Volume of water, effect in producing variation, 94
_Voluta_, 267, =425=, _425_;
spawn, =125=;
radula, 217, 221;
distribution, 370;
prices given for rare, 122
_Volutaxis_, 348
_Volutharpa_, 267, _424_
_Volutolithes_, _425_
_Volutolyria_, _425_;
radula, 222
_Volutomitra_, _425_;
radula, 221
_Volutopsis_, _423_
_Volvaria_, _429_
_Volvatella_, _430_
_Volvula_, _430_
_Vulsella_, 75, =446=, _449_
_Waldheimia_, 464, 467, 468, 473, 474, _487_;
size, 484;
distribution, 486;
fossil, =500=, 501, 502, _506_, 508
Walton and mussel cultivation, 115
Wampum, 97
Warner, R., quoted, 37
Warning coloration, 71 f.
West Coast, South America, melanism of shells occurring on, 85
Whelks, use of, 118
_Whitneya_, _424_
Whitstable, oyster-parks at, 106, 112
Willem, V., on vision of Mollusca, 185
Wollaston, T. V., quoted, 32
Wood, Rev. J. G., on starfish eating oysters, 111
_Woodia_, _451_
Woodward, S. P., on tenacity of life, 38;
Dr., on the same, 38
Wotton, F. W., on egg-laying of _Arion_, 42
Wright, Bryce, on tenacity of life, 38
_Xenophora_, _412_;
habits, =64=
_Xenopoma_, 346, 351
_Xerophila_, 285, 296, _441_
_Xesta_, 310, 319, 321, _440_;
mimicry by, 66 f.
_Xylophaga_, _457_
_Yetus_, _425_
_Yoldia_, _447_;
genital orifice, 242
_Zagrabica_, 297
_Zebrina_, 285, 296, _442_
_Zeidora_, _406_
_Zidona_, _425_
_Zittelia_, _420_
Zones of depth, 361
_Zonites_, 275, _440_;
food, 33;
radula, 232;
distribution, 294, 296, 340
_Zospeum_, 187, _442_
Zygobranchiata, 154, _406_
END OF VOL. III.
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] See especially Moseley, _Nature_, 1885, p. 417.
[2] _Quart. Journ. Conch._ i. p. 371.
[3] _Manuel de Conchyliologie et de Paléontologie Conchyliologique._
Dr. P. Fischer. Paris, 1887.
[4] κεφαλή, head; γαστήρ, stomach; σκάπτειν, to dig; πέλεκυς, an axe;
πούς, ποδός, a foot.
[5] Also known as _Lamellibranchiata_, _Conchifera_, and
_Acephala_.
[6] πτερόν, wing.
[7] γλῶσσα, tongue; φέρειν, to carry.
[8] λείπειν, to be wanting.
[9] ἀμφί, on both sides; νεὕρον, nerve, vessel. Some authorities regard
the Amphineura as a distinct Order.
[10] πολύς, many; πλάξ, plate.
[11] πρόσω, in front. Often alluded to in the sequel as ‘operculate
Gasteropoda.’
[12] κτενίδιον, a little comb.
[13] δὐω, two; mόnos, single; ὦτα, auricles; καρδία, heart.
[14] ὄπισθεν, behind.
[15] _Pulmo_, a lung.
[16] στὕλος, pillar; ὄμματα, eyes.
[17] The _Ascoglossa_ are dealt with below (chap. xv.).
[18] Beudant, by very gradually changing the water, accustomed marine
species to live in fresh, and fresh-water species to live in salt water.
[19] Braun, _Arch. f. Naturk. Liv._ (2), x. p. 102 f.
[20] Lindström, _Oef. K. Vet. Förh. Stockh._, 1855, p. 49.
[21] Mendthal, _Schr. Ges. Königsb._, xxx. p. 27.
[22] _SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien_, 1889, p. 4, but the view is not
universally accepted.
[23] Not to _Nassa_, as has been generally held. The shape of the
operculum, and particularly the teeth of the radula, show a much closer
connexion with _Cominella_.
[24] _E.g._ Bouvier, _Le Natural_, 1889, p. 242.
[25] Köhler, _Zool. Jahrb._ vii. 1893, p. 1 f; Haller, _Arb.
Zool. Inst. Wien_, x. p. 71.
[26] Plate, _SB. kön. Preuss. Ak. Wiss. Berl._ 1893. p. 959.
[27] _E.g._ Pelseneer, _Bull. Sc. France Belg._ xxiv. p. 347
f.
[28] _E.g._ Bergh, _Zool. Jahrb._ v. p. 1 f.
[29] Calkins, _Amer. Nat._ xi. p. 687.
[30] One step even further (or perhaps it should be termed a branch
derivative) is seen in the genus _Smaragdia_, which is probably a
_Neritina_ which has resumed a purely marine habit of life.
[31] _SB. Naturf. Gesell. Leipz._ 1886–87, pp. 40–48.
[32] _L. and F. W. Moll. of India_, iv. p. 167.
[33] T. Scott, _Journ. of Conch._ v. p. 230.
[34] J. S. Gibbons, _ibid._ ii. p. 129.
[35] _Bull. Soc. Linn. Nord_, Abbeville, 1840, p. 150.
[36] Joly, _Comptes Rendus_, 1842, p. 460; compare W. A. Gain,
_Science Gossip_, xxvii. p. 118.
[37] Von Martens, _SB. Nat. Fr. Berl._ 1881, p. 34.
[38] Moquin-Tandon, _Moll. de France_, i. p. 116.
[39] _Journ. of Conch._ iii. p. 321 f.; iv. p. 13; _Science
Goss._ 1866, p. 158.
[40] Reichel, _Zool. Anz._ x. p. 488.
[41] Schumann, _Schr. Ges. Danz._ (2) vi. p. 159.
[42] Fischer and Crosse, _Mexico_, p. 437.
[43] _Journ. de Conch._ iv. p. 397, but the species observed is
not mentioned.
[44] _Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv._ iv. p. 378.
[45] W. Harte, _Proc. Dubl. N. H. Soc._ iv. p. 182.
[46] See on the whole subject of threads G. S. Tye, _Journ. of
Conch._ i. p. 401.
[47] _Zoologist_, ii. p. 296; iii. p. 833; iv. p. 1216; iii. p.
1036; iv. p. 1216; iii. p. 1037.
[48] _Ann. Nat. Hist._ ii. 1838, p. 310.
[49] H. W. Kew, _Naturalist_, 1889, p. 103.
[50] _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ xlii. p. 203 f.
[51] _Sci. Trans. R. Dubl. Soc._ (2) iv. p. 520.
[52] _Zoologist_, iv. p. 1504; iii. p. 1038; iii. p. 943.
[53] H. W. Kew, _l. c._
[54] _Zoologist_, xix. p. 7819.
[55] _Naturalist_, 1889, p. 55.
[56] H. W. Kew, _l. c._
[57] W. G. Binney, _Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv_. iv. p. 144.
[58] _Naturalist_, _l. c._
[59] _Science Gossip_, 1885, p. 154.
[60] R. Standen, _Journ. of Conch._ vii. p. 197.
[61] _Journ. of Conch._ v. p. 43.
[62] A. Paladilhe in MS. letter.
[63] J. S. Gibbons, _Quart. Journ. Conch._ ii. p. 143.
[64] _Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv._ iv. p. 193.
[65] _l. c._ p. 362.
[66] _Animal Life_, p. 59.
[67] _Zoologist_, 1861, p. 7400; _Brit. Conch._ i. p. 108.
[68] H. Ullyett, _Science Gossip_, xxii. (1886), p. 214.
[69] _Descent of Man_, i. p. 325, ed. 1.
[70] _Amer. Nat._ xv. 1881, p. 976.
[71] W. A. Gain, quoted by H. W. Kew in _Naturalist_, 1890, p.
307, an article to which I am much indebted.
[72] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (5) xvi. p. 519.
[73] _Science Gossip_, 1882, pp. 237, 262.
[74] H. W. Kew, _Naturalist_, 1893, p. 149, another most valuable
article.
[75] _Garden_, v. p. 201, quoted by Kew, _ut sup._
[76] Kew, _ut sup._
[77] _Science Gossip_, 1883, p. 163.
[78] T. D. A. Cockerell, _Science Gossip_, 1885, p. 211.
[79] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) vi. (1850) p. 68.
[80] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) vi. p. 489.
[81] _Ibid._ (3) iii. p. 448.
[82] _Amer. Nat._ xi. (1877) p. 100; _Proc. Calif. Ac._ iii.
p. 329.
[83] _Gaz. Med. Alger._ 1865, 5th Jan. p. 9.
[84] _Science Gossip_, 1867, p. 40.
[85] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) ix. p. 498.
[86] _Journ. of Conch._ vi. p. 101.
[87] _Naturalist_, 1889, p. 55.
[88] _Malak. Blätt._ (2) iv. pp. 43 and 221.
[89] _Phil. Trans._ 1854 (1856), p. 8.
[90] _Naturalist_, 1891, p. 75 f.; _Conchologist_, ii. 1892,
p. 29.
[91] Taylor, _Journ. of Conch._ 1888, p. 299.
[92] See Tennent’s _Ceylon_, i. p. 221, ed. 5.
[93] W. A. Gain, _Naturalist_, 1889, p. 55; Brockmeier, _Nachr.
Deutsch. Malak. Gesell._ xx. p. 113.
[94] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) ix. p. 498.
[95] _Journ. Conch._ vii. 1893, p. 158 f.
[96] I succeeded in hatching out eggs of _Helix aspersa_, during
the very warm summer of 1893, in 17 days.
[97] _Nachr. Deutsch. Malak. Gesell._ xx. p. 146.
[98] Raymond, _Nautilus_, iv. p. 6.
[99] Quoted by Oehlert, _Rév. Sc._ xxxviii. p. 701.
[100] _Animal Life, Intern. Scientif. Ser._ ed. 1, p. 395.
[101] _Zoologist_, 1886, p. 491.
[102] Thomas, quoted by Jeffreys, _Brit. Conch._ i. p. 30.
[103] _Journ. of Conch._ iv. p. 117.
[104] Rev. L. Jenyns, _Observations in Nat. Hist._ p. 318.
[105] _Id. ib._ p. 319.
[106] Further detailed examples will be found in Kew, _The dispersal
of Shells_, pp. 5–26.
[107] _P. Z. S._ 1888, p. 358.
[108] W. A. Gain, _Naturalist_, 1889, p. 58.
[109] _Das Wetter_, Dec. 1892. Another case is recorded in
_Amer. Nat._ iii. p. 556.
[110] _Zoologist_, x. p. 3430.
[111] _Science Gossip_, 1888, p. 281.
[112] Lecoq, _Journ. de Conch._ ii. p. 146.
[113] Bouchard-Chantereaux, _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ (4) xvi. (1861)
p. 197.
[114] Forel, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (3) xx. p. 576; Bretonnière,
_Comptes Rendus_, cvii. p. 566.
[115] Brit. Mus. Collection.
[116] Thomas, quoted by Récluz in _Journ. de Conch._ vii. 1858, p.
178.
[117] _Nat. Hist. of Ceylon_, p. 382. See also T. L. Taylor,
_Rep. Brit. Ass._ for 1848, p. 82.
[118] Dr. R. E. Grant, _Edinb. Phil. Journ._ xiv. p. 188.
[119] _Rep. Brit. Ass._ for 1848, p. 80. The statement is
confirmed by Rossmässler.
[120] _Journ. of Conch._ iv. p. 118.
[121] _Zoologist_, 1887, p. 29.
[122] _Arch. Zool. Exp. Gén._ (2) v. p. 459 f.
[123] _Journ. of Conch._ iii. p. 277; compare W. M. Webb,
_Zoologist_, 1893, p. 281.
[124] _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv._ iv. p. 85.
[125] Erjavec, _Nachr. Deutsch. Malak. Gesell._ 1885, p. 88.
[126] Crosse, _Journ. de Conch._ (3) xiv. (1874) p. 223.
[127] C. Wright, _Zoologist_, 1869, p. 1700.
[128] W. V. Legge, _Zoologist_, 1866, p. 190.
[129] Blackwall, _Researches_, p. 139.
[130] Barrow, _Travels in South Africa_, ii. p. 67.
[131] _Loch Creran_, p. 102.
[132] Cordeaux, _Zoologist_, 1873, p. 3396.
[133] _Amer. Nat._ xii. p. 695; _Science Gossip_, 1865, p. 79.
[134] _Journ. Trent. N. H. Soc._ 1887, p. 58.
[135] _Ann. Nat. Hist._ iii. 1893, pp. 238, 239.
[136] _Rev. Nat. Sc. Ouest_, 1891, p. 261.
[137] Petit de la Saussaye, _Journ. de Conch._ iii. p. 97 f.
[138] J. W. Williams, _Science Gossip_, 1889, p. 280.
[139] Noack, _Zool. JB._ ii. p. 254.
[140] _La Nature_, xv. (2) p. 46.
[141] François, _Arch. Zool. Exp. Gén._ (2) ix. p. 240.
[142] A. Lang, _Ber. Naturf. Ges. Freib._ vi. 1892, p. 81.
[143] A. P. Thomas, _Q. J. Micr. Sc._ N. S. xxiii. (1883) p. 99.
[144] H. Woodward, _P. Z. S._ 1886, p. 176.
[145] W. E. Collinge, _Zoologist_, 1890, p. 467.
[146] _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, ix. p. 944.
[147] _Zoologist_, xviii. (1860) p. 7136.
[148] A. Adams, _Samarang_, vol. ii. _Zoology_, p. 357.
[149] In Thomson’s _British New Guinea_, p. 283.
[150] _Animal Life_, p. 395. It should be mentioned that Von
Möllendorff (_Ber. Senck. Ges._ 1890, p. 198) ridicules the whole
theory.
[151] Von Martens, _SB. Nat. Fr. Berl._ 1891, p. 83.
[152] Von Martens, _ibid._ 1887, p. 183.
[153] _SB. Nat. Gesell. Leipz._ xiii.-xiv. p. 45.
[154] Garstang, _Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass._ N. S. i. p. 432; Giard,
_Bull. Sci. Fr. Belg._ 1888, p. 502 f.
[155] _Nautilus_, vi. 1892, p. 90.
[156] R. F. Scharff, _Sci. Trans. R. Dubl. Soc._ (2) iv. p. 553 f.
[157] _Q. Journ. Micr. Sci._ N. S. xxxi. (1890) p. 41 f.
[158] A detailed account is given in _Proc. Liverp. Biol. Soc._
iv. (1890) pp. 150–163.
[159] _Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass._ N. S. i. p. 418 f.
[160] Garstang, _Conchologist_, ii. p. 49.
[161] Hecht, _Comptes Rendus_, cxv. p. 746.
[162] _Conchologist_, ii. p. 130.
[163] Described as a _Cypraea_, but no doubt an _Ovula_ or
_Pedicularia_: _CB. Bakt. Par._ v. p. 543.
[164] Von Graff, _Z. wiss. Zool_ xxv. p. 124.
[165] _Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc._ xxv. p. 231.
[166] _Ergeb. naturw. Forsch. Ceylon_, abstr. in _Journ. Roy.
Micr. Soc._ (2) vi. p. 412.
[167] _Voyage of the Samarang_, Moll. p. 69, Pl. xi. f. 1; p. 47,
Pl. xvii. f. 5.
[168] E. A. Smith, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) iii. p. 270.
[169] _Journ. de Conch._ (3) xxix. p. 101.
[170] _Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst._ v. p. 619.
[171] See especially Semper, _Animal Life_, Ed. 1, p. 351.
[172] Gould, _Moll. of U.S. expl. exped._ 1852, p. 207 (_St.
acicula_, from Fiji).
[173] Stimpson, _Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H._ vi. 1858, p. 308.
[174] Pidgeon, _Nature_, xxxix. p. 127.
[175] W. Anderson Smith, _Loch Creran_, p. 46.
[176] Smart, _Journal of Conch._ v. p. 152.
[177] _Animal Life_, p. 351.
[178] _Journ. of Conch._ vi. 1891, p. 399.
[179] _Ann. Mag. N. H._ (6) vii. p. 276.
[180] Stimpson, quoted by Jeffrey’s _Brit. Conch._ ii. 194.
[181] Stimpson, _Journ. Bost. Soc. N. H._ vi. 1857, p. 48.
[182] E. H. Matthews, _Conchologist_, ii. p. 144.
[183] Thus _Limnaea involuta_, which is almost universally
regarded as a good and distinct species, has been held to be no
more than a variety of _L. peregra_ produced by locality; see
_Zoologist_, 1889, p. 154.
[184] J. W. Taylor, _Journ. of Conch._ v. p. 289, an interesting
article, with many useful references.
[185] Möbius, _Report on ‘Pommerania’ Exped._ pp. 138–141.
[186] _Journ. de Conchyl._ xxiii. 1875, p. 105.
[187] J. W. Taylor _ut sup._ p. 300.
[188] _Sci. Trans. R. Dubl. Soc._ (2) iv. p. 555.
[189] J. S. Gibbons, _Journ. of Conch._ ii. p. 129.
[190] C. H. Morris, _ibid._ vii. p. 191.
[191] F. M. Hele, _ibid._ iv. p. 93.
[192] T. D. A. Cockerell, _Science Gossip_, 1887, p. 67.
[193] J. G. Jeffreys, _British Conchology_, vol. i. p. 214.
[194] _Journ. of Conch._ vi. p. 123.
[195] _Phil. Trans._ 1889, vol. 180 B, p. 207. A somewhat similar
case (the celebrated Steinheim series of _Planorbis_) is dealt
with by Hilgendorf, _MB. Akad. Berl._ 1866, p. 474; and Hyatt,
_Proc. Amer. Ass. Sc._ xxix. p. 527.
[196] J. B. Bridgman, _Quart. Journ. Conch._ i. p. 70.
[197] W. C. Hey, _Journ. of Conch._ iii. p. 268.
[198] _Zool. Anz._ xiii. p. 662.
[199] J. Madison, _Journ. of Conch._ v. p. 260.
[200] _Quart. Journ. Conch._ i. 339.
[201] Whitfield, _Bull. Amer. Mus. N. H._ i. p. 29.
[202] _Amer. Nat._ xiv. p. 51.
[203] _Animal Life_, Ed. 1, p. 160 f.
[204] _Conch. Syst._ ii. p. 262 _n._
[205] P. L. Simmonds, _Commercial Products of the Sea_, p. 278.
[206] _Benderloch_, p. 118.
[207] C. Hedley in J. P. Thomson, _Brit. New Guinea_, p. 283.
[208] Most of the above facts are derived from a study of a collection
of native implements, weapons, ornaments, etc., in the Antiquarian
Museum at Cambridge.
[209] Thurston, _Notes on the Pearl and Chank Fisheries_, Madras,
1890.
[210] See in particular, P. L. Simmonds, _The Commercial Products of
the Sea_.
[211] H. Friend, _Field Club_, iv. 1893, p. 100.
[212] _Nature_, xxxi. 1885, p. 492.
[213] W. Anderson Smith, _Benderloch_, p. 173.
[214] Dominique, _Feuill. Nat._ xviii. p. 22.
[215] SB. _Nat. Fr. Berl._ 1889, p. 197.
[216] A. Adams, _Voyage of the ‘Samarang,’_ ii. p. 308.
[217] Much information has been derived, on this subject, from
Bertram’s _Harvest of the Sea_, Simmonds’ _Commercial Products
of the Sea_, the publications of the Fisheries Exhibition,
especially vol. xi. (Anson and Willett); see also Philpots, _Oysters
and all about them_.
[218] Juvenal, _Sat._ iv. 140–142.
[219] _Hist. Nat._ ix. 79.
[220] _Vol. Max._ ix. 1.
[221] _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc._ xxvi. p. 71.
[222] See G. H. Lewes, _Sea-side Studies_, p. 339.
[223] _Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm._ v. p. 161.
[224] W. Anderson Smith, _Loch Creran_, p. 228.
[225] _Longmans’ Magazine_, June 1889.
[226] _St. James’s Gazette_, 6th January 1893.
[227] Also at Arcachon (W. A. Herdman, _Nature_, 1893, p. 269).
[228] See especially Hoek, _Tijdschr. Ned. Dierk. Vereen_, Suppl.
Deel, i. 1883.
[229] _Benderloch_, p. 136.
[230] This is the view of E. Ray Lankester, _Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sc._ xxvi. 80.
[231] De Quatrefages, _Rambles of a Naturalist_.
[232] Quoted by Jeffreys, _Brit. Conch._, ii. p. 109.
[233] M. S. Lovell, _Edible Mollusks_, p. 49.
[234] _Science_, vii. p. 175.
[235] _Hist. Nat._ ix. 82.
[236] _De re rustica_, iii. 14.
[237] _Epistles_, i. 15.
[238] Hor. _Sat._ II., iv. 58, tr. Conington.
[239] Roberts, _Zoologist_, 1885, p. 425.
[240] _Hist. Nat._ xxx. 15, 19.
[241] _Science Gossip_, 1891, p. 166.
[242] Jeffreys, _Brit. Conch._ iii. p. 355.
[243] W. Clark, _Mag. Nat. Hist._ xvi. p. 466.
[244] Examples will be found in _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ xi. p.
90; _Ann. Sc. Nat._ xx. p. 472; _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ xxiv. p.
419.
[245] Herdman, _Proc. Liverp. Biol. Soc._ iii. p. 30.
[246] Garrett, _Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil._ viii. (1880).
[247] J. Bladon, _Zoologist_, xvi. p. 6272.
[248] Lo Bianco, _MT. Zool. Stat. Neap._ viii. p. 414.
[249] _Animal Life_, pp. 126, 135.
[250] R. Rimmer, _Land and Fresh-Water Shells_, p. 119.
[251] _Journ. de Conch._ ii. p. 245.
[252] _Journ. de Conchyl._ iii. p. 107.
[253] Jeffreys, _Brit. Conch._ iii. p. 359; Sauvage, _Journ. de
Conchyl._ xxi. p. 122.
[254] Hermaphroditism seems to occur in (_a_) whole families, _e.g._
_Anatinidae_ and the _Septibranchia_; (_b_) genera, _e.g._ _Cyclas_,
_Pisidium_; (_c_) single species, _e.g._ in the generally dioecious
genera _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, _Cardium_.
[255] δὐω, two; μόνος, single; γόνος, semen; πόρος, passage.
[256] Von Brunn, _Arch. Mikr. Anat._ xxiii. p. 413.
[257] _Hist. Anim._ v. 6 and 12, iv. 1, ed. Bekker, 1837.
[258] ‘On pourra constater si ce ne seraient pas des parties détachées
de quelque céphalopode dans le but de servir à le fécondation,’
_Hist. Nat. Helminthes_, 1845, p. 482.
[259] Steenstrup, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2), xx. p. 81 f.
[260] C. Ashford, _Journ. of Conch._ iii. p. 239, iv. pp. 69, 108.
[261] W. E. Collinge, _Zoologist_, 1890, p. 276.
[262] Pelseneer, _Comptes Rendus_, cx. p. 1081.
[263] _Kon. Vet. Akad. Handl._ 1848, pp. 329–435.
[264] _P. Z. S._ 1891, p. 52 f.
[265] The result of some experiments by Professor Herdman upon
_Littorina rudis_, tends to show that it can live much better in
air than in water, and goes far to support the view that the species
may be undergoing, as we know many species must have undergone (see p.
20), a transition from a marine to a terrestrial life. It was found
that marked specimens upon the rocks did not move their position for
thirty-one successive days (_Proc. Liverp. Biol. Soc._ iv. 1890,
p. 50).
[266] Diminutive of κτείς, a comb.
[267] Stoliezka, quoted in _Journ. de Conch._ xviii. p. 452.
[268] ζύγος, a yoke, from the symmetrical position of the branchiae.
[269] Pelseneer, _‘Challenger’ Reports_, vol. xxiii. part lxvi.
[270] _Zoologist_, xii. p. 4248.
[271] _Mollusques de France_, i. p. 81.
[272] _N. Denk. Schw. Ges._ xxix. (2) p. 196 f.
[273] Bergh, _Morph. Jahrb._ x. p. 172.
[274] P. Fischer, _Journ. de Conch._ ix. p. 101.
[275] _Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv._ xviii. p. 434.
[276] Pelseneer, _Comptes Rendus_, cvi. p. 1029.
[277] _E.g._ Kollmann, _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ xxvi. p. 87.
[278] _Proc. Roy. Soc._ 1873, p. 70.
[279] Griesbach (_Arch. mikr. Anat._ xxxvii. p. 22) finds haemoglobin
in several bivalves, _e.g._ _Poromya granulata_, _Tellinata planata_,
_Arca Noae_, and _Pectunculus glycimeris_.
[280] _Trans. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales_, xxii. p. 106.
[281] Pelseneer, _Comptes Rendus_, cx. p. 154.
[282] _Science_, iv. p. 50.
[283] P. Fischer, _Journ. de Conchyl._ (3) xxvii. p. 201.
[284] _Journ. of Conch._ vi. p. 349 ff.
[285] _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc._ N.S. xv. p. 37.
[286] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2), xx. p. 336.
[287] V. Willem (_Arch. Biol._ ut infr.) denies this, and declares
that _Cyclostoma_ is only very sensitive to movements. The present
writer has often approached, with the greatest care, a crawling
_Cyclostoma_, but it always withdrew into its shell or fell to the
ground when approached within about 10 or 12 inches.
[288] _Arch. Biol._ xii. 1892, p. 57.
[289] _‘Challenger’ Reports_, Zoology, vol. xxvii. part lxxiv. p.
3.
[290] _Animal Life_, p. 372 f.
[291] Bergh, _Morph. Jahrb._ x. p. 172.
[292] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (5) xiv. p. 141.
[293] The nature of the grouping of the eyes into rows varies
considerably in different species. As a rule, the rows radiate from the
beak, but occasionally they run parallel to the girdle. In _Tonicia
lineolata_ Fremb., they are grouped, as it were, under the shelter
of strongly marked longitudinal wavy lines.
[294] =Shell-Eyes in other Mollusca.=--The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods
(_Trans. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, xxii. p. 106) is of opinion that
‘shell-eyes’ are by no means confined to the Chitonidae, but that,
in fact, multiplicity of eyes of this kind is the rule rather than
the exception among the Mollusca. He finds (1) exceedingly minute and
numerous ‘eyes’ on the outer surface of the shell in both univalves and
bivalves; (2) large and solitary ‘eyes’ in the shell substance; (3)
eyes on the mantle lobes in both univalves and bivalves; (4) eyes on
the opercula.
[295] _Mitth. Stat. Zool. Neap._ v. p. 447 ff.
[296] W. Patten, _Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap._ vi. (1886) pp. 546,
605 f.
[297] _Benderloch_, p. 136.
[298] _Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc._ xx. p. 443.
[299] _Quart. Journ. of Conch._ i. p. 368.
[300] _British Conchology_, i. p. xxviii.
[301] _Science Gossip_, 1865, p. 259.
[302] _Mollusques de France_, i. p. 130.
[303] _E.g._ Sochaczewer, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xxxv. p. 30.
[304] _Zool. Anz._ 1882, p. 472.
[305] _Zoologist_, iv. p. 1266.
[306] _Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass._ N.S. i. p. 217.
[307] Moquin-Tandon, _Moll. de France_, i. p. 133.
[308] _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ iv. (1890) p. 501.
[309] Baudon, _Rév. Mag. Zool._ 1852, p. 575.
[310] _Arch. Zool. Exp. Gén._ (2) v. 1887, p. 2; compare also C.
H. Hurst, _Natural Science_, ii. pp. 360, 421.
[311] Compare Pelseneer, _Bull. Sci. Fr. Belg._ (3) xix. pp. 107,
182.
[312] Pelseneer, _Arch. Biol._ viii. p. 723.
[313] Also known as _labial_ and _supra-oesophageal_ ganglia.
[314] Wivén, however (_K. Sv. Vet. Ak. Handl._ xxiv. 1892, No.
12), describes transverse connectives in _Chaetoderma_.
[315] στρεπτός, twisted; εὐθύς, straight.
[316] With the exception of _Actaeon_, which is streptoneurous
(Bouvier, _Comptes Rendus_, cxvi. p. 68).
[317] This fusion of the cerebral and pleural ganglia and the
consequent union of the cerebro-pedal and pleuro-pedal commissures
can be recognised by sections of the mass (Pelseneer, _Comptes
Rendus_, cxi. p. 245).
[318] There is practically no pharynx in the Pelecypoda, the mouth
opening directly into the oesophagus.
[319] _Radere_, to scrape; ὸδούς, tooth; φέρειν, to carry.
[320] The mechanism of the radula has been dealt with by Geddes,
_Trans. Zool. Soc._ x. p. 485. Rücker has observed (_Ber.
Oberhess. Gesell. Nat. Heilk._ xxii. p. 207) that the radula in
_Helix pomatia_ is the product of five rows of cells; the use
of the first row is uncertain, the second forms the membrane of the
radula, while rows three to five originate the teeth.
[321] _Jahrb. Deut. Malak. Gesell._ iii. p. 193.
[322] The whole of the radulae and jaws figured in this work are
taken from the original specimens in the collection of the Rev. Prof.
H. M. Gwatkin, who has always been ready to give me the run of his
cabinets, which probably contain the finest series of radulae in the
world. To his kindness I owe the following description of the process
of mounting: “The first step is to obtain the radula. Dissection is
easy in species of a reasonable size. On opening the head from above,
so as to lay open the floor of the mouth, the radula itself is seen in
most of the marine species, though in others it is contained in a sort
of proboscis; and in the Pulmonata and others the student will find
the buccal mass, with commonly a brown mandible at its front end, and
the lingual ribbon in its hinder part. The teeth may be recognised by
their silvery whiteness, except in a few cases like _Patella_ and
_Chiton_, where they are of a deep brown colour. When obtained,
the radula may be cleaned by boiling in a solution of caustic potash.
There is no risk of injury if the solution is not too strong.
“Smaller species may be treated more summarily. The proboscis, the
buccal mass, or even the whole animal may be thrown into the potash
solution and boiled till scarcely anything is left but the cleaned
radula. Remains of animals dried inside the shell may be similarly
dealt with, after soaking in clean water. With a little care, this
process will answer for shells down to the size of _Ancylus_ or
_Rissoa_. The very smallest (_Carychium_, _Tornatellina_, _Skenea_,
etc.) must be crushed on the slide and boiled on it, after removing as
much as possible of the broken shell. The radula can then be searched
for under the microscope, and washed and mounted on the slide.
“The student must be warned that though the general process is simple,
there are difficulties in particular cases. In the Pulmonata, for
example, membranes on both sides of the radula need careful removal.
_Murex_, _Purpura_, and most of the _Taenioglossa_ have the side teeth
folded down over the central, so that the arrangement is not well seen
till they have been brushed back. The Cones, again, have no basal
membrane at all, so that if the potash is not used with great care,
the single teeth will fall asunder and be lost. Perhaps the worst case
is where a large animal has a radula as small as that of a _Rissoa_,
like _Turritella_, _Harpa_, or _Struthiolaria_, or where the radula is
almost filmy in its transparency, like those of _Actaeon_ and the small
_Scalaria_.
“When once the radula is laid out, the mounting is commonly easy.
Canada balsam makes it too transparent. Fluids may be used, and are
almost necessary for thick radulae like those of large _Chitons_;
but the best general medium is glycerine jelly. It runs under the
cover glass by capillary attraction, and may be boiled (though only
for a moment) to get rid of air bubbles. It should then be left
unfinished for several weeks. If cracks appear, the reason is either
that the jelly is a bad sample, or that it has been boiled too long,
or (commonly) that the object is too thick; and there is not often
any difficulty in remounting. I have no serious complaint of want
of permanence against the medium, if I may speak from a pretty wide
experience during the last twenty years.”
[323] The substance both of the jaw and radula is neither crystalline
nor cellular, but laminated. Chitin is the substance which forms
the ligament in bivalves, the ‘pen’ in certain Cephalopoda, and the
operculum in many univalves. Neither silica nor keratine enter into the
composition of the radula.
[324] τόξον, arrow; ῥάχις, ridge, sharp edge; ταινία, ribbon; πτηνός,
winged; γυμνὀς, bare; ῥιπίς, fan; δοκός, beam.
[325] _V. concinna_, according to Schacko (_Conch. Mitth._ i.
p. 126, Pl. xxiv. f. 5); the lateral is large, strong, unicuspid on a
broad base.
[326] In some cases (_e.g._ _Hyalinia inornata_) the laterals
are very few, while in _Zonites laevigatus_ the first side tooth
is more of a marginal than a lateral.
[327] Semon, _Biol. Centralbl._ ix. p. 80.
[328] According to Moquin-Tandon (_Moll. de France_, i. p. 44)
this process in _Bithynia_ is attached by one end to the wall of
the stomach. _Vivipara_, with two jaw pieces, does not possess
this stylet; _Bithynia_, which does possess it, has no jaw.
[329] J. H. Vanstone, _Journ. Linn. Soc._ xxiv. p. 369.
[330] _Biol. Centralbl._ vii. p. 683; _SB. Ges. Nat. Fr._
1890, p. 42; _Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) v. 1850, p. 14.
[331] νεφρός, kidney.
[332] _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (2) xvi. p. 298.
[333] See, for instance, _Quart. Journ. Conch._ i. p. 340
(_Cyl. Raveni_): _Jahrb. Deut. Malak. Gesell._ 1879, p. 98
(_Clausilia dubia_).
[334] Cailliaud, _Journ. de Conchyl._ vii. p. 231; Gassies,
_ibid._ p. 44.
[335] _Arch. Naturgesch._ xlii. p. 209.
[336] Dr. W. B. Carpenter, _Rep. Brit. Ass._ xiii. p. 71; xiv. p.
1; xvii. p. 93; J. S. Bowerbank, _Trans. Micr. Soc._ i. p. 123;
Ehrenbaum, _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ xli. p. 1.
[337] See also p. 258.
[338] J. E. Gray, _Phil. Trans._ 1833, p. 774 f.
[339] J. E. Gray, _Phil. Trans._ 1833, p. 774 f.
[340] _Journ. de Conchyl._ iv. p. 424.
[341] _Journ. de Conchyl._ xii. p. 3.
[342] T. Scott, _Journ. of Conch._, 1887, p. 230.
[343] M. de Villepoix, _Comptes Rendus_, cxiii. p. 317.
[344] _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil._, 1892, p. 350.
[345] Mr. B. B. Woodward has recently pointed out (P. Z. S. 1892,
p. 528) a very remarkable method of shell absorption and growth in
_Velates_ and certain other Neritidae.
[346] The only exception appears to be _Pedipes_, while in _Cassidula_
and _Scarabus_ the absorption is partial (Crosse and Fischer, _Journ.
de Conch._ xxx. p. 177 f.).
[347] _Strombus_ and _Pteroceras_ (see Fig. 99, p. 200) exceptionally
develop a siphonal notch which is distinct from the anterior canal.
[348] The _columella_, as distinct from the _columella lip_, is the
solid pillar of shell round which the whorls are coiled (Fig. 177), the
lower, or anterior portion of which alone is usually visible.
[349] J. E. Gray, _Phil. Trans._ 1833, p. 812.
[350] W. H. Dall, _Amer. Journ. Sc._ xxxviii. p. 445 f.
[351] The term _epidermis_, as distinct from _periostracum_,
is properly restricted to the outer layer of the skin of the
_mantle_ and body generally.
[352] J. Lewis, _Proc. Bost. Soc._ vi. p. 149.
[353] _Journ. of Conch._ v. p. 66.
[354] _The Dispersal of Shells_, pp. 182–195.
[355] E. A. Smith, _P. Z. S._ 1892, p. 259.
[356] C. T. Musson, _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_ (2), v. p. 883.
[357] _Scient. Results Sec. Yarkand Exped._ “Mollusca,” pp. 1–16.
[358] Mr. H. W. Kew, _The Dispersal of Shells_, has brought
together a very large series.
[359] _The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 334 f.
[360] Morelet, _Journal de Conch._ 1875, p. 194.
[361] Pollonera, _Boll. Mus. Zool. Torino_, v. 1890, No. 87.
[362] South and south-western France, however, belong to the
Mediterranean Sub-region.
[363] The coast-line of north-east China, including Corea and Japan to
north Niphon, is much more definitely tropical than the adjacent inland
districts. The coast-line, therefore, must be placed in the Oriental
Region, while the inland districts belong to the Palaearctic Region.
[364] _Biol. Centralbl._ ii. p. 208.
[365] Craven, _Journ. de Conchyl._ (3) xxviii. p. 101.
[366] _Jahrb. Deutsch. Malak. Gesell._ viii. p. 278.
[367] Netchayeff, _Kazan Soc. Nat._ xvii. fasc. 5.
[368] _Fauna der Congerien-Schichten_, p. 142.
[369] _Streptaxis_ is a remarkable instance of a _mainland_
genus. Although abundant in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical
regions, it never seems to occur on any of the adjacent islands,
except in the case of Trinidad (1 sp.), which is practically mainland.
_Omphalotropis_, on the other hand, is the exact reverse of
_Streptaxis_ in this respect, occurring all over Polynesia and the
Malay Is., as far west as Borneo, as well as on the Mascarenes, but
never, save in a doubtful case from China, on the mainland of Asia,
Australia, or Africa.
[370] The Amboyna group has been much the better explored. Common to
both groups are one sp. each of _Kaliella_, _Trochomorpha_,
_Opeas_, _Leptopoma_, _Cyclotus_, _Helicina_.
[371] A. H. Cooke, _P. Z. S._ 1892, pp. 447–469.
[372] Mysol, with 2 _Chloritis_, 1 _Insularia_, 1 _Cristigibba_, is
decidedly Papuan.
[373] See especially C. Hedley, Note on the Relation of the Land
Mollusca of Tasmania and New Zealand, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6)
xiii. p. 442.
[374] Hedley and Suter, _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_ (2), vii.
p. 613. Twenty-one species are “introduced.”
[375] Nine species have been introduced: 6 from Europe, 2 from the West
Indies, 1 from the Western Isles.
[376] It is by no means implied that _unbroken_ land communication
between India and Madagascar, across the Indian Ocean, ever existed.
A series of great islands, whose remains are attested by the Chagos
and other banks, would be quite sufficient to account for the results,
as we find them. See especially Medlicott and Blanford, _Geology of
India_, vol. i. p. lxviii.
[377] _Journ. Cinc. Soc. Nat. Hist._ iii. p. 317. The number is
doubtless susceptible of very considerable reduction, say by one-half
at least.
[378] Simpson, _Amer. Nat._ xxvii. 1893, p. 354.
[379] Compare von Martens, _Malak. Blätt._ 1868, p. 169; von
Ihering, _Nachr. Deutsch. Malak. Gesell._ 1891, p. 93.
[380] The distribution of some Pteropoda has been worked out by Munthe,
_Bih. Svensk. Ak. Handl._ XII. iv. 2, by Pelseneer _“Challenger”
Rep._, Zool. xxiii., and by Boas, _Spolia Atlantica_.
[381] _Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv._ xiv. p. 202; xxiii. p. 34 f.
[382] See papers in _P. Z. S._ 1878–85.
[383] A break in this uniformity may be found underneath the course
of a great oceanic current like the Gulf Stream, which rains upon
the bottom a large amount of food. A. Agassiz (_Bull. Mus. C. Z.
Harv._ xxi. p. 185 f.) explains in this way the richness of the
fauna of the Gulf of Mexico as compared with that of the west coast of
tropical America.
[384] On the western coasts of Europe and America, where the change
in surface temperature is very gradual, _Purpura lapillus_ (the
west American ‘species’ are at best only derivatives) is able to creep
as far south as lat. 32° (Mogador) in the former case, and lat. 24°
(Margarita Bay) in the latter, the mean annual temperature of the
surface water being 66° off Mogador, with an extreme range of only 8°,
and that of Margarita Bay 73°, with an extreme range of only 5°. On
the eastern coasts, where the Pacific and Atlantic gulf-streams cause
a sudden change of temperature, the _Purpura_ is barred back at
points many degrees farther north, _viz._ at lat. 41° (Hakodadi),
surface temperature 52°, extreme range 25°; and at lat. 42° (Newhaven),
surface temperature 52°, extreme range 30°.
[385] E. A. Smith, _P. Z. S._ 1890, pp. 247, 317.
[386] A. H. Cook, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ (5) xviii. (1886) p. 380
f; E. A. Smith, _P. Z. S._ 1891, p. 391 f.
[387] C. Keller, _Neue denksch. Schw. Gesell._ xxviii. 1883, pt. 3.
[388] According to Tate (_Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr._ 1887–88,
p. 70), ‘Australian’ species predominate at Freemantle (32°), but
Tenison-Woods (_J. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales_, xxii. p. 106) holds
that the tropical fauna extends as far south as Cape Leeuwin (34°), and
that the Australian forms are not predominant until the extreme south.
Tenison-Woods regards Cape Byron (31°) as the limit of the tropical
fauna on the east coast, while some characteristic tropical genera
reach Port Jackson, and a few (_e.g._ _Cypraea annulus_)
Tasmania.
[389] A full account of the distribution of _Voluta_ is given by
Crosse, _Journ. de Conchyl._ (3) xix. p. 263.
[390] Usually known as ‘Patagonian,’ but since the Magellanic
Sub-region includes a considerable part of Patagonia, and since the
greater part of sub-region (6) lies out of Patagonia, it has been
thought advisable to change the name.
[391] _Amer. Nat._ xx. p. 931.
[392] W. H. Dall, _Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington_, v. p. 1 f.
[393] _Trans. Connect. Acad._ v. p. 177; _Zoologist_, 1875,
p. 4502.
[394] _Rep. Scotch Fish._ iii. 1885, App. F, p. 67.
[395] _Nautilus_, vi. 1892, p. 82.
[396] _Journ. Mar. Zool._ i. pp. 3, 9.
[397] _Rep. Brit. Assoc._ 1844, Transactions, p. 74; _P. Z.
S._ 1839, p. 35.
[398] It is convenient, but not morphologically correct, to apply the
terms ‘ventral’ and ‘dorsal’ in this sense.
[399] φραγμός, partition; σήπιον, cuttle-bone; χόνδρος, long cartilage.
[400] μυέω, close the eyes; ὕψις, sight; contrasted with Oigopsidae
(οἰγω, open).
[401] The classification is that of Foord, _Catal. Fossil Cephal.
Brit. Mus._, 1888.
[402] Saville Kent, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland_, vi. p. 229.
[403] J. Power, _Ann. Mag. N. H_. (2) xx. p. 334; _P. Z. S._
1836, p. 113; _Arch. Zool. Exp. Gén._ (3) i. 1893, p. 105.
[404] In deference to Bergh’s high authority, the position of a
sub-order is here given to the Ascoglossa. It may be doubted whether
that position will stand the test of further investigation, and
whether the families concerned will not be added to the Cladohepatic
Nudibranchs.
[405] This family has also been classified with the Bulloidea and with
the Aplysioidea.
[406] It appears more convenient to treat the whole group together,
rather than deal with the two sections separately.
[407] An operculum is said to exist in the young forms of
_Auricula_ and _Parmacella_.
[408] _Proc. Ac. Philad._ 1892, p. 390.
[409] Compare Jackson, _Amer. Nat._ xxv. p. 11 f.
[410] “A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda,”
_Palaeontographical Society_, London, vols. i.-v. 1851–84.
[411] _Ibid._ vol. vi. 1886.
[412] “Contributions to the Anatomy of the Brachiopoda,” _Proc. Roy.
Soc._, vol. vii.
[413] “Untersuchungen über den anatomischen u. histologischen Bau der
Brachiopoda Testicardinia,” _Jenaische Zeitschrift_, vol. xvi.,
1883.
[414] “On a living Spinose _Rhynchonella_ from Japan,” _Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist._, 5th ser., vol. xvii., 1886
[415] _Loc. cit._ p. 465.
[416] Shipley, “On the Structure and Development of Argiope,” _Mitt.
aus d. Zool. Stat. zu Neap._ Bd. iv. 1883.
[417] Schulgin, “Argiope Kowalevskii,” _Zeit. f. wiss. Zool._ Bd.
41, 1885.
[418] _American Jour. of Sci. and Arts_, 3rd series, vol. xvii.
1879.
[419] _Loc. cit._ p. 470.
[420] “Recherches sur l’Anat. des Brachiopodes Inarticules,” _Arch.
Zool. Exp._ (2), Tome iv., 1886.
[421] “Untersuchungen über den Bau der Brachiopoden,” Jena, 1892.
[422] “Vorläufige Mittheilungen über Brachiopoden,” _Zool. Anz._
Bd. viii. 1885.
[423] Hancock’s nomenclature is here used. The corresponding names used
by King and Brooks are placed in brackets. Their nomenclature is used
by many palaeontologists, and is adopted in Fig. 322.
[424] _Development of the Brachiopoda_, 1873 (Russian).
[425] “Histoire de la Thécidie,” _Ann. d. Sci. Nat._, Sér. 4, vol.
xv., 1861.
[426] “On the Early Stages of Terebratulina septentrionalis,” _Mem.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._, vol. ii., 1869. “On the Development of
Terebratulina,” _Ibid._ vol. iii., 1873.
[427] “Choses de Nouméa,” _Arch. d. Zool. exp. et gen._, 2nd ser.,
vol. ix., 1891.
[428] J. Barrande, _Syst. Silur. Bohème_, vol. v., 1879. Hall and
Clarke, _Introd. Palaeozoic. Brach._ (_Palaeont. of New York_,
1892–1894). Davidson, _Monogr._ _Brit. Foss. Brach._ (_Palaeont. Soc._,
1851–1884). Waagen, _Salt Range Fossils_ (_Mem. Geol. Surv. India_,
1879–1885).
[429] The results of the investigations of King (_Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist._, 4th ser., vol. xii., 1873) and of Brooks (_Chesapeake Zool.
Laboratory, Scientific Results_, p. 35, 1879), and the simple
nomenclature of these authors are here followed in preference to those
of others, owing to the difference of opinion amongst anatomists of the
functions and homologies of the muscles. The lateral muscles enable the
valves to move backwards and forwards on each other; the centrals close
the shell; the umbonals open it; and the transmedians allow a sliding
sideways movement of one valve across the other (see also p. 477).
[430] Davidson and King, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, xxx. (1874),
p. 124.
[431] _Amer. Jour. Science_, 1890–1893.
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
original.
3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
4. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r. or
X^{xx}.
5. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
6. Bold print is shown as =xxx=.