The general documents contained in this volume cover the years 1601-03;
they are followed by Chirino's _Relacion_, which was published in 1604,
but the events related therein end in 1602. The two notable occurrences
in this period are the great fire, and the Chinese revolt in Manila
in the year 1603--the latter ending in the slaughter or expulsion
of almost all the Chinese in the islands. Pirates are still raiding
the shores of the northern islands; but the available forces of the
colonial government are diverted to the assistance of an expedition
from India which attempts (but unsuccessfully) to drive the Dutch
from the Spice Islands. Commercial difficulties still affect the
prosperity of the islands, caused mainly by the unauthorized share of
Mexican speculators in the profitable trade between the Philippines
and China; and various expedients are proposed for the regulation of
this commerce. The great fire is a heavy blow to the Spanish colony,
and the people fear the vengeance of the Chinese for the slaughter
of their countrymen. The new archbishop of Manila complains that
the religious orders are in much need of inspection and reform;
some neglect the Indians to whom they should be missionaries, others
keep the infidel Chinese on their lands, and allow the Indians to
be corrupted by the vices of the former. After the Chinese revolt is
quelled, vigorous protests are sent to the home government, especially
by the ecclesiastics, against the laxity hitherto prevailing in the
enforcement of the laws restricting Chinese migration to the islands.
These documents are followed by the noted and rare work of the Jesuit
Pedro Chirino, _Relacion de las Islas Filipinas_ (Roma, 1604). It is
mainly intended as a history of the missions in the islands conducted
by the Jesuits, begun in 1581; Chirino himself arrived there in 1595,
and gives a full and detailed account of the missions from that time
until his departure in 1602. Not only this, but he narrates many things
of interest and importance regarding the people, their customs and
character, their language and state of civilization, their religious
beliefs and worship, and the results of missionary labors and influence
upon them. Much of this information is of special value as one of the
earliest records regarding the Filipino peoples in their primitive
condition, before they had had much contact with the white men; for
the Jesuits went even beyond the outposts of Spanish civilization,
among tribes who sometimes had never seen white men before. Chirino's
_Relacion_ is here presented for the first time in an English dress;
and the Editors are fortunate in securing for this publication some
valuable annotations from the hand of Rev. Pablo Pastells, S.J. of
Barcelona, Spain, who was for some eighteen years superior of the
Jesuit missions in the Philippines. Chirino's work is begun in the
present volume, and will be concluded in _Vol_. XIII.
The presence of Van Noordt's fleet in the Oriental archipelago renders
the Spaniards apprehensive that their possessions therein may be
attacked, especially that of the rich Spice Islands. Accordingly the
viceroy of India determines to send a fleet to drive out the Dutch from
those seas; and (May 5, 1601) notifies Tello of this. On September 1,
1602, a council of war is held at Manila, which decides to furnish
aid for this expedition against the Dutch; its commander has already
captured and subjugated Amboyna. This is followed by a list of the
supplies furnished to the Portuguese fleet; their value amounts to
over twenty-two thousand pesos, including eight months' pay for two
hundred soldiers and a number of seamen. An official statement (dated
October 2) enumerates the proceedings of the Manila authorities in
raising these troops and supplies, and notifies the Portuguese envoys
to be ready to convey this aid to the fleet. On October 26, Governor
Acuña writes to the king a report on the piracies committed by the
Moros. They have made several successful raids, and it is necessary to
provide defenses for the islands against these attacks. An expedition
had been planned against the Moro pirates; but the governor and his
military advisers have deferred it, for the sake of aiding the Maluca
expedition. Acuña is going to Arevalo, to despatch the ships and men
for that purpose. He is doing all in his power to aid the enterprise,
but fears that it will be a failure. Acuña asks permission to aid
sick and needy soldiers from the royal treasury.
Alonso Fernandez de Castro, a lawyer, furnishes (1602?) a
paper containing "principal points in regard to the trade of the
Filipinas." He notes the decrees forbidding Mexicans and Peruvians
to trade with the islands, and their violation; the result of this
illegal trade is disastrous to Spanish commerce. Complaint is made
that the appointments of officers for the ships are made in Mexico,
thus causing great and unnecessary expense. The ships lost in the
Philippine trade, and the causes of such loss are enumerated; and
the kinds of merchandise therein are mentioned. The citizens of
the Philippines are discontented at the partial diversion of their
trade to the American colonies. A violation of the royal decrees is
interpreted by the Mexicans to be not a mortal sin, accordingly they
disregard them; Castro advises more leniency in both the prohibition
and the penalty. Some ecclesiastics recommend that the Holy See be
asked to decide whether such transgression be a mortal sin. The
viceroy of Mexico has ordered an increased duty on goods coming
from the Philippines, to pay the cost of soldiers and artillery to
guard the merchandise on the voyage. The trading vessels lost in the
Pacific are being replaced by new ones built at Acapulco; and the
viceroy has sent over some ships "in trust" of private persons--a
plan which is censured. Mexico should not be allowed to trade with
the South American colonies in Chinese goods.
A group of documents on commerce (_ca._ 1602), although somewhat
fragmentary, contain much interesting information regarding the
trade between Spain and her colonies. Fray Martin Ignacio de Loyola,
bishop of Rio de la Plata, writes his opinion regarding colonial
administration in the Spanish empire. The colonies should be kept in
a dependent and subordinate position, and their high officials should
be sent from Spain. Commerce should be maintained between the colonies
and the mother-country. At present the conditions and results of this
trade are ruinous. Loyola advocates the establishment at Manila of
a "consulate" of trade, like that at Mexico; strict prohibition of
Mexican participation in the China trade; and its monopoly by the
inhabitants of the Philippines. Letters from the viceroy of Mexico
state that the merchants of Peru who trade with Spain are being
ruined, on account of the long time during which they must wait for
returns on their money, and the excessive duties charged on their
goods. As a result, they are sending their goods to Mexico; and they
demand permission to trade direct with China. Monterey recommends
that this be allowed to a limited extent, and that no restrictions
be placed on the use of Chinese goods in Nueva España. He has used
severe measures in regard to infringements of the ordinances regarding
commerce, but there is evidently remissness in the customs inspection
at Manila. Another paper gives an abstract of certain points in a
petition sent from the Philippines. It is requested that the officers
of vessels trading with Nueva España be inhabitants of the islands;
that no space in the ships be sold; that Peruvian merchants be not
allowed to go to the Philippines; that the troops be paid from a
special and separate account; and that the lading of the trading
ships be placed in charge of the Manila cabildo. All these points
are commented upon by certain bishops whose advice is apparently
requested by the Council of the Indias. Various memoranda follow,
on the trade between the Philippines and Nueva España; these include
recommendations for a commercial consulate at Manila, diminished
coinage of money, allowance of a limited amount of trade to Peru,
government custom-houses at Acapulco and Manila, etc. A letter
from Morga (December 1, 1602) informs the king that Governor Acuña
has aided the expedition sent from India to seize Maluco; and that
some of the trading ships sent to Nueva España have returned without
crossing the ocean, after great losses by storms, and having risked
seizure on the Japanese coast.
In May, 1603, three Chinese mandarins visit Manila. Salazar y Salcedo,
the fiscal, informs the king of this, and sends him a translation
of the letter presented by the mandarins to the governor (in which
they explain that they have come in search of a mountain of gold,
of which report had reached them); also a copy of the complaint made
by the fiscal to the Audiencia regarding the manner in which these
mandarins have administered justice, according to their own usages,
to the Chinese residing in Manila. The governor forbids them to
continue such procedure, and takes measures to fortify the city
against possible Chinese invasion.
Fray Miguel de Benavides resigns his bishopric (July 4), to become
archbishop of Manila. On the next day he reports to the king his
arrival at Manila, and the present condition of affairs in the
islands, which is very disheartening. The Mindanao pirates have
ravaged the coasts, and carried away many captives. The richest part
of the city, including the merchandise stored in the warehouses,
has been destroyed by fire; and the ships from Mexico arrived too
late for the merchants to ship goods thither this year. The people
are full of anxiety over a possible war with the Chinese; and the
archbishop deprecates the laxity of the royal officials in allowing
so many Chinese to live in the islands. They are so numerous that
their presence is a menace to the Spaniards, and they are corrupting
the natives with their own vicious practices. He urges that most of
the Chinese be expelled from the islands, and that the conduct of
the civil officials be investigated and punished. On the next day,
he writes another letter to ask that certain matters in the islands
be set right. The trade upon which the people depend for support
is being taken from them by unscrupulous Spaniards from Mexico and
Peru. The archbishop has been urged to excommunicate those citizens
of Manila who are engaged in this illegal traffic, but refuses to
do so, not thinking this the right procedure in such a case; and
his efforts to secure redress from the Audiencia are fruitless. He
also complains that offices are given to friends of the auditors;
that the latter and their women-folk monopolize the best seats in
the church; and that various irregularities have crept into the
church at Manila. Benavides criticises the religious orders in the
islands, saying that they often neglect their duties to the Indians;
and asks that the friars be not allowed to leave their charges at
their own pleasure. The Dominicans and Franciscans maintain strict
discipline, but neglect the Indians. The Augustinians are in great
need of inspection and reform. The Jesuits lead exemplary lives,
and are excellent instructors; but the Indians complain that these
fathers have taken from them their lands and property. Benavides asks
the king to redress this wrong. They also keep infidel Chinese on
these lands, who are corrupting the Indians. The bishop demands that
he shall be consulted by the governor in regard to the assignment of
charges to the religious orders; and that priests shall be tried not
by the Audiencia, but by the ecclesiastical courts. He asks various
favors for the city and its people, and that military aid be sent
to the island from Mexico. The cathedral needs repairs, and the
episcopal residence is very small and inadequate to the archbishop's
needs. The Jesuits should not be allowed to have a university, nor
to obtain the funds which were given by the old soldiers in order to
make restitution to the conquered Indians.
The Audiencia of Manila make a report (July 2, 1603) of various
matters and events. Two new auditors have arrived at Manila, and
Morga is transferred to Mexico. They recount the dangers and the safe
return of the ship "Rosario" from Japan; and the losses incurred by
fire at Manila, half of the city being destroyed. They note various
matters about which they have received the royal commands, the most
important of these referring to the personal services rendered by the
Indians--which, the Audiencia state, are exacted only when necessary,
and then paid for at fair rates. Two days later (July 4) the fiscal
advises the king that it would be well to make the archbishop of
Manila the president of the Audiencia--a request which is ignored
by the government. Acuña notifies the king (July 20, 1603) of the
failure of the Portuguese expedition against Maluco, and urges that
the king take prompt measures to conquer that fort.
On November 29, 1603, the king sends instructions to Acuña to deport
the Chinese residing in the islands, and to restrict the immigration
of others, until no more than three thousand are left--these to be only
such workmen as are needed for the service of the country. As a result
of various restrictions imposed upon them, the Chinese revolt (October
9) and attack Manila; but the Spaniards subdue them after several sharp
engagements, many of the Chinese being slain, and the ringleaders are
executed. One of the Jesuits in Manila, Gregorio Lopez, writes to the
king (December 10, 1603) to ask for reënforcements to be sent to the
islands, in order that the Mindanao pirates may be driven back; they
are raiding the Visayan Islands, and endangering the existence of the
Christian communities formed there by the Jesuit missionaries. A letter
from the cabildo of the cathedral (December 11) informs the king of the
revolt of the Chinese, and the subsequent conflagration in Manila. The
Dominican provincial complains (December 15) that the colony is going
to destruction because the royal decrees have not been observed,
especially those restricting Chinese immigration, and calls for a
rigorous investigation of the conduct of the colonial authorities--to
be made preferably by an ecclesiastic. Bishop Benavides writes, at
the same time, a brief letter to the king, similar in tenor to that of
the provincial. With his commendation of Fray Diego de Guevara to the
king go other credentials for that envoy. Letters relating the events
of the Chinese insurrection are sent to Spain by the governor and the
Audiencia (December 12 and 18, 1603). The fortifications of Manila are
being pushed forward, and an envoy has been sent to China to explain
the recent revolt and its punishment. Acuña has also endeavored to
procure military supplies from that country to supply the present
deficiency; he dreads lest the trade with China may be cut off, which
would ruin the Philippine colony. Acuña has enlisted several military
companies among the Indians, who have done good service in quelling the
Sangley insurrection. He recounts his difficulties in equipping a small
fleet for the defense of the islands. The Mindanao pirates have again
raided the islands; but the Chinese insurrection made it necessary
to recall the troops who had been sent to check the pirates. Acuña
relates the chief events of the past year in the Mindanao campaign,
and the present state of affairs there. He complains of the lack of
funds, and entreats that money be promptly sent from Nueva España. A
postscript to this letter, dated December 23, asks that the conduct of
the royal officials at Manila be investigated, as they had illegally
allowed so many Chinese to take up residence there.
The chronological order of our narrative is here interrupted to
survey the course of the Jesuit missions as related by Pedro Chirino
in his _Relacion de las Islas Filipinas_. After a brief prefatory
note, he begins by describing the location of the islands and their
discovery and settlement by Spaniards. The finding of the Santo
Niño in Cebú in 1565 is related at length, with an account of the
miracles and the veneration connected with it; and the patron saints
invoked by the Spaniards are enumerated. Among these is especially
prominent St. Potenciana, chosen as their patron and protector
against hurricanes. Chirino briefly describes the dress, customs,
and character of the natives, and the game, fish, and fruits which
serve them as food; and, at some length, the wonderful bamboo plant. He
enumerates the imports into the Philippines from surrounding countries,
and the occupations of the people therein who come to the islands;
and praises the wealth and comfort of that region.
Chirino then mentions the coming to the islands of the various
religious orders, especially recounting the labors and privations of
his own order, the Jesuits, and the beginning of their settlement
at Manila. Five priests, with one lay brother, are the founders of
that work; Suarez dies from overwork, Sanchez goes back to Europe,
and Sedeño conducts the affairs of the mission--laboring for the good
of the colony in all matters, both spiritual and secular. The Jesuits
exert considerable influence over the Chinese and Japanese who come to
Manila. In chapter vi are enumerated the names of the larger islands
in the Filipinas, and their extent is compared with that of Spain.
Chirino next defines the bishoprics and religious provinces in the
islands--inserting in this account a description of the process of
tattooing; and proceeds to relate how the Jesuits extended their
labors to the Indian villages outside of Manila. In the district
of Balayan, they have baptized some seven thousand natives within
ten years. The village of Taitai is removed, by Chirino's influence
and the superstitious fears of the natives, to a more secure and
healthful site. He describes the customs of the natives in bathing,
which is a universal and frequent practice among them. On the shore of
the lagoon of Bai are hot springs, which have already become a noted
health resort. Various trees native to the islands are described at
length, as well as the Chinese method of reducing a large tree to
a dwarf pot-plant. Interesting particulars are given regarding the
Bisayans and Negritos who inhabit Panay, and of a petty war between
those peoples. The Jesuits have done excellent missionary work there,
in the district of Tigbauan; some particulars of this are related. One
of their number, Martin Henriquez, dies from overwork, and Chirino is
ordered to return to Manila. In June, 1595, eight more Jesuits come
with Morga; and the missions of the order are now extended into Cebú,
Leyte, and Samar. A chapter is devoted to the pious labors and death
of Father Antonio Sedeño. In 1596 a large reënforcement of Jesuits
arrives at the islands, headed by Francisco de Vera; and the work
of the order there receives new impetus. The missionaries in all
the religious orders are able to master the native languages with so
little difficulty that "it seems a gift from heaven." Chirino gives
some account of these, illustrated with specimens of three--Tagalan,
Harayan, and Visayan--with the alphabet used by the Filipinos. He
also praises the politeness, in word and act, of the Tagalos, and
gives them credit for much musical ability. A chapter is assigned to
the native alphabet and mode of writing. All, women as well as men,
write and read; and they have already learned to do so in the Spanish
language as well as in their own.
Chirino relates the progress of the Jesuit mission during the year
1596-97. The curriculum of the Manila college is enlarged, and its
church (which is described in detail) is completed. A minute account
is given of a nine days' fiesta in honor of the relics of saints which
are deposited in the church. At this time is begun the practice of
self-scourging as a voluntary penance. The Jesuit church is frequented
by the Indians in great numbers, not only on special occasions, but
throughout the year: and they display the utmost devotion, even forming
among themselves a confraternity in honor of the relics. Their piety
shows practical results, especially in the modesty and virtue of their
women, qualities which the heathen neither value nor desire; Chirino
narrates some instances of triumphant virtue. An account is given of
the foundation and progress of the girls' seminary of Santa Potenciana:
and of the various ministrations of the Jesuits in the hospitals and
elsewhere in Manila. The writer relates the methods of conducting
the mission of Taytay, and events there during the year 1597. Three
fine churches are erected, and the missionaries gain the good-will
not only of those Indians, but even of the savages in the mountains;
the taming and conversion of one of these, the fiercest of his tribe,
is narrated. After him, entire villages come to live near the mission,
the father in charge helping them to establish their homes there;
he even converts all the heathen priests of one tribe. Not only
the Tagalos but the Negrillos resort to the mission, and many are
converted. Chirino laments the idolatries and superstitions which
still linger among even the more civilized natives; and proceeds
to recount their religious and superstitious beliefs. All their
religion is based on tradition and custom, and is handed down in
songs. Their beliefs regarding gods, demons, etc., are mentioned;
Chirino reduces most of these to their adoration of their ancestors,
in whose honor they worship various images. They also worship animals,
birds, and other natural objects; and have many superstitions. Chirino
demolishes the little buildings dedicated to the anitos. Among those
people their priests are also their physicians, or "medicine-men;"
and in both rôles they deceive the credulous and ignorant votaries
of superstition. The mode of offering sacrifices is described. In the
mission village at Taytay, certain idolatrous rites have been secretly
practiced, under the influence of the heathen priestesses; but this is
revealed by the faithful among the natives to the missionaries, who
promptly eradicate the evil and demolish the idols. All the heathen
priestesses are converted, and now lead exemplary Christian lives.
Chirino remains alone in Cebú after Sedeño's death (1595). He not only
maintains the usual services in the Jesuit church there, but undertakes
to instruct the Chinese, whose language he soon learns sufficiently
for that purpose. He works in great harmony with the Augustinians
of the city, who aid him in times of need; and with those of other
orders who sometimes come to Cebú. In September, 1596, some of the
recently-arrived Jesuits are assigned to that city, and great activity
ensues in their mission, including a school for children. The Jesuits
extend their labors to Leyte, which island is described by Chirino;
he praises the hospitality and fraternal feeling which prevail among
its people. Five mission stations are established there, and many
conversions are secured. A sketch of the mission labors for 1597 in
each of these posts is given--Dulac, Carigara, Paloc, Alangalang,
and Ogmuc. In Dulac a church is erected, and a school opened, and
many are converted. The station at Caligara is also flourishing, and
especial mention is made of two remarkable conversions there, one of
a boy five years old. At Paloc the fathers encounter some dislike,
apparently inspired by the heathen priests; but this is soon replaced
by affection and religious ardor. Some miraculous cures occur here. At
Alangalang, Cosmo de Flores forms a large mission village from many
scattered hamlets; but dies soon after its foundation. The fathers are
welcomed in Ogmuc, and a school for the children is at once begun;
they are delighted at the cleverness and docility of these little
ones. Many of those people are converted, including several chiefs.
Here Chirino again digresses to an account of "marriages, dowries
and divorces among the Filipinos." He "had lived in the Filipinas
almost ten years" before he knew that some of the natives practiced
polygamy, which was not a custom in Manila, Panay, and other islands
where the Spaniards had long dwelt, but had some currency among the
Visayans. In certain parts of Mindanao, the woman has two husbands;
but monogamy is the prevailing custom of the archipelago. The first
degree of consanguinity is the only one which bars marriage. Various
betrothal and marriage ceremonies are described, and their usage
regarding dowries and divorces. Chirino thinks that polygamy in those
islands has been derived from the "cursed doctrine" of Mahomet.
He next relates the entrance of the Jesuit missionaries into the island
of Ibabao (now Samar); they find the people well disposed toward the
Christian faith, and soon have churches and schools established. On one
occasion, all the people of the island of Maripipi come to the fathers
for baptism, and receive it, as they show themselves well prepared
for it. A mission is begun at Catubig, in the eastern part of Samar;
but for lack of workers it has not been maintained. Another mission
has been established in Bohol, where their efforts are greatly aided
by the prevalence of monogamy among the people, who suddenly abandon
their idols and drunken feasts.
Chirino here describes the funeral and mortuary customs generally
prevalent in the islands. The natives practice a sort of embalming of
the dead. The dead person is usually buried in the lower part of his
own house; and the funeral is succeeded by feasting and carousing--the
immediate relatives, however, fasting. At the death of a chief, a
curious taboo is placed upon the entire village, silence being imposed
upon all, under penalty of death. If a man be slain by violence,
his death is avenged by his relatives, the innocent as well as the
guilty being slain by them. Chirino draws curious parallels to all
these customs from the history of various nations, as recorded by both
sacred and profane writers. He devotes a chapter to the description of
"feasting and intoxication among the Filipinos." They eat little and
drink much; but, even when intoxicated, they do not become frenzied
or incapable.
The labors of Jesuit missionaries in the island of Bohol are further
recounted. They find the people unusually well disposed toward the
Christian religion, and very earnest and devout; all their idolatrous
and immoral practices are soon abandoned, lest they displease the
missionaries. Many are converted, and in an epidemic the lives of
these Christians are preserved by their using holy water as a medicine.
Chirino gives some description of the island of Mindanao and its
characteristics. He praises the bravery of its people, of which he
relates some instances. The Jesuits Ledesma and Martínez open a mission
in the southern part of the island, and soon obtain many conversions,
including those of several chiefs; the circumstances of some of these
are narrated. Juan del Campo and a lay brother accompany Figueroa on
his expedition to the Rio Grande of Mindanao, where the governor is
slain; soon after, the priest dies, of whose life and virtues Chirino
gives a brief sketch.
The thanks of the Editors, for useful information, loan of books,
and other valued favors, are extended to the following persons:
Edward E. Ayer, Chicago; Rev. E.I. Devitt, S.J., Georgetown College,
Washington, D.C.; James H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia University,
New York; Asa C. Tilton, School of History, University of Wisconsin;
Herbert E. Bolton, Department of History, University of Texas;
William Beer, librarian of Howard Memorial Library, New Orleans;
Roland G. Usher, Boston; James A. LeRoy, U.S. consul, Durango,
Mexico; David P. Barrows, Superintendent of Public Instruction,
Manila; T.H. Pardo de Tavera, member of U.S. Philippine Commission,
Manila; Rev. A. Coleman, O.P., and Arthur S. Riggs, Manila;
Rev. Anthony Huonder, S.J., editor of _Katholischer Missionen_,
Luxemburg; Rev. Francesco Ehrle, S.J., prefect, and Mons. Mariano
Ugolini, of Vatican Library, Rome; Mons. Wenzel, Vatican Archives;
Rev. Alphonse Giroux, S.S., Colegium Canadense, Rome; Rev. Antonio
Ceriani, prefect of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan; Paul Lemosof,
Société de Géographie, Paris; Antonio Graiño y Martinez, Madrid;
José Maria de Valdenebro, University of Sevilla; José Gonzalez Verger,
Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla; C.J. Zulueta, collecting librarian
for the government of the Philippine Islands, now at Sevilla. Also
to officials of the following libraries: British Museum, London;
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele, Rome;
École de Ste. Genevieve, Paris. Favors have also been received from
many of the persons to whom acknowledgment was tendered in _Vol_. I
of this series.
_The Editors_
February, 1904.