fight against Scipio and Cato, Hyrcanus sent ambassadors to him,
desiring the ratification of the league of friendship between them. Not
only Cæsar but the senate heaped honours on the ambassadors, and
confirmed the understanding that subsisted. But during the disorders
that arose after the death of Cæsar, Cassius came into Syria and
disturbed Judea by exacting great sums of money. Antipater sought to
gather the great tax demanded from Judea, and was foully slain by a
collector named Malichus, on whom Herod quickly took vengeance for the
murder of his father. By his energy in obtaining the required tax, Herod
gained new favour with Cassius.
_V.--The Herodian Era_
In order to secure his position, Herod made an obscure priest from
Babylon, named Ananelus, high-priest in place of Hyrcanus. This offended
Alexandra, daughter of Hyrcanus and wife of Alexander, son of
Aristobulus the king. She had ten children, among whom were Mariamne,
the beautiful wife of Herod, and Aristobulus. She sent an appeal to
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, in order by her intercession to gain from
Antony the high-priesthood for this son. At the instance of Antony,
Herod took the office from Ananelus, and gave it to Aristobulus, but
took care that the youth should soon be murdered. Then, from causeless
jealousy, he put to death his uncle Joseph and threw Mariamne into
prison. Victory in a war with Arabia enhanced his power. Cruelly slaying
Hyrcanus, he hasted away to Octavian, who had beaten Antony at Actium,
and obtained also from him, the new Cæsar, Augustus, the kingdom, thus
being confirmed in his position.
Women of the palace who hated Mariamne for her beauty, her high birth,
and her pride, falsely accused her to Herod of gross unfaithfulness. He
loved her passionately, but, giving ear to these traducers, ordered her
to be tried. She was condemned to death, and showed great fortitude as
she went to the place of execution, even though her own mother,
Alexandra, in order to make herself safe from the wrath of the king,
basely, and publicly, and violently upbraided her, while the people,
pitying her, mourned at her fate. Herod was also attacked by a
tormenting distemper. He ordered the execution of Alexandra and of
several of his most intimate friends.
By his persistent introduction of foreign customs, which corrupted the
constitution of the country, Herod incurred the deep hatred of very many
eminent citizens. He erected servile trophies to Cæsar, and prepared
costly games in which men were condemned to fight with wild beasts. Ten
men who conspired against him were betrayed, and were tortured horribly,
and then slain. But the people seized the spy who had informed against
them, tore him limb from limb, and flung the body in pieces to the dogs.
By constant and relentless severity Herod still strengthened his rule.
But now fearful disturbances arose in his family. His sister Salome and
his brother Pheroras displayed virulent hatred against Alexander and
Aristobulus, sons of the murdered Mariamne, and, on their part, the two
young men were incensed at the partiality shown by Herod to his eldest
son, Antipater. This prince was continually using cunning strategy
against his brethren, while feigning affection for them. He so worked on
the mind of the king by false accusations against Alexander that many of
the friends of this youth were tortured to death in the attempts made to
force disclosures from them.
A traitor named Eurycles fanned the flame by additional accusations, all
utterly groundless, so that Herod wrote letters to Rome concerning the
treacherous designs of his sons against him, and asking permission of
Cæsar to bring them to trial. This was granted, and they were accused
before an assembly of judges at Berytus and condemned. By their father's
command they were starved to death. For his share in bringing about this
tragedy Antipater was hated by the people. But the secret desire of this
eldest son was to see the end of his father, whom he deeply hated,
though he now governed jointly with him and was no other than a king
already.
Herod by this time had nine wives and many children and grandchildren.
The latter he brought up with much care. Antipater was sent on a mission
to Rome, and during his absence his plots were discovered, and on his
return, Herod, amazed at his wickedness, condemned him to death. The
king now altered his testament, dividing the territory among several of
his sons. He died on the fifth day after the execution of Antipater,
having reigned thirty-four years after procuring the death of Antigonus.
Archelaus, his son, was appointed by Cæsar, in confirmation of Herod's
will, governor of one-half of the country; but accusation of enemies led
to his banishment to Vienna, in Gaul. Cyrenaicus, a Roman senator and
magistrate, was sent by Cæsar to make taxation in Syria and Judea, and
Caponius was made procurator of Judea. Philip, a son of Herod, built
cities in honour of Tiberius Cæsar. When Pontius Pilate became
procurator he removed the army from Cassarea to Jerusalem, abolished
Jewish laws, and in the night introduced Cæsar's effigies on ensigns.
About this time Jesus, a wise man, a doer of wonderful works, drew over
to him many Jews and Gentiles. He was Christ; and when Pilate, at the
suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the
cross, those that loved him did not forsake him, for he appeared to them
again alive at the third day, as the prophets had foretold; and the
tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.
John, who was called the Baptist, was slain by Herod the tetrarch at his
castle at Machserus, by the Dead Sea. The destruction of his army by
Aretas, king of Arabia, was ascribed by the Jews to God's anger for this
crime.
Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, became the most famous of his
descendants. On him Claudius Cæsar bestowed all the dominions of his
grandfather with the title of king. But pride overcame him. Seated on a
throne at a great festival at Cæsarea, arrayed in a magnificent robe, he
was stricken by a disease, and died.
He was succeeded by his son Agrippa, during whose time Felix and Festus
were procurators in Judea, while Nero was Roman emperor. This Agrippa
finished the Temple by the work of 18,000 men. The war of the Jews and
Romans began through the oppression by Gessius Florus, who secured the
procuratorship by the friendship of his wife Cleopatra with Poppea, wife
of Nero. Florus filled Judea with intolerable cruelties, and the war
began in the second year of his rule and the twelfth of the reign of
Nero. What happened will be known by those who peruse the books I have
written about the Jewish war.
* * * * *
The Wars of the Jews
Josephus, in his "Wars of the Jews," gives the only full and
reliable account of the tragic siege and destruction of
Jerusalem by the Romans under Titus. Excepting in the opening,
he writes throughout in the third person, although he was
present in the Roman camp as a prisoner during the siege, and
before then had been, as governor of Galilee, the brave and
energetic antagonist of the Romans. Becoming the friend of
Titus, and despairing of the success of his compatriots, he
was employed in efforts to conciliate the leaders of the
rebellion during the siege, and he was for three years a
privileged captive in the camp of the besiegers. His recital
is one of the most thrilling samples of romantic realism in
the whole range of ancient literature, and its veracity and
honesty have never been impugned. In his autobiography,
Josephus tells how, after the war, he was invited by Titus to
sail with him to Rome, and how on his arrival there the
Emperor Vespasian entertained him in his own palace, bestowed
on him a pension, and conferred on him the honours of Roman
citizenship. The Emperors Titus and Domitian treated this
remarkable Jew with continued favour.
_I.--Beginning of the Great Conflict_
Whereas the war which the Jews made against the Romans hath been the
greatest of all times, while some men who were not concerned themselves
have written vain and contradictory stories by hearsay, and while those
that were there have given false accounts, I, Joseph, the son of
Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, and a priest also, and who at first fought
against the Romans myself, and was forced to be present at what was done
afterwards, am the author of this book.
Now, the affairs of the Romans were in great disorder after the death of
Nero. At the decease of Herod Agrippa, his son, who bore the same name,
was seventeen years old. He was considered too young to bear the burden
of royalty, and Judea relapsed into a Roman province. Cuspius Fadus was
sent as governor, and administered his office with firmness, but found
civil war disturbing the district beyond Jordan. He cleared the country
of the robber bands; and his successor, Tiberius Alexander, during a
brief rule, put down disturbances which broke out in Judea. The province
was at peace till he was superseded by Cumanus, during whose government
the people and the Roman soldiery began to show mutual animosity. In a
terrible riot 20,000 people perished, and Jerusalem was given up to
wailing and lamentation.
It was in Cæsarea that the events took place which led to the final war.
This magnificent city was inhabited by two races--the Syrian Greeks, who
were heathens, and the Jews. The two parties violently contended for the
pre-eminence. The Jews were the more wealthy; but the Roman soldiery,
levied chiefly in Syria, took part with their countrymen. Tumults and
bloodshed disturbed the streets. At this time a procurator named Gessius
Florus was appointed, and he, by his barbarities, forced the Jews to
begin the war in the twelfth year of the reign of Nero and the
seventeenth of the reign of Agrippa.
But the occasion of the war was by no means proportioned to those heavy
calamities that it brought upon us. The fatal flame finally broke out
from the old feud at Cæsarea. The decree of Nero had assigned the
magistracy of that city to the Greeks. It happened that the Jews had a
synagogue, the ground around which belonged to a Greek. For this spot
the Jews offered a much higher price than it was worth. It was refused,
and to annoy them as much as possible, the owner set up some mean
buildings and shops upon it, and so made the approach to the synagogue
as narrow and difficult as possible. The more impetuous of the Jewish
youth interrupted the workmen. Then the men of greater wealth and
influence, and among them John, a publican, collected the large sum of
eight talents, and sent it as a bribe to Florus, that he might stop the
building. He received the money, made great promises, and at once
departed for Sebaste from Cæsarea. His object was to leave full scope
for the riot.
On the following day, while the Jews were crowding to the synagogue, a
citizen of Cæsarea outraged them by oversetting an earthen vessel in the
way, over which he sacrificed birds, as done by the law in cleansing
lepers, and thus he implied that the Jews were a leprous people. The
more violent Jews, furious at the insult, attacked the Greeks, who were
already in arms. The Jews were worsted, took up the books of the law,
and fled to Narbata, about seven miles distant. John, the publican, and
twelve men of eminence went to Samaria to Florus, implored his aid, and
reminded him of the eight talents he had received. He threw them into
prison and demanded seventeen talents from the sacred treasury under
pretence of Cæsar's necessities. This injustice and oppression caused
violent excitement in Jerusalem when the news reached that city. The
people assembled around the Temple with the loudest outcries; but it was
the purpose of Florus to drive the people to insurrection, and he gave
his soldiers orders to plunder the upper market and to put to death all
whom they met. Of men, women, and children there fell that day 3,600.
When Agrippa attempted to persuade the people to obey Florus till Cæsar
should send someone to succeed him, the more seditious cast reproaches
on him, and got the king excluded from the city; nay, some had the
impudence to fling stones at him. At the same time they excited the
people to go to war, and some laid siege to the Roman garrison in the
Antonio; others made an assault on a certain fortress called Masada.
They took it by treachery, and slew the Romans. One, Menahem, a
Galilean, became leader of the sedition, and went to Masada and broke
open Herod's armoury, and gave arms not only to his own people, but to
other robbers, also. These he made use of for a bodyguard, and returned
in state to Jerusalem, and gave orders to continue the siege of the
Antonio.
The tower was undermined, and fell, and many soldiers were slain. Next
day the high-priest Ananias, and his brother Hezekiah, were slain by the
robbers. By these successes Menahem was puffed up and became barbarously
cruel; but he was slain, as were also the captains under him, in an
attack led on by Eleazar, a bold youth who was governor of the Temple.
_II.--The Gathering of Great Storms_
And now great calamities and slaughters came on the Jews. On the very
same day two dreadful massacres happened. In Jerusalem the Jews fell on
Netilius and the band of Roman soldiers whom he commanded after they had
made terms and had surrendered, and all were killed except the commander
himself, who supplicated for mercy, and even agreed to submit to
circumcision. On that very day and hour, as though Providence had
ordained it, the Greeks in Cæsarea rose, and in a single hour slew over
20,000 Jews, and so the city was emptied of its Jewish inhabitants. For
Florus caught those who escaped, and sent them to the galleys. By this
tragedy the whole nation was driven to madness. The Jews rose and laid
waste the villages all around many cities in Syria, and they descended
on Gadara, Hippo, and Gaulonitus, and burnt and destroyed many places.
Sebaste and Askelon they seized without resistance, and they razed
Anthedon and Gaza to the ground, pillaging the villages all around, with
great slaughter.
When thus the disorder in all Syria had become terrible, Cestius Gallus,
the Roman commander at Antioch, marched with an army to Ptolemais and
overran all Galilee and invested Jerusalem, expecting that it would be
surrendered by means of a powerful party within the walls. But the plot
was discovered, and the conspirators were flung headlong from the walls,
and an attack by Cestius on the north side of the Temple was repulsed
with great loss. Seeing the whole country around in arms, and the Jews
swarming on all the heights, Cestius withdrew his army and retired in
the night, leaving 400 of his bravest men to mount guard in the camp and
to display their ensigns, that the Jews might be deceived.
But at break of day it was discovered that the camp was deserted by the
army, and the Jews rushed to the assault and slew all the Roman band.
This happened in the twelfth year of the reign of Nero.
_III.--Judea in Rebellion Against Rome_
Nero was at this time in Achaia. To him, as ambassador, Cestius, sent in
order to lay the blame on Florus, Costobar and Saul, two brothers of the
Herodian family, who, with Philip, the son of Jacimus, the general of
Agrippa, had escaped from Jerusalem. Meantime, a great massacre of the
Jews took place at Damascus. Then those in Jerusalem who had pursued
after Cestius called a general assembly in the Temple, and elected their
governors and commanders. Their choice fell on Joseph, the son of
Gorion, and Ananus, the chief priest, who were invested with absolute
authority in the city; but Eleazar was passed over, for he was suspected
of aiming at kingly power, as he went about attended by a bodyguard of
zealots. But as commanding within the Temple he had made himself master
of the public treasures, and in a short time the need of money and his
extreme subtlety won over the multitude, and all real authority fell
into his hands. To the other districts they sent the men most to be
trusted for courage and fidelity.
Josephus was appointed to the command of Galilee, with particular charge
of the strong city of Gamala. He raised in that province in the north an
army of more than a hundred thousand young men, whom he armed and
exercised after the Roman manner; and he formed a council of seventy,
and appointed seven judges in each city. He sought to unite the people
and to win their goodwill. But great trouble arose from the treachery of
his enemy, John of Gischala, who surpassed all men in craft and deceit.
He gathered a force of 4,000 robbers and wasted Galilee, while he
inflamed the dissensions in the cities, and sent messengers to Jerusalem
accusing Josephus of tyranny. Tiberias and several cities revolted, but
Josephus suppressed the risings, severely punishing many of the leaders.
John retired to the robbers at Masada, and took to plundering Idumsea.
_IV.--Vespasian and Josephus_
Nero, on learning from the messengers the state of affairs, at first
regarded the revolt lightly; but presently grew alarmed, and appointed
to the command of the armies in Syria, and the task of subduing the
Jews, Vespasian, who had pacified the West when it was disordered by the
Germans, and had also recovered Britain for the Romans. He came to
Antioch in the early spring, and was there joined by Agrippa and all his
forces. He marched to Ptolemais, where he was met by his son Titus, who
had, with expedition unusual in the winter season, sailed from Achaia to
Alexandria. So the Roman army now numbered 60,000 horsemen and footmen,
besides large numbers of camp followers who were also accustomed to
military service and could fight on occasion.
The war was now opened. Josephus attempted no resistance in the open
field, and the people had been directed to fly to the fortified cities.
The strongest of all these was Jotapata, and here Josephus commanded in
person. Being very desirous of demolishing it, Vespasian besieged it
with his whole army. It was defended with the greatest vigour, but was,
after fierce conflicts, taken in the thirteenth year of the reign of
Nero, on the first day of the month Panemus (July). During this dreadful
siege, and at the capture, 40,000 men fell. The Romans sought in vain
for the body of Josephus, their stubborn enemy. He had leaped down the
shaft of a dry well leading to a long cavern. A woman betrayed the
hiding-place, and Josephus was taken and brought before the conqueror,
of whom he had demanded from his captors a private conference. To
Vespasian he announced that he and his son would speedily attain the
imperial dignity. Vespasian was conciliated by the speech of his
prisoner, whom he treated with kindness; for though he did not release
him from his bonds, he bestowed on him suits of clothes and other
precious gifts.
Joppa, Tiberias, Taricheæ, and Gamala were taken, both Romans and Jews
perishing in the conflicts. Soon afterwards, by the capture of Gischala,
all Galilee was subdued, John of Gischala fleeing to Jerusalem.
_V.--The Prelude to the Great Siege_
While the cities of Galilee thus arrested the course of the Roman
eagles, Jotapata and Gamala setting the example of daring resistance,
the leaders of the nation in Jerusalem, instead of sending out armies to
the relief of the besieged cities, were engaged in the most dreadful
civil conflicts.
The fame of John of Gishala had gone before him to Jerusalem, and the
multitude poured forth to do him honour. He falsely represented the
Roman forces as being very greatly weakened, and declared that their
engines had been worn out in the sieges in Galilee. He was a man of
enticing eloquence, to whom the young men eagerly gave heed. So the city
now began to be divided into hostile factions, and the whole of Judea
had before set to the people of Jerusalem the fatal example of discord.
For every city was torn to pieces by civil animosities. Not only the
public councils, but even numerous families were distracted by the peace
and war dispute. Through all Judea the youth were ardent for war, while
the elders vainly endeavoured to allay the frenzy. Bands of desperate
men began to spread over the land, plundering houses, while the Roman
garrisons in the towns, rather rejoicing in their hatred to the race
than wishing to protect the sufferers, afforded little help.
Large numbers of these evil men stole into the city and grew into a
daring faction, who robbed houses openly, and many of the most eminent
citizens were murdered by these Zealots, as they were called, from their
pretence that they had discovered a conspiracy to betray the city to the
Romans. They dismissed many of the sanhedrin from office and appointed
men of the lowest degree, who would support them in their violence, till
the leaders of the people became slaves to their will.
At length resistance was provoked, led by Ananus, oldest of the chief
priests, a man of great wisdom, and the robber Zealots took refuge in
the Temple and fortified it more strongly than before. They appointed as
high-priest one Phanias, a coarse and clownish rustic, utterly ignorant
of the sacerdotal duties, who when decked in the robes of office caused
great derision. This sport and pastime for the Zealots caused the more
religious people to shed tears of grief and shame; and the citizens,
unable to endure such insolence, rose in great numbers to avenge the
outrage on the sacred rites. Thus a fierce civil war broke out in which
very many were slain.
Then John of Gischala with great treachery, outwardly siding with
Ananus, and secretly aiding the Zealots, sent messengers inviting the
Idumæans to come to his help, of whom 20,000 broke into the city during
a stormy night, and slew 8,500 of the people.
_VI.--The Siege and Fall of Jerusalem_
Nero died after having reigned thirteen years and eight days, and
Vespasian, being informed of the event, waited for a whole year, holding
his army together instead of proceeding against Jerusalem. Galba was
made emperor, and slain, as was also Otho, his successor; and then,
after the defeat and death of the emperor Vitellius, Vespasian was
proclaimed by the East. He had preferred to leave the Jews to waste
their strength by their internal feuds while he sent his lieutenants
with forces to reduce various surrounding districts instead of attacking
Jerusalem. When he became emperor, he released Josephus from his bonds,
honouring him for his integrity. Hastening his journey to Rome,
Vespasian commanded Titus to subdue Judea.
At Jerusalem were now three factions raging furiously. Eleazar, son of
Simon, who was the first cause of the war, by persuading the people to
reject the offerings of the emperors to the Temple, and had led the
Zealots and seized the Temple, pretended to cherish righteous wrath
against John of Gishala for the bloodshed he had occasioned. But he
deserted the Zealots and seized the inner court of the Temple, so that
there was war between him and Simon, son of Gioras. Thus Eleazar, John,
and Simon each led a band in constant fightings, and the Temple was
everywhere defiled by murders.
Now, as Titus was on his march he chose out 600 select horsemen, and
went to take a view of the city, when suddenly an immense multitude
burst forth from the gate over against the monuments of Queen Helena and
intercepted him and a few others. He had on neither helmet nor
breastplate, yet though many darts were hurled at him, all missed him,
as if by some purpose of Providence, and, charging through the midst of
his foes, he escaped unhurt. Part of the army now advanced to Scopos,
within a mile of the city, while another occupied a station at the foot
of the Mount of Olives.