"When these orators were in the decline of life, they were s

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CICERO'S BRUTUS,

OR

HISTORY OF FAMOUS ORATORS:

ALSO,

HIS ORATOR,

OR

ACCOMPLISHED SPEAKER.

Now first translated into English by E. Jones

PREFACE.

As the following Rhetorical Pieces have never appeared before in the

English language, I thought a Translation of them would be no unacceptable

offering to the Public. The character of the Author (Marcus Tullius

Cicero) is so universally celebrated, that it would be needless, and

indeed impertinent, to say any thing to recommend them.

The first of them was the fruit of his retirement, during the remains of

the _Civil War_ in Africa; and was composed in the form of a Dialogue. It

contains a few short, but very masterly sketches of all the Speakers

who had flourished either in Greece or Rome, with any reputation of

Eloquence, down to his own time; and as he generally touches the principal

incidents of their lives, it will be considered, by an attentive reader,

as a _concealed epitome of the Roman history_. The conference is supposed

to have been held with Atticus, and their common friend Brutus, in

Cicero's garden at Rome, under the statue of Plato, whom he always

admired, and usually imitated in his dialogues: and he seems in this to

have copied even his _double titles_, calling it _Brutus, or the History

of famous Orators_. It was intended as a _supplement_, or _fourth book_,

to three former ones, on the qualifications of an Orator.

The second, which is intitled _The Orator_, was composed a very short time

afterwards (both of them in the 61st year of his age) and at the request

of Brutus. It contains a plan, or critical delineation, of what he himself

esteemed the most finished Eloquence, or style of Speaking. He calls it

_The Fifth Part, or Book_, designed to complete his _Brutus_, and _the

former three_ on the same subject. It was received with great approbation;

and in a letter to Lepta, who had complimented him upon it, he declares,

that whatever judgment he had in Speaking, he had thrown it all into that

work, and was content to risk his reputation on the merit of it. But it is

particularly recommended to our curiosity, by a more exact account of the

rhetorical _composition_, or _prosaic harmony_ of the ancients, than is to

be met with in any other part of his works.

As to the present Translation, I must leave the merit of it to be decided

by the Public; and have only to observe, that though I have not, to my

knowledge, omitted a single sentence of the original, I was obliged, in

some places, to paraphrase my author, to render his meaning intelligible

to a modern reader. My chief aim was to be clear and perspicuous: if I

have succeeded in _that_, it is all I pretend to. I must leave it to abler

pens to copy the _Eloquence_ of Cicero. _Mine_ is unequal to the task.

BRUTUS, OR THE HISTORY OF ELOQUENCE.

When I had left Cilicia, and arrived at Rhodes, word was brought me of the

death of Hortensius. I was more affected with it than, I believe, was

generally expected. For, by the loss of my friend, I saw myself for ever

deprived of the pleasure of his acquaintance, and of our mutual

intercourse of good offices. I likewise reflected, with Concern, that the

dignity of our College must suffer greatly by the decease of such an

eminent augur. This reminded me, that _he_ was the person who first

introduced me to the College, where he attested my qualification upon

oath; and that it was _he_ also who installed me as a member; so that I

was bound by the constitution of the Order to respect and honour him as a

parent. My affliction was increased, that, in such a deplorable dearth of

wife and virtuous citizens, this excellent man, my faithful associate in

the service of the Public, expired at the very time when the Commonwealth

could least spare him, and when we had the greatest reason to regret the

want of his prudence and authority. I can add, very sincerely, that in

_him_ I lamented the loss, not (as most people imagined) of a dangerous

rival and competitor, but of a generous partner and companion in the

pursuit of same. For if we have instances in history, though in studies of

less public consequence, that some of the poets have been greatly

afflicted at the death of their contemporary bards; with what tender

concern should I honour the memory of a man, with whom it is more glorious

to have disputed the prize of eloquence, than never to have met with an

antagonist! especially, as he was always so far from obstructing _my_

endeavours, or I _his_, that, on the contrary, we mutually assisted each

other, with our credit and advice.

But as _he_, who had a perpetual run of felicity, left the world at a

happy moment for himself, though a most unfortunate one for his fellow-

citizens; and died when it would have been much easier for him to lament

the miseries of his country, than to assist it, after living in it as long

as he _could_ have lived with honour and reputation;--we may, indeed,

deplore his death as a heavy loss to _us_ who survive him. If, however, we

consider it merely as a personal event, we ought rather to congratulate

his fate, than to pity it; that, as often as we revive the memory of this

illustrious and truly happy man, we may appear at least to have as much

affection for him as for ourselves. For if we only lament that we are no

longer permitted to enjoy him, it must, indeed, be acknowledged that this

is a heavy misfortune to _us_; which it, however, becomes us to support

with moderation, less our sorrow should be suspected to arise from motives

of interest, and not from friendship. But if we afflict ourselves, on the

supposition that _he_ was the sufferer;--we misconstrue an event, which to

_him_ was certainly a very happy one.

If Hortensius was now living, he would probably regret many other

advantages in common with his worthy fellow-citizens. But when he beheld

the Forum, the great theatre in which he used to exercise his genius, no

longer accessible to that accomplished eloquence, which could charm the

ears of a Roman, or a Grecian audience; he must have felt a pang of which

none, or at least but few, besides himself, could be susceptible. Even _I_

am unable to restrain my tears, when I behold my country no longer

defensible by the genius, the prudence, and the authority of a legal

magistrate,--the only weapons which I have learned to weild, and to which

I have long been accustomed, and which are most suitable to the character

of an illustrious citizen, and of a virtuous and well-regulated state.

But if there ever was a time, when the authority and eloquence of an

honest individual could have wrested their arms from the hands of his

distracted fellow-citizens; it was then when the proposal of a compromise

of our mutual differences was rejected, by the hasty imprudence of some,

and the timorous mistrust of others. Thus it happened, among other

misfortunes of a more deplorable nature, that when my declining age, after

a life spent in the service of the Public, should have reposed in the

peaceful harbour, not of an indolent, and a total inactivity, but of a

moderate and becoming retirement; and when my eloquence was properly

mellowed, and had acquired its full maturity;--thus it happened, I say,

that recourse was then had to those fatal arms, which the persons who had

learned the use of them in honourable conquest, could no longer employ to

any salutary purpose. Those, therefore, appear to me to have enjoyed a

fortunate and a happy life, (of whatever State they were members, but

especially in _our's_) who held their authority and reputation, either for

their military or political services, without interruption: and the sole

remembrance of them, in our present melancholy situation, was a pleasing

relief to me, when we lately happened to mention them in the course of

conversation.

For, not long ago, when I was walking for my amusement, in a private

avenue at home, I was agreeably interrupted by my friend Brutus, and T.

Pomponius, who came, as indeed they frequently did, to visit me;--two

worthy citizens who were united to each other in the closest friendship,

and were so dear and so agreeable to me, that, on the first sight of them,

all my anxiety for the Commonwealth subsided. After the usual

salutations,--"Well, gentlemen," said I, "how go the times? What news have

you brought?" "None," replied Brutus, "that you would wish to hear, or

that I can venture to tell you for truth."--"No," said Atticus; "we are

come with an intention that all matters of state should be dropped; and

rather to hear something from you, than to say any thing which might serve

to distress you." "Indeed," said I, "your company is a present remedy for

my sorrow; and your letters, when absent, were so encouraging, that they

first revived my attention to my studies."--"I remember," replied

Atticus, "that Brutus sent you a letter from Asia, which I read with

infinite pleasure: for he advised you in it like a man of sense, and gave

you every consolation which the warmest friendship could suggest."--

"True," said I, "for it was the receipt of that letter which recovered me

from a growing indisposition, to behold once more the cheerful face of

day; and as the Roman State, after the dreadful defeat near Cannae, first

raised its drooping head by the victory of Marcellus at Nola, which was

succeeded by many other victories; so, after the dismal wreck of our

affairs, both public and private, nothing occurred to me before the letter

of my friend Brutus, which I thought to be worth my attention, or which

contributed, in any degree, to the anxiety of my heart."--"That was

certainly my intention," answered Brutus; "and if I had the happiness to

succeed, I was sufficiently rewarded for my trouble. But I could wish to

be informed, what you received from Atticus which gave you such uncommon

pleasure."--"That," said I, "which not only entertained me; but, I hope,

has restored me entirely to myself."--"Indeed!" replied he; "and what

miraculous composition could that be?"--"Nothing," answered I; "could have

been a more acceptable, or a more seasonable present, than that excellent

Treatise of his which roused me from a state of languor and despondency."

--"You mean," said he, "his short, and, I think, very accurate abridgment

of Universal History."--"The very same," said I; "for that little Treatise

has absolutely saved me."--"I am heartily glad of it," said Atticus; "but

what could you discover in it which was either new to you, or so

wonderfully beneficial as you pretend?"--"It certainly furnished many

hints," said I, "which were entirely new to me: and the exact order of

time which you observed through the whole, gave me the opportunity I had

long wished for, of beholding the history of all nations in one regular

and comprehensive view. The attentive perusal of it proved an excellent

remedy for my sorrows, and led me to think of attempting something on your

own plan, partly to amuse myself, and partly to return your favour, by a

grateful, though not an equal acknowledgment. We are commanded, it is

true, in that precept of Hesiod, so much admired by the learned, to return

with the same measure we have received; or, if possible, with a larger. As

to a friendly inclination, I shall certainly return you a full proportion

of it; but as to a recompence in kind, I confess it to be out of my power,

and therefore hope you will excuse me: for I have no first-fruits (like a

prosperous husbandman) to acknowledge the obligation I have received; my

whole harvest having sickened and died, for want of the usual manure: and

as little am I able to present you with any thing from those hidden stores

which are now consigned to perpetual darkness, and to which I am denied

all access; though, formerly, I was almost the only person who was able to

command them at pleasure. I must therefore, try my skill in a long-

neglected and uncultivated soil; which I will endeavour to improve with so

much care, that I may be able to repay your liberality with interest;

provided my genius should be so happy as to resemble a fertile field,

which, after being suffered to lie fallow a considerable time, produces a

heavier crop than usual."--"Very well," replied Atticus, "I shall expect

the fulfilment of your promise; but I shall not insist upon it till it

suits your convenience; though, after all, I shall certainly be better

pleased if you discharge the obligation."--"And I also," said Brutus,

"shall expect that you perform your promise to my friend Atticus: nay,

though I am only his voluntary solicitor, I shall, perhaps, be very

pressing for the discharge of a debt, which the creditor himself is

willing to submit to your own choice."--"But I shall refuse to pay you,"

said I, "unless the original creditor takes no farther part in the suit."

--"This is more than I can promise," replied he, "for I can easily

foresee, that this easy man, who disclaims all severity, will urge his

demand upon you, not indeed to distress you, but yet very closely and

seriously."--"To speak ingenuously," said Atticus, "my friend Brutus, I

believe, is not much mistaken: for as I now find you in good spirits, for

the first time, after a tedious interval of despondency, I shall soon make

bold to apply to you; and as this gentleman has promised his assistance,

to recover what you owe me, the least I can do is to solicit, in my turn,

for what is due to him."

"Explain your meaning," said I.--"I mean," replied he, "that you must

write something to amuse us; for your pen has been totally silent this

long time; and since your Treatise on Politics, we have had nothing from

you of any kind; though it was the perusal of that which fired me with the

ambition to write an Abridgment of Universal History. But we shall,

however, leave you to answer this demand, when, and in what manner you

shall think most convenient. At present, if you are not otherwise engaged,

you must give us your sentiments on a subject on which we both desire to

be better informed."--"And what is that?" said I.--"What you gave me a

hasty sketch of," replied he, "when I saw you last at Tusculanum,--the

History of Famous Orators;--_when_ they made their appearance, and _who_

and _what_ they were; which, furnished such an agreeable train of

conversation, that when I related the substance of it to _your_, or I

ought rather to have said our _common_ friend, Brutus, he expressed a

violent desire to hear the whole of it from your own mouth. Knowing you,

therefore, to be at leisure, we have taken the present opportunity to wait

upon you; so that, if it is really convenient, you will oblige us both by

resuming the subject."--"Well, gentlemen," said I, "as you are so

pressing, I will endeavour to satisfy you in the best manner I am able."--

"You are _able_ enough," replied he; "only unbend yourself a little, or,

if you can set your mind at full liberty."--"If I remember right," said I,

"Atticus, what gave rise to the conversation, was my observing, that the

cause of Deiotarus, a most excellent Sovereign, and a faithful ally, was

pleaded by our friend Brutus, in my hearing, with the greatest elegance

and dignity."--"True," replied he, "and you took occasion from the ill

success of Brutus, to lament the loss of a fair administration of justice

in the Forum."--"I did so," answered I, "as indeed I frequently do: and

whenever I see you, my Brutus, I am concerned to think where your

wonderful genius, your finished erudition, and unparalleled industry will

find a theatre to display themselves. For after you had thoroughly

improved your abilities, by pleading a variety of important causes; and

when my declining vigour was just giving way, and lowering the ensigns of

dignity to your more active talents; the liberty of the State received a

fatal overthrow, and that Eloquence, of which we are now to give the

History, was condemned to perpetual silence."--"Our other misfortunes,"

replied Brutus, "I lament sincerely; and I think I ought to lament them:--

but as to Eloquence, I am not so fond of the influence and the glory it

bestows, as of the study and the practice of it, which nothing can deprive

me of, while you are so well disposed to assist me: for no man can be an

eloquent speaker, who has not a clear and ready conception. Whoever,

therefore, applies himself to the study of Eloquence, is at the same time

improving his judgment, which is a talent equally necessary in all

military operations."

"Your remark," said I, "is very just; and I have a higher opinion of the

merit of eloquence, because, though there is scarcely any person so

diffident as not to persuade himself, that he either has, or may acquire

every other accomplishment which, formerly, could have given him

consequence in the State; I can find no person who has been made an orator

by the success of his military prowess.--But that we may carry on the

conversation with greater ease, let us seat ourselves."--As my visitors

had no objection to this, we accordingly took our seats in a private lawn,

near a statue of Plato.

Then resuming the conversation,--"to recommend the study of eloquence,"

said I, "and describe its force, and the great dignity it confers upon

those who have acquired it, is neither our present design, nor has any

necessary connection with it. But I will not hesitate to affirm, that

whether it is acquired by art or practice, or the mere powers of nature,

it is the most difficult of all attainments; for each of the five branches

of which it is said to consist, is of itself a very important art; from

whence it may easily be conjectured, how great and arduous must be the

profession which unites and comprehends them all.

"Greece alone is a sufficient witness of this:--for though she was fired

with a wonderful love of Eloquence, and has long since excelled every

other nation in the practice of it, yet she had all the rest of the arts

much earlier; and had not only invented, but even compleated them, a

considerable time before she was mistress of the full powers of elocution.

But when I direct my eyes to Greece, your beloved Athens, my Atticus,

first strikes my sight, and is the brightest object in my view: for in

that illustrious city the _orator_ first made his appearance, and it is

there we shall find the earliest records of eloquence, and the first

specimens of a discourse conducted by rules of art. But even in Athens

there is not a single production now extant which discovers any taste for

ornament, or seems to have been the effort of a real orator, before the

time of Pericles (whose name is prefixed to some orations which still

remain) and his cotemporary Thucydides; who flourished,--not in the

infancy of the State, but when it was arrived at its full maturity of

power.

"It is, however, supposed, that Pisistratus (who lived many years before)

together with Solon, who was something older, and Clisthenes, who survived

them both, were very able speakers for the age they lived in. But some

years after these, as may be collected from the Attic Annals, came the

above-mentioned Themistocles, who is said to have been as much

distinguished by his eloquence as by his political abilities;--and after

him the celebrated Pericles, who, though adorned with every kind of

excellence, was most admired for his talent of speaking. Cleon also (their

cotemporary) though a turbulent citizen, was allowed to be a tolerable

orator.

"These were immediately succeeded by Alcibiades, Critias, and Theramenes,

whose manner of speaking may be easily inferred from the writings of

Thucydides, who lived at the same time: their discourses were nervous and

stately, full of sententious remarks, and so excessively concise as to be

sometimes obscure. But as soon as the force of a regular and a well-

adjusted speech was understood, a sudden crowd of rhetoricians appeared,--

such as Gorgias the Leontine, Thrasymachus the Chalcedonian, Protagoras

the Abderite, and Hippias the Elean, who were all held in great esteem,--

with many others of the same age, who professed (it must be owned, rather

too arrogantly) to teach their scholars,--_how the worse might be made, by

the force of eloquence, to appear the better cause_. But these were openly

opposed by the famous Socrates, who, by an adroit method of arguing which

was peculiar to himself, took every opportunity to refute the principles

of their art. His instructive conferences produced a number of intelligent

men, and _Philosophy_ is said to have derived her birth from him;--not the

doctrine of _Physics_, which was of an earlier date, but that Philosophy

which treats of men, and manners, and of the nature of good and evil. But

as this is foreign to our present subject, we must defer the Philosophers

to another opportunity, and return to the Orators, from whom I have

ventured to make a sort digression.

"When the professors therefore, abovementioned were in the decline of

life, Isocrates made his appearance, whos house stood open to all Greece

as the _School of Eloquence_. He was an accomplished orator, and an

excellent teacher; though he did not display his talents in the Forum, but

cherished and improved that glory within the walls of his academy, which,

in my opinion, no poet has ever yet acquired. He composed many valuable

specimens of his art, and taught the principles of it to others; and not

only excelled his predecessors in every part of it, but first discovered

that a certain _metre_ should be observed in prose, though totally

different from the measured rhyme of the poets. Before _him_, the

artificial structure and harmony of language was unknown;--or if there are

any traces of it to be discovered, they appear to have been made without

design; which, perhaps, will be thought a beauty:--but whatever it may be

deemed, it was, in the present case, the effect rather of native genius,

or of accident, than of art and observation. For mere nature itself will

measure and limit our sentences by a convenient compass of words; and when

they are thus confined to a moderate flow of expression, they will

frequently have a _numerous_ cadence:--for the ear alone can decide what

is full and complete, and what is deficient; and the course of our

language will necessarily be regulated by our breath, in which it is

excessively disagreeable, not only to fail, but even to labour.

"After Isocrates came Lysias, who, though not personally engaged in

forensic causes, was a very artful and an elegant composer, and such a one

as you might almost venture to pronounce a complete orator: for

Demosthenes is the man who approaches the character so nearly, that you

may apply it to him without hesitation. No keen, no artful turns could

have been contrived for the pleadings he has left behind him, which he did

not readily discover;--nothing could have been expressed with greater

nicety, or more clearly and poignantly, than it has been already expressed

by him;--and nothing greater, nothing more rapid and forcible, nothing

adorned with a nobler elevation either of language, or sentiment, can be

conceived than what is to be found in his orations. He was soon rivalled

by his cotemporaries Hyperides, Aeschines, Lycurgus, Dinarchus, and

Demades (none of whose writings are extant) with many others that might be

mentioned: for this age was adorned with a profusion of good orators; and

the genuine strength and vigour of Eloquence appears to me to have

subsisted to the end of this period, which was distinguished by a natural

beauty of composition without disguise or affectation.

"When these orators were in the decline of life, they were succeeded by

Phalereus; who was then in the prime of youth. He was indeed a man of

greater learning than any of them, but was fitter to appear on the parade,

than in the field; and, accordingly, he rather pleased and entertained the

Athenians, than inflamed their passions; and marched forth into the dust

and heat of the Forum, not from a weather-beaten tent, but from the shady

recesses of Theophrastus, a man of consummate erudition. He was the first

who relaxed the force of Eloquence, and gave her a soft and tender air:

and he rather chose to be agreeable, as indeed he was, than great and

striking; but agreeable in such a manner as rather charmed, than warmed

the mind of the hearer. His greatest ambition was to impress his audience

with a high opinion of his elegance, and not, as Eupolis relates of

Pericles, to _sting_ as well as to _please_.

"You see, then, in the very city in which Eloquence was born and nurtured,

how late it was before she grew to maturity; for before the time of Solon

and Pisistratus, we meet with no one who is so much as mentioned for his

talent of speaking. These, indeed, if we compute by the Roman date, may be

reckoned very ancient; but if by that of the Athenians, we shall find them

to be moderns. For though they flourished in the reign of Servius Tullius,

Athens had then subsisted much longer than Rome has at present. I have

not, however, the least doubt that the power of Eloquence has been always

more or less conspicuous. For Homer, we may suppose, would not have

ascribed such superior talents of elocution to Ulysses, and Nestor (one of

whom he celebrates for his force, and the other for his sweetness) unless

the art of Speaking had then been held in some esteem; nor could the Poet

himself have been master of such an ornamental style, and so excellent a

vein of Oratory as we actually find in him.--The time indeed in which he

lived is undetermined: but we are certain that he flourished many years

before Romulus: for he was at least of as early a date as the elder

Lycurgus, the legislator of the Spartans.

"But a particular attention to the art, and a greater ability in the

practice of it, may be observed in Pisistratus. He was succeeded in the

following century by Themistocles, who, according to the Roman date, was a

person of the remotest antiquity; but, according to that of the Athenians,

he was almost a modern. For he lived when Greece was in the height of her

power, but when the city of Rome had but lately freed herself from the

shackles of regal tyranny;--for the dangerous war with the Volsci, who

were headed by Coriolanus (then a voluntary exile) happened nearly at the

same time as the Persian war; and we may add, that the fate of both

commanders was remarkably similar. Each of them, after distinguishing

himself as an excellent citizen, being driven from his country by the

wrongs of an ungrateful people, went over to the enemy: and each of them

repressed the efforts of his resentment by a voluntary death. For though

you, my Atticus, have represented the exit of Coriolanus in a different

manner, you must give me leave to dispatch him in the way I have

mentioned."--"You may use your pleasure," replied Atticus with a smile:

"for it is the privilege of rhetoricians to exceed the truth of history,

that they may have an opportunity of embellishing the fate of their

heroes: and accordingly, Clitarchus and Stratocles have entertained us

with the same pretty fiction about the death of Themistocles, which you

have invented for Coriolanus. Thucydides, indeed, who was himself an

Athenian of the highest rank and merit, and lived nearly at the same time,

has only informed us that he died, and was privately buried in Attica,

adding, that it was suspected by some that he had poisoned himself. But

these ingenious writers have assured us, that, having slain a bull at the

altar, he caught the blood in a large bowl, and, drinking it off, fell

suddenly dead upon the ground. For this species of death had a tragical

air, and might be described with all the pomp of rhetoric; whereas the

ordinary way of dying afforded no opportunity for ornament. As it will,

therefore, suit your purpose, that Coriolanus should resemble Themistocles

in every thing, I give you leave to introduce the fatal bowl; and you may

still farther heighten the catastrophe by a solemn sacrifice, that

Coriolanus may appear in all respects to have been a second Themistocles."

"I am much obliged to you," said I, "for your courtesy: but, for the

future, I shall be more cautious in meddling with History when you are

present; whom I may justly commend as a most exact and scrupulous relator

of the Roman History; but nearly at the time we are speaking of (though

somewhat later) lived the above-mentioned Pericles, the illustrious son of

Xantippus, who first improved his eloquence by the friendly aids of

literature;--not that kind of literature which treats professedly of the

art of Speaking, of which there was then no regular system; but after he

had studied under Anaxagoras the Naturalist, he easily transferred his

capacity from abstruse and intricate speculations to forensic and popular

debates.

"All Athens was charmed with the sweetness of his language; and not only

admired him for his fluency, but was awed by the superior force and the

_terrors_ of his eloquence. This age, therefore, which may be considered

as the infancy of the Art, furnished Athens with an Orator who almost

reached the summit of his profession: for an emulation to shine in the

Forum is not usually found among a people who are either employed in

settling the form of their government, or engaged in war, or struggling

with difficulties, or subjected to the arbitrary power of Kings. Eloquence

is the attendant of peace, the companion of ease and prosperity, and the

tender offspring of a free and a well established constitution. Aristotle,

therefore, informs us, that when the Tyrants were expelled from Sicily,

and private property (after a long interval of servitude) was determined

by public trials, the Sicilians Corax and Tisias (for this people, in

general, were very quick and acute, and had a natural turn for

controversy) first attempted to write precepts on the art of Speaking.

Before them, he says, there was no one who spoke by method, and rules of

art, though there were many who discoursed very sensibly, and generally

from written notes: but Protagoras took the pains to compose a number of

dissertations, on such leading and general topics as are now called common

places. Gorgias, he adds, did the same, and wrote panegyrics and

invectives on every subject: for he thought it was the province of an

Orator to be able either to exaggerate, or extenuate, as occasion might

require. Antiphon the Rhamnusian composed several essays of the same

species; and (according to Thucydides, a very respectable writer, who was

present to hear him) pleaded a capital cause in his own defence, with as

much eloquence as had ever yet been displayed by any man. But Lysias was

the first who openly professed the _Art_; and, after him, Theodorus, being

better versed in the theory than the practice of it, begun to compose

orations for others to pronounce; but reserved the method of doing it to

himself. In the same manner, Isocrates at first disclaimed the Art, but

wrote speeches for other people to deliver; on which account, being often

prosecuted for assisting, contrary to law, to circumvent one or another of

the parties in judgment, he left off composing orations for other people,

and wholly applied himself to writing rules and systems.

"Thus then we have traced the birth and origin of the Orators of Greece,

who were, indeed, very ancient, as I have before observed, if we compute

by the Roman Annals; but of a much later date, if we reckon by their own:

for the Athenian State had signalized itself by a variety of great

exploits, both at home and abroad, a considerable time before she was

ravished with the charms of Eloquence. But this noble Art was not common

to Greece in general, but almost peculiar to Athens. For who has ever

heard of an Argive, a Corinthian, or a Theban Orator at the times we are

speaking of? unless, perhaps, some merit of the kind may be allowed to

Epaminondas, who was a man of uncommon erudition. But I have never read of

a Lacedemonian Orator, from the earliest period of time to the present.

For Menelaus himself, though said by Homer to have possessed a sweet

elocution, is likewise described as a man of few words. Brevity, indeed,

upon some occasions, is a real excellence; but it is very far from being

compatible with the general character of Eloquence.

"The Art of Speaking was likewise studied, and admired, beyond the limits

of Greece; and the extraordinary honours which were paid to Oratory have

perpetuated the names of many foreigners who had the happiness to excel in

it. For no sooner had Eloquence ventured to sail from the Pireaeus, but

she traversed all the isles, and visited every part of Asia; till at last

she infected herself with their manners, and lost all the purity and the

healthy complexion of the Attic style, and indeed had almost forgot her

native language. The Asiatic Orators, therefore, though not to be

undervalued for the rapidity and the copious variety of their elocution,

were certainly too loose and luxuriant. But the Rhodians were of a sounder

constitution, and more resembled the Athenians. So much, then, for the

Greeks; for, perhaps, what I have already said of them, is more than was

necessary."

"As to the necessity of it," answered Brutus, "there is no occasion to

speak of it: but what you have said of them has entertained me so

agreeably, that instead of being longer, it has been much shorter than I

could have wished."--"A very handsome compliment," said I;--"but it is

time to begin with our own countrymen, of whom it is difficult to give any

further account than what we are able to conjecture from our Annals.--For

who can question the address, and the capacity of Brutus, the illustrious

founder of your family? That Brutus, who so readily discovered the meaning

of the Oracle, which promised the supremacy to him who should first salute

his mother? That Brutus, who concealed the most consummate abilities under

the appearance of a natural defect of understanding? Who dethroned and

banished a powerful monarch, the son of an illustrious sovereign? Who

settled the State, which he had rescued from arbitrary power, by the

appointment of an annual magistracy, a regular system of laws, and a free

and open course of justice? And who abrogated the authority of his

colleague, that he might rid the city of the smallest vestige of the

_regal_ name?--Events, which could never have been produced without

exerting the powers of Persuasion!--We are likewise informed that a few

years after the expulsion of the Kings, when the Plebeians retired to the

banks of the Anio, about three miles from the city, and had possessed

themselves of what is called The _sacred_ Mount, M. Valerius the dictator

appeased their fury by a public harangue; for which he was afterwards

rewarded with the highest posts of honour, and was the first Roman who was

distinguished by the surname of _Maximus_. Nor can L. Valerius Potitus be

supposed to have been destitute of the powers of utterance, who, after the

odium which had been excited against the Patricians by the tyrannical

government of the _Decemviri_, reconciled the people to the Senate, by his

prudent laws and conciliatory speeches. We may likewise suppose, that

Appius Claudius was a man of some eloquence; since he dissuaded the Senate

from consenting to a peace with King Pyrrhus, though they were much

inclined to it. The same might be said of Caius Fabricius, who was

dispatched to Pyrrhus to treat for the ransom of his captive fellow-

citizens; and of Titus Coruncanius, who appears by the memoirs of the

pontifical college, to have been a person of no contemptible genius: and

likewise of M. Curius (then a tribune of the people) who, when the

Interrex Appius _the Blind_, an artful Speaker, held the _Comitia_

contrary to law, by refusing to admit any consuls of plebeian rank,

prevailed upon the Senate to protest against the conduct: of his

antagonist; which, if we consider that the Moenian law was not then in

being, was a very bold attempt. We may also conjecture, that M. Popilius

was a man of abilities, who, in the time of his consulship, when he was

solemnizing a public sacrifice in the proper habit of his office, (for he

was also a Flamen Carmentalis) hearing of the mutiny and insurrection of

the people against the Senate, rushed immediately into the midst of the

assembly, covered as he was with his sacerdotal robes, and quelled the

sedition by his authority and the force of his elocution. I do not pretend

to have read that the persons I have mentioned were then reckoned Orators,

or that any fort of reward or encouragement was given to Eloquence: I only

conjecture what appears very probable. It is also recorded, that C.

Flaminius, who, when tribune of the people proposed the law for dividing

the conquered territories of the Gauls and Piceni among the citizens, and

who, after his promotion to the consulship, was slain near the lake

Thrasimenus, became very popular by the mere force of his address, Quintus

Maximus Verrucosus was likewise reckoned a good Speaker by his

cotemporaries; as was also Quintus Metellus, who, in the second Punic war,

was joint consul with L. Veturius Philo. But the first person we have any

certain account of, who was publicly distinguished as an _Orator_, and who

really appears to have been such, was M. Cornelius Cethegus; whose

eloquence is attested by Q. Ennius, a voucher of the highest credibility;

since he actually heard him speak, and gave him this character after his

death; so that there is no reason to suspect that he was prompted by the

warmth of his friendship to exceed the bounds of truth. In his ninth book

of Annals, he has mentioned him in the following terms:

"_Additur Orator Corneliu' suaviloquenti

Ore Cethegus Marcu', Tuditano collega,

Marci Filius._"

"_Add the_ Orator _M. Cornelius Cethegus, so much admired for his

mellifluent tongue; who was the colleague of Tuditanus, and the son of

Marcus_."

"He expressly calls him an _Orator_, you see, and attributes to him a

remarkable sweetness of elocution; which, even now a-days, is an

excellence of which few are possessed: for some of our modern Orators are

so insufferably harsh, that they may rather be said to bark than to speak.

But what the Poet so much admires in his friend, may certainly be

considered as one of the principal ornaments of Eloquence. He adds;

" ----_is dictus, ollis popularibus olim,

Qui tum vivebant homines, atque aevum agitabant,

Flos delibatus populi_."

"_He was called by his cotemporaries, the choicest Flower of the State_."

"A very elegant compliment! for as the glory of a man is the strength of

his mental capacity, so the brightest ornament of that is Eloquence; in

which, whoever had the happiness to excel, was beautifully styled, by the

Ancients, the _Flower_ of the State; and, as the Poet immediately

subjoins,

"'--_Suadaeque medulla:'

"the very marrow and quintessence of Persuasion_."

"That which the Greeks call [Greek: Peitho], _(i.e. Persuasion)_ and which

it is the chief business of an Orator to effect, is here called _Suada_ by

Ennius; and of this he commends Cethegus as the _quintessence_; so that he

makes the Roman Orator to be himself the very substance of that amiable

Goddess, who is said by Eupolis to have dwelt on the lips of Pericles.

This Cethegus was joint-consul with P. Tuditanus in the second Punic war;

at which time also M. Cato was Quaestor, about one hundred and forty years

before I myself was promoted to the consulship; which circumstance would

have been absolutely lost, if it had not been recorded by Ennius; and the

memory of that illustrious citizen, as has probably been the case of many

others, would have been obliterated by the rust of antiquity. The manner

of speaking which was then in vogue, may easily be collected from the

writings of _Naevius_: for Naevius died, as we learn from the memoirs of

the times, when the persons above-mentioned were consuls; though Varro, a

most accurate investigator of historical truth, thinks there is a mistake

in this, and fixes the death of Naevius something later. For Plautus died

in the consulship of P. Claudius and L. Porcius, twenty years after the

consulship of the persons we have been speaking of, and when Cato was

Censor. Cato, therefore, must have been younger than Cethegus, for he was

consul nine years after him: but we always consider him as a person of the

remotest antiquity, though he died in the consulship of Lucius Marcius and

M. Manilius, and but eighty-three years before my own promotion to the

same office. He is certainly, however, the most ancient Orator we have,

whose writings may claim our attention; unless any one is pleased with the

above-mentioned speech of Appius, on the peace with Pyrrhus, or with a set

of panegyrics on the dead, which, I own, are still extant. For it was

customary in most families of note to preserve their images, their

trophies of honour, and their memoirs, either to adorn a funeral when any

of the family deceased, or to perpetuate the fame of their ancestors, or

prove their own nobility. But the truth of History has been much corrupted

by these laudatory essays; for many circumstances were recorded in them

which never existed; such as false triumphs, a pretended succession of

consulships, and false alliances and elevations, when men of inferior rank

were confounded with a noble family of the same name: as if I myself

should pretend that I am descended from M. Tullius, who was a Patrician,

and shared the consulship with Servius Sulpicius, about ten years after

the expulsion of the kings.

"But the real speeches of Cato are almost as numerous as those of Lysias

the Athenian; a great number of whose are still extant. For Lysias was

certainly an Athenian; because he not only died but received his birth at

Athens, and served all the offices of the city; though Timaesus, as if he

acted by the Licinian or the Mucian law, remands him back to Syracuse.

There is, however, a manifest resemblance between _his_ character and that

of _Cato_: for they are both of them distinguished by their acuteness,

their elegance, their agreeable humour, and their brevity. But the Greek

has the happiness to be most admired: for there are some who are so

extravagantly fond of him, as to prefer a graceful air to a vigorous

constitution, and who are perfectly satisfied with a slender and an easy

shape, if it is only attended with a moderate share of health. It must,

however, be acknowledged, that even Lysias often displays a strength of

arm, than which nothing can be more strenuous and forcible; though he is

certainly, in all respects, of a more thin and feeble habit than Cato,

notwithstanding he has so many admirers, who are charmed with his very

slenderness. But as to Cato, where will you find a modern Orator who

condescends to read him?--nay, I might have said, who has the least

knowledge of him?--And yet, good Gods! what a wonderful man! I say nothing

of his merit as a Citizen, a Senator, and a General; we must confine our

attention to the Orator. Who, then, has displayed more dignity as a

panegyrist?--more severity as an accuser?--more ingenuity in the turn of

his sentiments?--or more neatness and address in his narratives and

explanations? Though he composed above a hundred and fifty orations,

(which I have seen and read) they are crowded with all the beauties of

language and sentiment. Let us select from these what deserves our notice

and applause: they will supply us with all the graces of Oratory. Not to

omit his _Antiquities_, who will deny that these also are adorned with

every flower, and with all the lustre of Eloquence? and yet he has

scarcely any admirers; which some ages ago was the case of Philistus the

Syracusan, and even of Thucydides himself. For as the lofty and elevated

style of Theopompus soon diminished the reputation of their pithy and

laconic harangues, which were sometimes scarcely intelligible through

their excessive brevity and quaintness; and as Demosthenes eclipsed the

glory of Lysias, so the pompous and stately elocution of the moderns has

obscured the lustre of Cato. But many of us are shamefully ignorant and

inattentive; for we admire the Greeks for their antiquity, and what is

called their Attic neatness, and yet have never noticed the same quality

in Cato. It was the distinguishing character, say they, of Lysias and

Hyperides. I own it, and I admire them for it: but why not allow a share

of it to Cato? They are fond, they tell us, of the _Attic_ style of

Eloquence: and their choice is certainly judicious, provided they borrow

the blood and the healthy juices, as well as the bones and membranes. What

they recommend, however, is, to do it justice, an agreeable quality. But

why must Lysias and Hyperides be so fondly courted, while Cato is entirely

overlooked? His language indeed has an antiquated air, and some of his

expressions are rather too harsh and crabbed. But let us remember that

this was the language of the time: only change and modernize it, which it

was not in his power to do;--add the improvements of number and cadence,

give an easier turn to his sentences, and regulate the structure and

connection of his words, (which was as little practised even by the older

Greeks as by him) and you will discover no one who can claim the

preference to Cato. The Greeks themselves acknowledge that the chief

beauty of composition results from the frequent use of those

_translatitious_ forms of expression which they call _Tropes_, and of

those various attitudes of language and sentiment which they call

_Figures_: but it is almost incredible in what numbers, and with what

amazing variety, they are all employed by Cato. I know, indeed, that he is

not sufficiently polished, and that recourse must be had to a more perfect

model for imitation: for he is an author of such antiquity, that he is the

oldest now extant, whose writings can be read with patience; and the

ancients in general acquired a much greater reputation in every other art,

than in that of Speaking. But who that has seen the statues of the

moderns, will not perceive in a moment, that the figures of Canachus are

too stiff and formal, to resemble life? Those of Calamis, though evidently

harsh, are somewhat softer. Even the statues of Myron are not sufficiently

alive; and yet you would not hesitate to pronounce them beautiful. But

those of Polycletes are much finer, and, in my mind, completely finished.

The case is the same in Painting; for in the works of Zeuxis, Polygnotus,

Timanthes, and several other masters who confined themselves to the use of

four colours, we commend the air and the symmetry of their figures; but in

Aetion, Nicomachus, Protogenes, and Apelles, every thing is finished to

perfection. This, I believe, will hold equally true in all the other arts;

for there is not one of them which was invented and completed at the same

time. I cannot doubt, for instance, that there were many Poets before

Homer: we may infer it from those very songs which he himself informs us

were sung at the feasts of the Phaeacians, and of the profligate suitors

of Penelope. Nay, to go no farther, what is become of the ancient poems of

our own countrymen?"

"Such as the Fauns and rustic Bards compos'd,

When none the rocks of poetry had cross'd,

Nor wish'd to form his style by rules of art,

Before this vent'rous man: &c.