In "Alceste" his overture assumed a new significance. It had

Transcriber’s Note: This e-text is reproduced from the original

typescript submitted by the author for her bachelor’s degree. Whilst

undoubtedly she would have liked it to be error-free, it wasn’t, and

for authenticity the typos etc. have been left in situ--save for the

incorporation of her handwritten corrections, and some attention to

missing/extraneous punctuation/spacing.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES

IN MODERN OPERA

BY

KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE

THESIS

FOR THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC

IN

MUSIC

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

1917

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

June 1, 1907

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY

KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE

ENTITLED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF MUSIC

George F. Schwartz

Instructor in Charge

APPROVED: J Lawrence Erb

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Music

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

Table of Contents.

Introduction Page 3.

I The Beginnings of Opera to Gluck Page 5.

II Gluck Page 14.

III Rossini and His School up to Wagner Page 20.

IV Wagner Page 27.

V Post Wagnerian School--Including Modern Russian,

French, Italian, German and American Composers. Page 34.

VI Appendix of Tables Page 44.

Table I, General Page 46.

Table II, Number and Kind of Characters Page 48.

Table III, Orchestration Page 50.

Table IV, Solos Page 52.

Table V, Recitative Page 54.

Table VI, Ensemble Page 56.

Table VII, Chorus Page 58.

VII Bibliography Page 60.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

INTRODUCTION.

In this thesis there has been an attempt made to trace the origin, growth

and development, and modification of various tendencies in the Opera. The

form only of the opera has been considered and no attempt has been made

towards the harmonic analysis of the various operas. The main tendencies

that have been discussed are, the differences in regard to; (1) the

number of acts employed; (2) the number and kind of characters; (3) a

comparison; (a) of the proportion of orchestral work, overtures, ballets

and ritornelli; (b) of solo work and the various voices employed; (c) of

recitative, spoken, accompanied and unaccompanied; (d) of ensemble work,

duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets; and (e) separate from this

last, a consideration of the proportion of chorus work, mixed, and that

sung by the men and the women alone.

A study has been made of thirty-four operas and in order to accurately

consider these proportions, tables have been prepared, showing the

percentage of the factors portrayed. These percentages have been

obtained by actual count of the measures devoted to the solos, choruses,

ensembles, etc. There are seven tables.

Table I is a general table showing the number of characters, acts,

percentage of orchestra, solo, recitative, ensemble and chorus.

Table II shows the distribution and number of characters.

Table III shows the percentage of orchestral work, and also that of the

divisions of the orchestral work into overture, ballet and ritornelli.

Table IV shows the percentage of solo work and its distribution to the

various voices.

Table V shows the percentage of recitative and its distribution to the

various voices.

Table VI shows the percentage of ensemble work and the various kinds.

Table VII shows the percentage of the chorus work and its distribution as

to mixed choruses and those sung by the men and women alone.

"Rappresentatione de Anima" by Cavalieri is generally classed as an

oratorio but many authorities consider it an opera, as he was one of

Peri's contemporaries, and worked with the little band of Florentine

nobles, and this was the first work which resulted from their meetings.

However, whether it is an opera or an oratorio, the forms in those days

were very vague, hence, the component factors are interesting as compared

to the later operas, and inasmuch as no score could be obtained earlier

than 1675, it will suffice as a type of that time. In studying the operas

from Wagner on, the solos have been very difficult to distinguish from

the recitative, and consequently any stretch of solo singing over twenty

or twenty-five measures in length, with any sort of tune, has been

considered as a solo.

I. THE BEGINNINGS OF OPERA TO GLUCK.

Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before tracing the

development of the different tendencies, it will be interesting to

consider briefly the historic source of the opera, and the part that

music played in the various dramas, madrigals, ballets, church services,

etc.

It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band of Florentine

reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for their models and forms.

However, it is not to be supposed that opera was developed spontaneously

among these reformers. Like every other world wide movement, it was the

culmination of tendencies and customs from various sources. We have

no reason to accept the Greek dramas as the only models which served,

although they were considered seriously by the first opera writers.

The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted of florid

cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old Greek dramas, music played

an important part. The Greek tragedy and comedy developed from the hymns,

choral dances and chants sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs,

at the festivals of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on

topical subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words,

and were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day.

The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music by us

today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted while the

principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment. The slow

developement of the music in the mass must not be forgotten, but there is

nothing which definitely resembles opera until the thirteenth century.

"Noel" was supposed to be a song which the angels sang, and is found in

many festivals. Perhaps this may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's

ideas, the association of a particular song with one group of people. In

the "Three Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three

virgins sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of the

Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various characters sang

quite definitely, and the congregation was urged at stated intervals

to join in the singing. Part of the words and music were symbolical,

especially those imitating the braying of the ass. "The Passion", in

1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the Gonfalone, lasted for several

days, and contained scenes which were sung, choruses and a trio.

At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays which were plays

interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et de Marion", given at the

court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in 1285, was an operatic symptom

and was divided into songs, spoken dialogue, dialogue songs in which

two voices alternated, and popular ballad tunes, although the music

was not appropriate since it consisted of such complex counterpoint.

The Madrigal plays, although comic in character, influenced in the

introduction of village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la

Reine" was a brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music,

etc. It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. The

melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play. In 1554 "Il

Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the priest sang solos,

accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first solo singing was in the

Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta", 1573, the choruses separated

acts, and introduced the action danced to the chorus behind the scenes.

There was no attempt at the complete setting of the text in these plays,

and no union of the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron"

one or another of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang

and danced. The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative

of Peri and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure.

Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation, had an

orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played an interlude

with special music. There was an accompanied solo allotted to the Deity

and a dance of David. The orchestras were composed of lutes, trombones,

which accomapnied the dancing, etc., but were usually silent after the

entrance of the various characters, excepting the lyres. In the English

masque the words and song were written for an actor but sung behind the

scenes by a chorus.

The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a variety of style

and expressive power. When a single character spoke, the chorus sang in

madrigals, while the actors were on the stage. The music was from behind

the curtain. These Madrigal dramas began to degenerate, however, as the

spectacle disappeared, and the comic element became preeminent.

Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators, but

merely revived certain musical practices and traditions of the 14th

century and modeled these on the early Greek tragedies. "Eurydice"

was accompanied by a large orchestra for those days consisting of a

chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba, three flutes and smaller trombones.

There was a brief entr'acte, and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The

chorus was in five parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or

harmonic support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in

its infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first

operatic orchestra was concealed--perhaps this suggested the idea to

Wagner--perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of formal

melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically, but a

sort of recitative which observed the inflection of the spoken words was

created.

Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed soft gentle

speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a sustained instrumental bass.

Feelings of deeper emotional kind, he expressed by melody with greater

intervals and a lively tempo, accompanied by instrumental harmonies

changing frequently, sometimes using dissonance. His prologue was in

verse and he gave short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich

in harmony. An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in the

end are effective.

Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are really only a

series of madrigals for five voices. There was no overture, no orchestral

accompaniment, nor ritornello of any kind. When the stage was occupied

by a single character, four voices were made to sing behind the scenes,

foretelling the modern orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a

figured bass. "Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented

"Stilo rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of

an imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied only

with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted and

combined as to invest each character and scene with marked individuality.

The introductory toccata (founded on a single chord) was followed by a

ritornello, the recitative was accompanied by a figured bass, sometimes

by two or more instruments indicated at the beginning.

These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical declamation, and

their music better expressed passion and the like. There was a monodic

exchanging of contrapuntal richness for the simplest of melodies,

confined to a single part, and accompanied by bass of the rudest

type and construction. The melodies were destitute of figure and the

composers really aimed at exact oratorical rendering of the words. The

possibilities of orchestral coloring were limited and the dry style of

recitative really dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of

contrast. This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction

of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos

were carefully considered at first, but finally declined, and more and

more attention was paid to the aria and the various concerted music

introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies. The rules became

strict, and it is not difficult to see how the operas became a concert in

costume. We find a quotation of the rules:--

1. A woman always took a man's part.

2. Characters were stereotyped.

3. Position of the aria was determined to give entrance impressiveness.

4. The solos, duets, choruses and ballets were arranged artificially

to suit the convenience of the performers and without regard for the

dramatic context.

Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never ventured to

introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His music was dramatic

and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative. His "Orfeo", 1607,

contains the first dramatic duet. He was an innovator and gave a new

developement to the harmonic system. His influence may be summed up as

follows;

I. He made operatic recitative more melodious and expressive.

II. He boldly used unprepared discord to express dramatic emotions.

III. He greatly enlarged the orchestra, used special, appropriate

groups of instruments to accompany characters, and employed separate

combinations to announce the return and entry of persons. In his

"Arianna" the widening influence of his orchestra developed to thirty-six

instruments, including violins, trombones, trumpets and three small

organs. He invented the pizzicato and tremolo on the violin. In his

"Orfeo" there are parts for the harpsichords, lyres, violas, double

basses, double harps with two rows of strings, two violins, guitars,

organs, flutes, clarions and trombones. The apportionment of the

instruments was as follows:--

The bass viols accompanied Orpheus.

The violas, Eurydice.

Four Trombones, Pluto.

The organs, Apollo.

The guitars, Charon.

The flute registers of the organs, the chorus of sprites.

Scarlatti's genius for melody modified the still though dramatically

correct recitative, and substituted airs in its place. He introduced

measured recitative for the first time, and invented the "de capo aria",

his singers thus distracting attention from the important dramatic

meaning. His knowledge of counterpoint aided him in the construction of

the bass, and elaboration of accompaniments. He tired of the monotony of

uninterrupted recitative, and organized three forms:--

1. Recitative secco for ordinary business.

2. Recitative stromentato which was accompanied and used for violent

emotion, and used the "thorough bass" by the harpsichord to aid this

passionate form of declamation. The sense of the verbal text was enforced

by continual interposition of orchestral symphonies.

3. The aria, to which he added the "de capo"--that is, the repetition of

the second part following the first.

Cavalli employed the ritornello constantly to relieve the monotony of

continuous recitative, and introduced repetition in his ariettas, which

was disapproved by the Florentine Caccini, who was the father of a new

order of music, a style of melody which is not melody; a recitative

melody, noble in character and surpassing the songs of the people, not

altering the words nor depriving them of life, but augmenting them and

giving them meaning and force.

Purcell had true dramatic instinct and a declamatory recitative second

only to that of Wagner, and his airs show unfettered melody. The laws of

his time, which he chose to disregard and modify, are interesting.

I. The number of characters was six, three women and three men.

a. Prima Donna (soprano).

b. A contralto.

c. An artificial or male soprano.

d. An artificial alto.

e. A tenor.

f. A bass.

II. (a) "Aria Cantabile" was quiet and slow with opportunities of

ornamentation, accompanied by a figured bass under pathos.

(b) "Aria di portamento" in slow movement and marked rythm was sometimes

accompanied only by one or two violins.

(c) "Aria di mezzo carattere" had the second part faster than the first,

and the accompaniment was rich and varied.

(d) "Aria Parlante" was elaborately declamatory.

(e) "Aria di bravura" was allegro with brilliant divisions.

III. There were three acts and every scene terminated with an air. Every

member sang one air but no one sang two airs in succession and no two

airs of the same type followed each other. The most important ones came

at the conclusion of the first and second act and here the hero and

heroine claimed a grand scene, with accompanied recitative followed by

"aria d'agilita" and then united in a grand duet. The third act ended

with a chorus of lively movement frequently accompanied by a dance. There

were no trios, quartets or other concentrated movements allowed, though

three characters could join in harmonized exclamation at close of the

recitative.

Handel broke away from these rules in "Radamisto" with an elaborate

quartet and "Teseo" in five acts with two airs in succession to each

character. His operas have been termed a ballad concert in costume,

although he did a great deal toward faithful reproduction of the embodied

sentiments of the text. Purcell rebelled against the idea of succession

of songs and dances and in a tuneful chorus with dramatic spoken

action, he introduced a decided dramatic feeling. The English opera was

advertised to be performed after the Italian manner, with recitative

in place of dialogue and measured melody for airs. Purcell's "Dido and

Aeneus" contains not one spoken word, and his drawn out aria foreshadowed

the dramatic aria of Gluck and Wagner. Balfe and Benedict raised the

standard of the old ballad operas by using better music although Balfe

only appealed to the ear. Tallis, Byrde and Purcell are tolerated for

their voice parts only.

II. GLUCK.

"In the early 18th century the condition of opera was very 'low'". The

accepted number of characters was six, three of each sex. There were

three acts of a given number of verses based on Greek drama. The chorus

stood motionless except for the leader, in a double row with the sexes

separated and masked. The same libretti were used time and time again.

The poets became as stilted as the composers. There were five types of

melody whose sequence and distribution were regulated by rules, and

not by dramatic requirements. Though varied in other ways, the songs

consisted of two parts, the first repeated "de capo" after the second,

notwithstanding the histronic result. The vocalist tyrannized over the

performance, displaying no musical feeling, nothing but vocal agility.

In England and Germany the singers sang their own language during the

performance, for every thing except the formal arias, which were sung in

Italian. Each act had to close with an elaborate finale, and each singer

had to have an aria.

Sammartini in Milan gave prominence to string quartets. There was much

stress laid on technical proficiency and arias. The dances became

better than the vocal music, for the arias especially were monotonous

and forced, and overloaded with ornament and contained practically no

counterpoint. The overture, customarily in three parts, was separated

from the opera itself. The arias were in bravura style with long

and prolix ritornelli. The dramatic airs were absolutely spoiled by

florishes.

Gluck freed the opera from many of these forms. He maintained that the

function of the music was to support the poetry without interrupting

action or disfiguring by superfluous ornament. The dramatic action was

given more importance and the concerted pieces with stereotyped de

capo were discarded. He was criticized for sacrificing music to drama,

which would often have been better without it. This has also been said

of Debussy's "Pelleas and Melisande." Gluck colored his music and

avoided interrupting the actor in the warmth of the dialogue to wait for

ritornello, flourishes and repetitions. He maintained that the overture

should prepare specifically for the character of action and indication of

the subject. Instruments should be employed in proportion to the degree

of interest and passion. Above all he worked for simplicity; that opera

must express life in aria and in recitative, and in similarity between

the passion and the object called forth. His melody was supported by

harmony and was varied in rythm. He strove for pictorial representation

in his airs and accompanied his recitatives by figured bass and chords of

the harpsichord, and employed several airs preceded by long instrumental

solos. He changed and consolidated the structure of the opera on the

verbal basis, and repressed the vanity and egotism of the singers. He

galvanized the lazy languid orchestra into life and made the recitative

play a more important part, making his opera dignified, overture

elucidatory, accompaniment significant, and emphasized the coherent

principle of unity.

In "Telemaco" Gluck imitated aspects of nature in several of the arias

with greater unity of handling, truer dramatic expression, and

continuous interest in the recitative. There are nine numbers following

in dramatic sequence. He abandoned the symphony in three pieces making

his overture lead into the opening aria. His two themes begin finely in

contra-distinction but they degenerate into bravura style. Gluck studied

literature and filled in the void for recitative so that the audience

could-not play chess in between numbers.

"Orpheus" is lyrical and noticeable for the dramatic interest of the

recitative, and the importance of the work given to the chorus. His

duo-thematic treatment of the orchestra here is not successful. In his

short orchestral prelude he breaks away from the spirit of the overture.

The chorus takes up the broad sad theme. Orpheus cries, "Eurydice",

twice, the third time he sings a note higher and stands against chords

of diminished intervals, instead of blending with the chord of the minor

third of the dominant, making a striking dramatic effect. The theme of

the aria is echoed behind the scenes. In the accompanied recitative the

orchestra has a share in producing the effect. In one aria when the sense

of the words changes, the whole character of the music changes. Three

fourth time, in the key of G, is used to depict the happiness of man.

Where Cupid relates to Orpheus, an andante in three eighth time in the

key of D is used.

Gluck has too many contrasts of slow and fast to be effective. His

overtures and finales are weak, and he could not quite effect a

compromise between the musical and the dramatic.

He improved the old antagonism between the aria and the recitative by

giving the orchestra the function of adding some sort of color to

the mere vocal padding. He insisted on acting, instead of mere singing

by posturing sopranos and a chorus of wax figures. He insisted also on

his music being sung as written. His bold stroke was uneven, but such a

dramatic genius has never been surpassed.

In "Alceste" his overture assumed a new significance. It had no formal

end but was broken into by the chorus. In "Armide" each character had

music personally distinctive. "Iphigenie en Tauride" combined dramatic

sincerity, superb use of recitative, natural and telling though simple

choruses, throbbing height of passion, unification of parts of soloists,

chorus and orchestra. He is termed a "creator of dramatic music".

Orchestration was his specialty although he introduced it subservient to

action. However, Gluck never employed trill passages or cadenzas, for

he wanted to accentuate nature and strengthen declamation. His choruses

are treated as "an additional acting character", and his recitative is

true to the dramatic import. Rameau's and Lulli's operas were crabbed and

rigid in comparison. Gluck alone gives each personage a style that is

proper. The musicians who would not, or could not sing, except from the

wings, were ignored by Gluck, and he refused the undramatic demands of

the manager. In "Iphigenia en Tauris" the chorus works into a background

which appropriately and dramatically supports the singer. The two

tendencies in Gluck are, to neglect all sensuous aesthetic pleasure for

attainment of dramatic intensity through declamation, and to realize his

purpose through emotional pleasure, harmony of color, greater unity of

scenes, the carrying out of one dramatic idea from the beginning to the

end, making each individual part stronger.

Piccini was the innovator of the dramatic treatment of the duet and

extended development of the finale. He was the first to turn choral

masses to account on the stage. He used "Recitative instrumento" in

pale of the ordinary "Recitative secco." Mozart enlarged on his ideas,

for his command of the orchestra was unrivalled as a dramatic factor.

Cimarosa placed a statue on the stage, with a pedestal in the orchestra,

while Mozart placed the staue in the orchestra, using the work of the

stage as the pedestal. Cimarosa uses the accompaniment for the support

while Mozart intensifies the voice. Cimarosa was the first to introduce

quartets and other concerted pieces in the midst of dramatic action, and

not as an ornament at the end of the act, but he was outdistanced by

Mozart. Before this, opera was merely a recitative, with a chorus at the

end of each act, and then occasional airs were introduced, but not before

the middle of the 18th century do we find trios, etc.

Beethoven and Weber followed Gluck. Beethoven gave to the orchestra the

explanatory character of the chorus. He employs twenty phrases for a

single character in "Fidelio". Weber used spoken dialogue and recitative

sparingly but when neccessary composed with originality and dramatic

vividness. He tried to construct drama by means of melody and failed. The

first example of a grand orchestral prelude is written in six-fourth time

to "Der Beberrscher der Geister." The overture to "Der Freischutz", by

the use of leading themes, relates the entire story.

In the Italian and French school, "a la Sopontini" the orchestra lifted

and balanced the words and the spirit of the orchestra reveals the

innermost emotions of the dramatic personae. The Mythical manner is

chosen, and a use of alliterative verse with a peculiar use of the

orchestra as preparing, supporting, commenting upon, enforcing and

recalling the various situations of the text.

III. ROSSINI AND HIS SCHOOL UP TO WAGNER.

In 1814 the operatic conditions were deplorable. Vocalists were masters

over the composers. They accepted the mere skeleton of a tune, and so

adorned it with their own trills and flourishes that the poor composer

could scarcely recognize it. The solos were placed to suit their

convenience, whether or not they were suited dramatically. The tenor

singers were very prominent and the bass singers had not as yet emerged

from the background.

Rossini expelled the male soprani from the stage, directed and

controlled his own operas. His music was sensuous and, as shown in

"William Tell", of a simple dramatic style. The operas were of two

acts and scarcely conducive to the maintenance of dramatic action,

separated by a ballet. His "Elizabetha" contained an overture, a duet

and the finale had involved motives in the orchestra. There were two

tenors, for the bass was still in the background. This was the first

opera in which the recitative was accompanied by a stringed quartet and

double bass. He supported the declamation by brilliant themes for the

orchestra. "The Barber of Seville" is a series of melodies, continuous,

and the characters only ceased to sing for strains executed by the

instrumentalists. The transfer of the current of the melody from the

voices to the orchestra was an entirely new idea. He also introduced new

instruments into the orchestra.

Mozart was indebted to the Italians for the sweetness of his melodies

and gave to Italy, through Rossini, new instrumental combinations, new

dramatic methods and new operatic forms. The horn, eighty years ago, was

not very important in Italy and the orchestration played in the operatic

band probably had a part in developing the taste for wind instruments and

especially for horns. Rossini was a student of Haydn's symphonies and

quartets.

In the opera-buffo "L'Equivaco Stravagante" the concerted pieces are

good, and the final rondo a type of final airs. "L'Inganno Felice"

was the first to make an impression. "Ciro in Babilonia" was given to

accomodate a woman, who sustained one tone while the orchetra played

the melody. With "Tancredi" came the commencement of reforms and the

character of the easily comprehended melodies was fascinating. Rossini

substituted singing for declamation, for monologues supported by chords,

and concerted pieces connected with and supported by a brilliant

orchestral accompaniment. In "Tancredi" the bass was given prominence,

in fact he was as prominent as the tenor. In "Semiramide" the principal

is a bass. The action is sustained, the number of formal airs decreased,

the number of characters increased and a free use made of the chorus,

which previous to this time had been merely a subordinate part with no

dramatic functions. In "Otello" the recitative is used more sparingly and

accompanied by a full band, from which the piano was banished. This had

been expelled before in Germany, and by Gluck in France. The two leading

parts are assigned to bass voices, and the interminable recitative

accompanied by double piano or piano and double bass, is done away with.

The most beautiful airs for the prima donna are in "La Cenercatola".

Rossini was now bringing his operas to a brilliant termination, and

beginning to emphasize the alto and mezzo voice. It was only toward the

end of his Italian career in "Matilda di Shubrun" that he assigned the

leading part to a soprano. We find now that there are no leading parts

written for contralto and whether this is due the fact that the soprano

has bean forced into activity to suit new tastes, or because contraltos

are rare, we can not say. Of course Meyerbeer's "L'Africaine" and

Donnizetti's "La Favorita" are exceptions. The orchestration of "La Gazza

Ladrone" is more brilliant and sonorous than that of its predecessors

and introduces new instruments, new combinations, a new distribution of

voice parts, and of orchestral melodies with declamatory phrases for the

singers instead of the endless recitative accompanied only by chords for

the cellos or piano.

He introduced cornets and ophicleides in the overture to "William Tell",

as the nearest approach to the actual instruments used by the cowherders

of Switzerland. In "Semiramide" he brought an entire band onto the

stage and wrote beautifully harmonized music which suggests the chase.

He began the overture to "La Gazza Ladrona" with a duet for the drums,

and did away with the extemporaneous attempts at orchestration by solo

instrumentalists in the accompaniment, who were every bit as disagreeable

and authoritative os the vocal soloists.

Berlioz charged that Rossini's music was heartless, unemotional and

written entirely for the singer, utterly disregarding the vocal effect.

His particular attention to orchestral and choral effects may be traced

to the Parisian influence of his fine experience in hearing their

choruses and orchestras. His music changed from the soft voluptuous

melodies of "Semiramide" to simple emotional dramatic ones in "William

Tell".

Rossini, as mentioned before, was the first Italian to accompany

recitative with a full band, assign leading parts to the bass, make each

dramatic scene one continuous piece of music, and bring to perfection the

highly varied, amply developed, concerted finales.

Donizetti wrote from sixty to seventy operas, but his "Don Pasquale" is

in a light style as compared to the "Barber of Seville" and does not

approach "Semeramide" for melody, nor "William Tell" for dramatic value.

Stendhal foretold that the florid music of Rossini would be followed by a

master of simple melodies and we find Bellini to be the one. Donizetti's

work is not well balanced and he sways from one extreme to the other. His

tenor air in "Anne Bolena" is attractive for it possesses more dramatic

significance than most of his. He counted on the pure musical effect,

which is naturally more effective in spoken drama than in opera, which is

sung through out. For instance, the horn of "Hermani" is terrifying when

heard in the play, but merely ordinary when heard in the opera. He seldom

wrote a tune, or scored a half dozen measures of simple accompaniment,

without burying the voice under ponderous chords for the wood winds.

"Lucrezia Borgia" contains less recitative than was customary with

Rossini. Notice must be taken of the brilliancy of the introduction,

the series of dramatic scenes and the large number of tuneful themes

distributed judiciously for the four leading personages. "Lucia" is

broadly conceived, well constructed and highly dramatic, especially

where the chorus informs Lucia of the end of Edgar. In "La Favorita"

there is passionate impulsiveness in the final duet, the choruses are

impressive, and the music appropriate to the various personages and

situations of the piece.

Bellini had true melody and his creative power was more effective than

Donizetti's, as was his use of the orchestra. He abandoned trills and for

ornamentation delivered simple phrases. "La Somnambula" is an endless

flow of melodies full of true emotion and thoroughly dramatic, for he

gave attention to the orchestration and concerted melodies. Rossini

emphasized the necessity of introducing choruses, which he maintained

were indispensable for dramatic effect, and we find his ideas developed

by these men. However, these, and Paisiello's form of long scenes of

recitative are old now.

Mozart's introduction to "Figaro" first introduces the air by the

orchestra, then transcribed for the solo voice and finally sung by the

chorus. The melody of his "Zitti Zitti" trio was take I from Hayden's

"Seasons". He has adapted also an air from a Russian dance to aid in

the dramatic effect. He reached the highest perfection of expression

of melody with the strings, woodwinds and voice. His librettos are

weak, however, although he rewrote the less important ones himself. His

recitative is barren, for in his operas one had only to sing beautifully,

while in Wagner one must declaim beautifully. Mozart knew music as the

art of expression and gave this in its fullest sense to airs, duets and

ensemble pieces, yet he left opera forms as he found them. He spoke

of and depicted scenes, animals, etc. in his music. "Magic Flute" is

a primma donna opera. Mozart considered first music, then the book

and lastly the performance. In "Figaro" the psychological handling of

the characters is unconvincing. He has applied one invariable musical

formula to every character. He repeats one or two chords ad infinitum

in the orchestra. The voice trips along on top of these in semi speed. He

sanctioned formulas for cadences used in every situation. Even in "Don

Giovanni" the formulas for the cadences are used in this manner. He uses

the same method for light scenes as well as tragic situations, depicting

indignant heroines and chorus in the same manner. He was more musical but

he did not realize the dramatic situations.

Bellini was a pure melodist, but his instrumentation was faulty, and he

objected to ornamentation.

The French opera helps to develop the tendency of individual expression

while the German crushes it in striving for a whole general effect.

Rameau's "Hyppolyte et Aricie" is the most highly developed study of

character. Lulli's work is an amplification of Ramean's work. He combined

simplicity, natural melody and dramatic intentions. He developed his

attention to the orchestra, and employed the chorus as an integral

factor in the situation. He invented the overture using a slow movement,

followed by a quick fugal style with the third division, a short

dance. He developed the style of the French ballet. Both he and Ramean

considered accompanied recitative a matter of more importance than a

continuous flow of melodies. He reduced music to a minimum in this and

did not dominate it in time, rythm nor musical feeling. He characterized

it by accentuating the metrical and prosodial elements of the words

themselves, and followed closely the accent of the words, changing

rapidly from four-four rythm to three-four, and back again.

There is no feeling in his arias for he was restricted to conventional

forms, and his melodies are characterless. In his "Comique de la

Rayne", arranged by Baltazan de Beaujoyeaux, with dance, tunes, chorus,

musical dialogues and ritornelli he exhibits a bold and highly cultivated

taste for instrumental music which led him to mold the overture into a

more perfect form.

The serious opera, however, was becoming a mass of absurdities,

emphasizing the spectacle as superior to the music, with bad libretti,

degenerating under aristocratic patronage. The overture was to anticipate

the opera and a better recitative was wanted. Gluck wished to minimize

the disparity between opera and recitative and protested against the

frequent use of the de capo and repetition of words, maintaining that the

words should only be repeated where required by circumstances of passion.

Meyerbeer was feeble in harmonic invention with no psychological grip but

with a talent for manipulating broad contrasts and climaxes of sound. He

is a creator of modern stage technique, merging scenes and music into

unity, a school of dramatic effects closely studied by Berlioz and Wagner.

Bizet's "Carmen" is the most brilliant and best to convey the romance

of the nomadic desire in the gypsy. The ballets and operas of Delibes

are like the fashioning of a piece of Sevres china. Cesar Franck's veil

of harmonies envelops a multitude of themes so that the tragic ending

almost gives one a sense of peace. Auber was the last to represent the

Opera Comique and is noted for his simple melodies, and the rythm and

brilliancy of his orchestral effects. Bizet's operas are notable for

their abundance of local color, but Meyerbeer was the most influential

except Wagner. He opened up a new epoch in French opera.

IV. WAGNER.

Wagner objected to the sentimental Italian music. He considered Gluck

only a musician of airs, and himself insisted on absolute equality of

words and music. His "Trilogy" is the longest musical work in the world,

containing 984,033 notes. He discarded formal arias, finales, separate

movements, to a great extent choruses, whereever histrionic delineation

did not demand them. He considered a full close or final cadence quaint

and for usual formal melodies substituted declamatory recitative or

speech song.

Gluck and Wagner brought back undying principles of dramatic worth. In

the days of Bellini, Rossini and Donizetti, melody was supreme. The

dramatic truth was lost sight of and the melody was not appropriate. In

"William Tell" and "Der Freischutz" there was a step onwards towards the

Wagner reform and a return to the first principles of dramatic art as

applied to opera by the Bardi coterie. There was recitative, declamation

and melody. Individualism was the prevailing tendency, and the success

depends on the forcibleness of character development by means of the

leitmotiv. Operatic art was here swaying between Wagnerism and the

ancient Greek drama. This union of drama and music does away with the

old absurd Italian form, in which the libretto was a mere skeleton, the

situations unnatural and the music inappropriate and undramatic.

The Wagner texts were better and abolished concerted music which was

unnatural, and he demanded distinctness in ennunciation, musical

embodiment of emotional speech, melodic independence of the orchestra and

rapid and natural action. The Italian libretto was merely an excuse for

musical adornment, but the Wagnerian opera was a source of inspiration.

Wagner translated every character, emotion, dramatic action, symbolic

idea by a series of characteristic phrases. He joined motive to motive,

developed with artistic skill a musical current rolling along in the

orchestral accompaniment and ample in every word.

In his earlier works Wagner adhered to the lyrical conception of the

opera. Speech was raised by stress of emotion into song with the

orchestra used only as an accompaniment and, under this new system,

effected an organization of instrumental and vocal forces. In "Das

Rheingold" the orchestra is exalted to symphonic dignity with the

traditional alternations of the formal song and recitative merged into

free declamation. The symphonic treatment of the orchestra led to

increased developmentt of leading motives. As symphonic music presupposes

the use of musical themes, Wagner drew his themes not from the words sung

by the characters but from the characters themselves, their thoughts,

feelings and aspirations. In the love duet in "Die Walküre" the most

delicious harmony is expressed.

Wagner was both a poet and a musician and combined poetry, music and

pantomine painting. He is called the "reformer of opera", a "regenerator

of modern drama". Wagner's great work aside from the leitmotiv was his

work with recitative. Up to this time the recitative and the arias were

dry, weak, barren and hampered every composer and poet. Up to his time

the recitative aria and the ballet had undergone no organic change,

though the aria had suffered many changes of fashion. He did not mean to

sacrifice the beauty of sound in the Italian operas, but this had so far

usurped the first place, while the dramatic motive which had inspired

the invention of the opera. His works are not conspicuous for pure

melody, for he considered the dramatic effect of chords and discords. He

paid deference to the language employed and the vocal peculiarities of

the people, for the German words were unintelligible when sung to the

florid Italian tunes. He wrote the vocal parts of his lyric dramas to

bring out the force of his poetry.

He gave new expression to new ideas. Peri, in "Eurydice", concealed

an orchestra behind the scenes. In Monteverde's "Orfeo", thirty-six

different instruments were relegated to each personage. Wagner assigned

an instrument or set of instruments to each person. His typical phrases

are most interesting. He pictures the giants, in "Das Rheingold", with

loud heavy octaves, the Nibelung, tricksters and schemers, with music of

a descending figure, twothirds the interval of a seventh, the melodies of

the Rhine with characteristic figures depicting slow undulation of water

in its depths, flux and reflux of element, ripples on the surface and the

motion of the swimmers.

His "Rheingold" music is truly scenic. It begins with a single deep

tone and then introduces instruments of a lighter color. The graduated

augmentation of the wavy accompaniment and the doubly delineative

spirit reflects the sinless quiet of the Golden Age. There are themes

for mental states and the evil Alberich is represented by abrupt jerky

music. The orchestra discourses mournfully of the renunciation of love.

Loga is depicted by fitful chromatic phrases which crackle and flash

thru the orchestra. The sword phrase consists of major harmonies over

sustained pedal point, and the thunderstorm of rushing figures in bass,

and staccato lightning in short rapid figures in lighter instruments,

crashing of the wind in chromatic phrases, a hammering rythm for

the Nibelung. Siegfried's boyhood is pictured as a wild forest lad

with a hunting call, and when he gathers pieces of the spear the music

accompaniment is in broken rythm.

In "Parsifal" the music depicts little of external things. In

"Tannhaüser" there are fancies which Wagner wished to float thru the

minds of the audience and the Pilgrim's Chant swells and disappears. In

"Tristan and Isolde" the prelude represents the spiritual progress of

the tragedy. The suffering of the wounded Tristan is shown by a theme of

descending half steps and a closing cadence of short phrases which stand

for the love glance is a downward leap of the seventh. The symbol of

death is expressed with a sudden and unprepared change from A flat to A.

The music consists of a few phrases which unfold themselves over and over

again in a variety of combinations with continually changing instrumental

color. "Die Meistersinger" prelude delineates the characteristic traits

of the personages, and the symphonic introduction indicates the elements

of the plot, the progress in its developement and the outcome. The two

classes of melodies are broadly distinguished in external physiognomy and

emotional essence, at first consecutively, then in conflict and finally

in harmonious and contented union. The solid old burghers of Nuremburg,

a little vain, are pictured by strong simple tunes with sequences of the

intervals of the simple diatonic scale, strongly and simply harmonized,

a trifle pompous in opposition to the passion of the lovers displayed.

These themes differ in every respect, melodic, rythmic, and harmonic,

and also in their treatment. The lover's theme is chromatic, the rythme

are less regular and more eager by syncopation. This is harmonized with

greater warmth and set for the instruments with greater passion.

Wagner's orchestra acquired gradually the functions of the Greek chorus,

in that it takes part in the action to publish that which is beyond the

capacity of the personages alone to utter. He unfolds thoughts, emotions,

motives and passions by means of mode, harmony, rythm, time and the

orchestration. By applying the principles of augmentation to a phrase

in the three phases of melodic, harmonic and instrumental structure, he

illustrates the tragic growth of Siegfried. He wrote his own librettos

so that his works would be consistent. "Tristan and Isolde", "Die

Meistersinger", "Der Ring des Nibelunger" and "Parsifal" realized his

conception of what a poet composer should be. Music had usurped the place

in lyric drama and music is a medium only and not an end of dramatic

expression. His leitmotiv, infinite melody and symbolical themes gave

his orchestra color. He used musical declamation for recitative secco,

employed choruses with intelligent regard, and originated arias from

the situations. Wagner lived for pure singing and did not make abnormal

demands upon the voice like those of Strauss' "Electra". He has long solo

passages and orderly development of orchestral themes, as different from

Debussy whose sounds are not connected. Wagner elevated the orchestra

from a mere accompanying force to an essential factor. He maintained that

formal song should be abolished, that the dialogue should be musical

and that the orchestra should have an orderly development of melodic

material save when the climaxes justify an apparently disconnected

dramatic melodramatic method. Damrosch criticizes Wagner because he says

everything in his orchestra, and his singer is too little considered.