thin white continuous layer, breaking up at maturity into a mealy or
furfuraceous coat, which soon falls away; inner peridium thin, flaccid,
becoming brown, smooth and shining, dehiscent by an irregular torn
aperture about the apex. Mass of spores and capillitium soft, lax, at
first ochraceous or pale-brown, finally purplish-brown; the threads
curled and flexuous, very large, with an expanse of 1.25–1.75 mm., four
to seven times branched, the main stem 15–20µ in thickness, the ultimate
branches long and tapering. =Spores= globose, even, 4.5–5.5µ in
diameter, often with a minute pedicel.
Growing on the ground. Rocky mountains. _Jones._ Peridium 1½-2 in. in
diameter. This differs from B. pila in being soft, flaccid, and soon
collapsing; it, no doubt, is not so persistent. Microscopically it is
readily distinguished by its much larger threads. _Morgan._
=B. nigres´cens= (Vitt.) Pers.—blackish. Peridium subglobose, with a
fibrous mycelium. Cortex a thin, smooth, white continuous layer, at
maturity breaking up into scales, which soon disappear; inner peridium
thin, flaccid, becoming dark-brown, smooth and shining, dehiscent at the
apex by a lacerate mouth. Mass of spores and capillitium soft, lax, at
first ochraceous or olivaceous, at length purplish-brown; the threads
flexuous, about 1 mm. in extent, three to five times branched, the main
stem 12–18µ thick, the ultimate branches tapering. =Spores= globose or
oval, even, 5–6µ in diameter, with long hyaline pedicels.
Growing in old pastures, in fields and woods. Canada, _Saccardo_;
Pennsylvania, _Schweinitz_; North Carolina, _Curtis_; Ohio, _Lea_;
California, _Harkness_.
Peridium 1–2 in. in diameter. I have never succeeded in obtaining an
American specimen of this species; my description is drawn up from
European specimens. _Morgan._
Pennsylvania, _McIlvaine_. B. nigrescens is a first-class puff-ball.
=B. plum´bea= Pers.—lead-colored. Peridium ¾-1¼ in. in diameter,
depressed-globose, with a fibrous mycelium. Cortex a thin, smooth, white
continuous coat, loosening at maturity and shelling off, except
sometimes a small portion about the base; inner peridium thin, tough,
smooth, lead-colored, dehiscent at the apex by a round or oblong
aperture. Mass of spores and capillitium soft, lax, ochraceous or
olivaceous, then purplish-brown, the threads .8–1.0 mm. in extent, three
to five times branched, the main stem 12–16µ thick, the ultimate
branches long, straight and tapering to a fine point. =Spores= oval,
even, 6–7×5–6µ, with long hyaline pedicels.
Growing on the ground in meadows and pastures. _Morgan._
Indiana, in abandoned brick-yard, _H.I. Miller_; West Virginia, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania. Common on ground in open places. Solitary or in
groups. Spring to autumn; after rains, _McIlvaine_.
Edible. _Trelease_, _Badham_.
The botanic difference between a Lycoperdon and a Bovista does not
affect the Mycophagist. He can not distinguish the difference when
cooked. B. plumbea is given in Cooke and in Massee as Lycoperdon
plumbeum. Bovista plumbea is a first-class edible.
=B. mi´nor= Morg. (Plate CLXXIX, p. 610.) =Peridium= subglobose, deeply
sunk in the soil and connected with it by a filamentous mycelium, which
issues from every part of the surface. Cortex thickish, rough and
irregular from the adherent soil, fragile, falling away at maturity,
except sometimes a small portion about the base; inner peridium thin,
smooth, flaccid, reddish-brown, dehiscent by a regular apical mouth.
Mass of spores and capillitium olivaceous, then reddish-brown; the
threads curled and flexuous, with an expanse of 1.0–1.5 mm., two to four
times branched, the main stem 10–15µ thick, the ultimate branches very
long and tapering to a fine point. =Spores= globose or slightly oval,
even, 3.5–4.5µ in diameter, with long hyaline pedicels.
Growing in damp shaded situations. Ohio, _Morgan_; Nebraska, _Webber_.
Peridium ½-¾ of an inch in diameter. A species well marked by its
peculiar habit. The curled and flexuous threads are interesting
microscopic objects. _Morgan._
GENUS XIII.—=MYCENAS´TRUM= Desv.
(Plate CLXXXII.)
[Illustration:
MYCENASTRUM SPINULOSUM PK.
(After Morgan.)
]
Mycelium funicular, rooting from the base. =Peridium= subglobose,
without a thickened base; cortex a smooth continuous layer, at first
closely adnate to the inner peridium, after maturity gradually breaking
up and falling away; inner peridium thick, tough, coriaceous, becoming
hard, rigid and corky, the upper part finally breaking up into irregular
lobes or fragments. Capillitium originating within the tissue of the
gleba; the threads free, short, thick, with a few short branches,
acutely pointed and with scattered prickles. =Spores= large, globose,
sessile, brown.
Puff-balls of considerable size, growing in the sandy soil of dry
regions. A very distinct genus, in no way related to Scleroderma, and
resembling it only in its thick, corky, inner peridium. The threads of
the capillitium originate within the tissue of the gleba, along with the
spores, and are set free by deliquescence, the same as in Bovista.
_Morgan._
=M. spinulo´sum= Pk. =Peridium= globose, depressed globose, sometimes
elongated and often irregular, with a thick, cord-like root. Cortex at
first a thickish, white, smooth, continuous layer; after maturity it
cracks or becomes furrowed into large polygonal areas, and at length
falls away in large flakes or scales; inner peridium very thick, at
first white and coriaceous, becoming hard, dry, brown and rigid, the
upper part finally breaking up into irregular lobes or fragments. Mass
of spores and capillitium compact then friable, at first olivaceous,
then dark purplish-brown; the threads bent, curved and flexuous,
subhyaline, .2-.7 mm. in length, about the same thickness as the spores,
with a few short branches, and with scattered prickles, which are most
abundant toward the acute extremities. =Spores= globose, very minutely
warted, opaque, 9–12µ in. diameter, often with a minute or slender
hyaline pedicel.
Growing on the sandy soil of the western prairies. Wisconsin, _Brown_;
Dakota, _Ellis_; Nebraska, _Webber_; Colorado, _Trelease_; Kansas,
_Kellerman_, _Cragin_; New Mexico, _Irish_.
=Peridium= 2–4 in. in diameter. The plants are said to grow together in
groups, sometimes of many individuals; after maturity they are easily
loosened from their place of growth and are then rolled about by the
wind. _Morgan._
No report upon edibility. Probably good.
FAMILY III.—=SCLERODERMA´CEÆ=.
=Peridium= discrete from the gleba, often with a columella; cells of the
gleba subpersistent. _Morgan._
GENUS I.—=SCLERODER´MA= Pers.
_Scleros_, hard; _derma_, skin.
Skin firm with an innate bark, bursting irregularly; woolly threads
adhering on all sides to the bark and forming distinct veins in the
central mass. Base sterile, usually becoming elongated into a stem-like
structure. =Spores= large, granulated.
Scleroderma vulgare and verrucosum are general and very common over the
United States. S. bovista and S. geaster have the same range but are not
so common. They much resemble puff-balls, but are more pudgy,
solid-looking. All are edible. Their qualities are noted under their
descriptions.
(Plate CLXXX.)
[Illustration: SCLERODERMA VULGARE.]
A-B. Firm when young and remain nearly so when mature.
=S. vulga´re= Fr.—_vulgaris_, common. (Plate CLXXX.) Subsessile,
irregular; bark corky, hard, opening indefinitely; inner mass in which
the spores are collected into little heaps separated by a few grayish
woolly threads, bluish-black. =Spores= dingy; in the mass blackish with
purple tinge, globose, warted, 9–11µ _Massee_.
The larger form is generally of a yellowish or brownish hue, surface
warty or covered with rough scales; the smaller, stemless minutely
warty, bright brown.
Under trees, etc. Often cespitose, 1–3 in. across. =Peridium= variable,
white or pale-brown, often becoming pink when cut. Dehiscing by decay of
upper portion of peridium. _Massee._
Scleroderma vulgare is one of our most common and plentiful toadstools.
Its hard, rough, warty, light brown knobs, single or clustered, growing
along brook-banks or under trees, generally choosing hard ground, are
known to all who observe Nature’s curiosities. When quite young they are
white inside. As they enlarge the center darkens and this purplish color
finally develops into a grayish-purplish-black which extends throughout
the interior and gives it a granular appearance. The fungus is solid,
cutting like a potato. Its smell is strong; also its taste when raw.
Sliced and well-cooked the species is good, even after it has become
purplish, but if a single one is wilted it will embitter a whole dish.
Or if it is not very well stewed or fried it remains strong. In no
condition is it injurious. Specimens must be pared, and the base well
cut away.
=S. bovis´ta= Fr. Subsessile, often irregular, peridium thin, pliant,
almost smooth; tramal walls floccose, _yellow_, mass of spores
olive-brown, spores globose, warted, 10–13µ.
Sandy soil under trees, etc. From 1–2 in. across. Distinguished by the
thin, almost smooth peridium, and the yellow tramal walls. _Massee._
West Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. On ground under trees. June to
November. _McIlvaine._
Not rough like S. vulgare and S. verrucosum, nor as solid. Same habit,
same edible qualities when young. It is not good after it begins to
change color.
=S. verruco´sum= Pers.—_verrucosus_, covered with warts (_verruc[oe]_).
Peridium thin above, ochraceous or dingy brown, covered with minute
warts, subglobose, continued downward as a more or less elongated
stem-like base. =Spores= umber in the mass; trama whitish.
=Spores= globose, warted, 10–13µ.
On the ground, under trees, etc. Peridium 1–3 in. across. =Stem= ½-2 in.
long, thick, flatly pitted, sometimes almost sessile, when it approaches
S. vulgare, but is distinguished by the thin peridium and absence of
purple tinge in the immature spore mass. _Massee._
West Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. June to October. On ground
under trees. Same habit as S. vulgare. _McIlvaine._
S. verrucosum closely resembles S. vulgare. The distinctions are noted
in the description. It must be young, fresh and white inside, or it is
bitter. It is not of as good quality as S. vulgare.
=S. geas´ter= Fr.—resembling genus Geaster in its manner of opening.
Subglobose, sessile, peridium thick, rigid, almost smooth, splitting in
an irregularly stellate manner at the apex.
=Spores= warted, 12–16µ.
Sandy places. Known by the peridium dehiscing in a stellate manner; from
1–2 in. across. _Massee._
New Jersey, August. In sandy woods. _McIlvaine._
I have found but few specimens. Those were edible and good.
GENUS II.—=POLYSAC´CUM= De C.
_Polus_, many; _saccus_, a sack.
(Plate CLXXXI.)
[Illustration:
POLYSACCUM PISOCARPIUM.
Natural size.
]
Peridium irregularly globose, thick, attenuated downward into a
stem-like base, opening by disintegration of its upper portion; internal
mass (gleba) divided into distinct sack-like cells.
Allied to Scleroderma and distinguished by the cavities of the gleba
containing distinct peridiola. _Massee._
=P. pisocar´pium= Fr. _Gr_—a pea; _Gr_—fruited. =Peridium= irregularly
globose, indistinctly nodulose, passing downward into a stout stem-like
base; peridiola irregularly angular, 4–5×2–3µ, yellow. =Spores= globose,
warted, coffee-color, 9–13µ _Massee_.
P. pisocarpium was quite common at Mt. Gretna, Pa., from August to
October, 1898, in open pine and mixed woods, growing from sandy ground.
The height reached 5 in. and diameter 2 in. The shapes were usually
those of inverted pears, more or less flattened along their lengths.
Skin hard, polished, olivaceous-black with dull yellow mottlings, not
unlike rattlesnake skin. When broken the peridiola (small ovate
cylinders which bear the spores within) are very distinct, often over ⅛
in. long. The entire interior is dark when mature, and the rupture of
the plant is irregular and by disintegration of the upper part. They
often dry without rupturing. Search as I would, I could not find a young
one, or one in edible condition. The plant is here given because
interesting and one the student will wish to identify. It is so odd that
it is not surprising to find it employed as a medicine in China.
[Illustration]
TOADSTOOL POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT
BY W.S. CARTER, M.D.
Professor of Physiology and Hygiene, University of Texas, Galveston,
Texas.
The poisonous mushrooms, or so-called toadstools, may be grouped in two
classes: (1) Those containing minor or irritant poisons, which act
locally on the gastro-intestinal tract, such as the Clitocybe illudens,
Lepiota Morgani and others, and (2) those containing major poisons which
act on the nerve centers after absorption, causing symptoms to appear a
long time after the poison has been taken and very often terminating
fatally. This group includes the Amanita muscaria, the Amanita bulbosa
or Am. verna and the Amanita phalloides.
From the prompt way in which vomiting and purging begin after eating the
toadstools of the first group there seems to be no doubt of the local
irritant action on the alimentary canal. Grave symptoms from any
constitutional effect or any serious disturbances of the circulation do
not occur. Although intensely disagreeable, such poisoning terminates in
recovery and may not be regarded as dangerous unless the poison be taken
in enormous quantity or by one in poor health.
In poisoning by the deadly toxic Amanitæ vomiting and purging may also
occur as prominent symptoms, but generally only occur late—ten to
fifteen hours after eating the toadstool—and are due to the action of
the poison on the nerve centers. This is clear from the fact that these
symptoms appear when the poison is given either hypodermatically or
intravenously to animals.
It is exceedingly unfortunate that these deadly poisonous toadstools do
not give some warning either in an unpleasant taste or contain an
irritant which would act locally to cause emesis and purgation, for in
that case the patient would get rid of the poison before such large
quantities were absorbed and fatal poisoning would be less frequent.
They are not at all unpalatable and sometimes large quantities are eaten
by mistake.
Formerly frequent allusion was made to the possibility of poisoning by
decomposition products from putrefactive changes in mushrooms. Not a
single case has come to the writer’s notice where this form of poisoning
has _actually_ occurred. In many reported cases of poisoning it is
distinctly stated they were eaten soon after gathering; in none does the
reporter mention any suspicion of poisoning of this nature.
At one time very many mushrooms were supposed to be poisonous. We now
know that there are only a few dangerous ones, and where serious
poisoning occurs it seems clearly to be due to some definite and
constant poisons contained in certain fungi. We shall not deal here with
the irritant poisons, as they are not dangerous and usually Nature gets
rid of them easily, but shall consider the poisons of the Amanita
muscaria or “Fly mushroom,” the A. bulbosus vernus Bull. or A. verna,
and the A. phalloides or “death cup.” The writer has not had any
personal experience with poisoning by these in man, but bases his
observations upon over one hundred experiments made upon lower
animals.[C] This is a distinct advantage in reaching any conclusion, as
the facts are definite without any doubt as to the _kind_ or _quantity_
of the poison taken. In many of the reports of poisoning by mushrooms in
man no mention of the species is made. In all these cases many kinds
have been mixed together in preparing them for the table and it has
never been known how many of the poisonous and how many of the edible
ones have been eaten by any one individual partaking of the dish. Of
course the fluid in which they are cooked contains some of the poison.
This explains why some patients recover after having eaten several
mushrooms while others die from a part of one only. (See report of six
cases by Dr. G.E. Caglieri, New York Med. Record, August 28, 1897; also
Dr. Berry’s cases reported by Prentiss, Philadelphia Med. Journal,
September 24, 1898.) Then, too, different poisonous species may be mixed
together. The symptoms produced by the different Amanitæ poisons are
quite different. Those containing irritant poisons may be taken with
those containing deadly poisons. This accounts for the great variety of
symptoms presented in cases reported.
Footnote C:
All of the toadstools used have been very kindly furnished and
identified by Capt. Chas. McIlvaine. Unfortunately only fifteen
experiments could be made with the fresh fungi while the writer was at
the University of Pennsylvania. Since leaving there it has been
impossible to get any in a fresh state, and the other experiments have
been made either with dried fungi or alcoholic or glycerine extracts
of the fresh.
POISONING BY AMANITA MUSCARIA.
The symptoms of poisoning by this fungus usually appear from eight to
twelve hours after it has been eaten, unless it has been taken in
enormous quantities, as in the cases reported by Prentiss (Phila. Med.
Jour., September 24, 1898), where they came on in half an hour.
These begin with cramp-like pains in the extremities, colicky pains in
the abdomen, burning thirst, vomiting and purging. The pulse may be very
slow and strong at first, but later becomes rapid, small and feeble. The
blood pressure is low and, as a result of this disturbance of the
circulation, faintness is a common early symptom. Extreme pallor is
often noticed. The secretions are increased, and the sweat and the
saliva may be secreted in abnormal quantities.
The pupils are strongly contracted and dullness of the vision or double
vision may be noticed early.
The respirations are slow and become shallow and stertorous when the
poisoning is severe.
The mental state may be clear at first, but becomes dull, deepening into
unconsciousness and deep coma if a large quantity has been taken.
Convulsions are reported to have occurred in some cases from poisoning
by this toadstool in man. The dried Amanita muscaria or extracts of the
fresh fail to produce convulsions in the lower animals, even in frogs,
which are very susceptible. Either there is a considerable difference in
the susceptibility to this poison or there is some poison present in the
fresh fungus which is lost by drying.
Small amounts of the dried Amanita muscaria are said to be used by
inhabitants of northern Asia for the stimulating effect upon the nervous
system, producing, like other narcotic poisons, a dreamy state of
intoxication, deepening into sleep (Von Boeck in Ziemssen’s Cyclopedia
of Medicine, Vol. VII).
In animals the most striking effect is upon the circulation. When
injected intravenously it causes tremendous inhibition of the heart’s
action—a moderate amount causing the heart to beat slowly and
powerfully; a large amount causing complete arrest. Even with the
partial inhibition there is an enormous fall of pressure. The slowing of
the heart soon passes off, and when a moderate amount has been injected,
the circulation quickly returns to normal.
In one of my experiments on a dog, the heart stopped for 1¾ minutes and
then began beating again, the circulation soon recovering.
Late in the poisoning the heart beats may be rapid and feeble and the
blood pressure low. The lowered blood pressure is largely due to
dilatation of the small blood vessels resulting from a loss of control
over them by the nerve center which normally keeps the arterioles in a
state of partial contraction.
The inhibition of the heart is due to the action of the well-known
alkaloid _muscarine_ upon nerve ganglia in the heart. The contraction of
the pupil and the increased secretory activity of the glands are also
due to this substance which was discovered by Schmideberg and Koppe in
1869.
It was soon found that although dogs recovered from the _immediate_ or
_early effects_ (_i. e._, from the muscarine) of enormous quantities of
toadstools, they succumbed from the _late effects of much smaller
quantities_. Atropine fails to avert this result from the late effect,
whether given before the poison, with it, or after it. The inhibition of
the heart passes off long before death occurs. Late death does not
appear to be due to muscarine.
All these facts put together point to the existence of some other poison
or poisons in the Amanita muscaria to which atropine is _not_ an
antidote.
This peculiar poisoning causing death so late will be discussed again
after considering the other poisonous mushrooms as they act similarly.
Gastro-intestinal symptoms were not as common in my experiments with
Amanita muscaria as with the Amanita phalloides. Vomiting and purging
occasionally occurred early, but much more frequently late in the
poisoning and often not at all.
Convulsions did not occur in any of the animals poisoned by this fungus.
Convulsions are recorded in some cases of poisoning in man, but not so
constantly as with the A. phalloides and A. verna. Where they occurred
either a large amount had been taken (as in Prentiss' case) or there is
some doubt about the Amanita muscaria having been the only toadstool
eaten (as in Caglieri’s cases). Frogs are very easily thrown into
spasms, but no spasms were observed, even in fatal poisoning of them by
this toadstool.
Regarding cerebral symptoms, little can be said except that
unconsciousness and coma may come on early and persist till death. In
cases terminating fatally the animal seemed to be conscious, but so
depressed that it was unable to stand or even move when called.
Concerning differences in the susceptibility of different animals to the
poisons of Amanita muscaria, cats seemed to be more susceptible than
dogs in the earlier experiments with extracts of the fresh fungus, but
more numerous experiments with the dried fungus failed to show any
greater difference than can be observed between different animals of the
same kind.
As to the nature of the poisons very little can be stated from the
experiments, as they were undertaken as a preliminary step to chemical
studies to be carried on later. The alkaloid muscarine is one of our
best known poisons and nothing can be added to what is already known
about it. The poisons are extracted by distilled water as well as by a
solution of sodium chloride; they are soluble in glycerine and in
alcohol and very little difference can be seen in the action of these
extracts, unless the alcoholic extract contains more of the muscarine,
while the glycerine extract contains more of the other poisons.
It is stated that muscarine is not poisonous to flies; that the Amanita
muscaria contains a volatile poison which is poisonous to flies (hence
the name “Fly mushroom”), and which is lost by drying; that inhabitants
of northern Asia use the _dried_ fungus (after the volatile poison has
been lost) for producing intoxication (Von Boeck in Ziemssen’s
Cyclopedia, Vol. VII, p. 927). My experiments have been entirely with
mammals and frogs, and unfortunately those performed with the fresh
toadstools were not numerous enough to enable me to draw positive
conclusions as to any loss of toxicity by drying. A single experiment
with a cat seemed to indicate that boiling of the fungus lessened the
toxicity but subsequent experiments indicated that a boiled solution was
no less toxic than one not boiled.
One thing we can state definitely; that boiling the dried A. muscaria
does not destroy its toxicity. This indicates that the poison is not of
an albuminous nature, which would be coagulated by heat.
Whether or not any volatile poison is lost by boiling a solution of the
fresh fungus or by drying at 40° C. can not be stated definitely as the
experiments made with the fresh fungus were few in number on account of
the extreme difficulty in getting them perfectly fresh.
The average of six observations in which it was possible to weigh the
toadstools before and after drying at 40° C. showed a loss of 84.4 per
cent. of water. In other words, 1 gram of the dried equals 6.4 grams of
the fresh.