closely, note all its features. Determine to which division of fungi it
belongs. If to the gilled family (Agaricaceæ) obtain the color of the
spores (see directions). Look at the chart “Tabular View of Genera of
Agaricaceæ,” Plate I, p. 2 (after W.G. Smith, but enlarged, redrawn and
emended). If the spores are white, it belongs to one of the genera in
the first column—Leucosporæ; if pink, to one in the second column, and
so on. It is often difficult to determine the spore color, because
spores vary through many shades of the typical color. What are called
white spores may be creamy, dirty, yellowish or brownish-white; pink
spores will vary from almost white to reddish and salmon-color; brown
spores from light-ochraceous through cinnamon to rusty; purple spores
from dark-violet to purplish-black. Experience alone will enable the
student to decide which color series is present. The Genera Charts,
preceding the five different color series, show typical spore colors
only. Again, authors describing the species frequently fail to see
colors alike; if they do, their names for them frequently vary. For
instance, few persons will agree upon a color expressed as “livid.”
The color system principally used by botanists is Saccardo’s
“Chromotaxia,” costing fifty cents. It is decidedly inadequate.
Ridgway’s “Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists” is far better, but it
is out of print and obtainable only at the principal libraries. “The
Prang Standard of Color” is the most complete ever issued, but it is
inapplicable to existing descriptions of fungi.
[Sidenote: Make and Preserve Spore Prints.]
Take, to print upon, sheets of Bristol-board or any stiff, hard-surfaced
white paper 6×9 inches or larger. Cut a round hole, four inches in
diameter, in one of the sheets. Use this as a stencil. Lay it upon a
print-sheet and where the opening occurs, paint with a weak solution of
gum arabic—⅛ oz. (one teaspoonful) to one pint of water. Dry the
print-sheets.
When a spore-print is to be taken, select a fully-grown specimen, remove
the stem, place the spore-bearing surface upon the gummed paper, cover
tightly with an inverted bowl or saucer, and allow to stand undisturbed
for eight or ten hours. The moisture in the plant will soften the gummed
surface; the spores will be shed and will adhere to it, making a
perfect, permanent print. When the print is plain, remove the specimen
carefully and dry the print. Number the print-cards to correspond with
the number of the specimen in the “Record of Fungi,” and place them in a
box or cover. Some genera shed their spores sooner and more freely than
others. A surplus of spores is objectionable. In order to know when a
print is plainly made, without disturbing the process, have either a
specimen of the same age, or a piece of the one under the bowl, on
another piece of gummed paper, covered in like manner. This can be
examined and will give the desired information. A little experience will
enable the student to obtain good and lasting prints.
The large black figures on some calendars, if cut with the white about
them, are convenient as trial sheets for spore-printing. Lay the
specimen partly on the white, partly on the black. If the spores are
light, they show best on black ground, and if colored, they show best on
the light.
Spore measurements, as given by different observers, vary to such a
degree that they are of little value, excepting as determining a few
species, but spore shapes and characteristics are of use as a last
resort, in accurate determinations. A microscope of considerable power
is needed.
A metrical scale and table of measures is here given, that the student
may have a present guide to such measurements as are given in
mycological publications.
Measures
[Illustration: Decimetre.]
1 Metre 39.371 Inches
1 Decimetre 3.9371 ”
1 Centimetre (C M.) .39371 ”
1 Millimetre (M.M.) .039371 ”
1 Micron (µ) 1 Millionth of a 1⁄25400 of an Inch.
Metre
1 Line (″) 1⁄12 of an Inch
1 Gramme 15.433 Troy Grains
1 Decigramme 1.543 ” ”
1 Centigramme .1543 ” ”
1 Milligramme .01543 ” ”
[Sidenote: Use of Charts of Genera.]
The spore color being determined, turn to the Genera Chart, showing
spores of like color. Ascertain from the specimen whether or not its cap
or hymenophore is distinct or easily separable from the stem and the
gills free from the stem; if they are, it may belong to one of the
genera in the upper row of figures; if the cap is not easily separable
nor the gills free, look at the shape of the gills, and find on the
chart a corresponding gill-shape. It is probable that the genus can thus
be determined. Then turn to this genus in the text, read the heading,
look over the “Analysis of Tribes,” go to the tribe nearest in
designating the properties of the specimen; comparing the specimen with
the descriptions of species given thereunder, will probably enable the
seeker to decide upon its name.
It should be remembered that the descriptions in the text are of the
specimen or specimens which the author of the species saw. What the
author says fixes the type of the species. Specimens of the species may,
and very frequently do, vary greatly from the type. If the first attempt
to fix the genus is not satisfactory, try again, and keep on trying
until reasonably sure. The amateur will find, however good an opinion
may exist in his mind of the stock of patience on hand, that the
territory of patience has just been reached.
[Sidenote: Making and Preserving Notes.]
An excellent blank form for “Collectors’ Notes” is published by the
Boston Mycological Club, at one cent. It is desirable that there should
be uniformity in collectors’ notes, and that they should be as full as
possible. A form of this, or a similar kind, should be filled in and
kept, and should also be used when specimens are sent to an expert for
identification. Such specimens should be fresh, wrapped separately in
tissue paper, numbered, and _a few_ should be packed in a box that will
_not crush in the mail_. The address of the sender should be upon the
outside. The collector’s notes should be sent in a letter, with a
postage stamp for reply enclosed. If the specimens have to go a great
distance, they should be partially dried in a slow, open oven, or they
will be a rotten mass when they reach their destination.
[Sidenote: To Test Edibility of Species.]
There is but one way by which to determine the edibility of a species.
If it looks and smells inviting, and its species can not be determined,
taste a very small piece. Do not swallow it. Note the effect on the
tongue and mouth. But many species, delicious when cooked, are not
inviting raw. Cook a small piece; do not season it. Taste again; if
agreeable eat it (unless it is an Amanita). After several hours, no
unpleasant effect arising, cook a larger piece, and increase the
quantity until fully satisfied as to its qualities. Never vary from this
system, no matter how much tempted. No possible danger can arise from
adhering firmly to it. Recipes for preparing, cooking and serving are
given in chapter on cooking.
It is better for the student to first become familiar with the common
species, one at a time, than to attempt tracing the rare or many. Worry,
fatigue and uncertainty are plentiful in an indiscriminate gathering of
fungi. One species a day, properly traced and named, means learning
three hundred and sixty-five species a year.
[Sidenote: The Glossary.]
Unfamiliar terms will be encountered in the descriptive text. The
Glossary defines them; and not only those in this book, but, it is
believed, all those found in other books upon fungi. Where possible
throughout the text, botanical terms have been anglicized. The meanings
of those remaining unchanged should be memorized. It is quite as easy,
and far better, to learn the botanical names of species and their
characteristics, as to learn their common names; easier in fact, for the
common names often vary with locality. The writer received a letter from
an Alsatian living in St. Louis, telling him of favorite fungi he used
to eat when in his own country. To all he gave local names, not one of
which could be referred to the particular species meant.
Success and pleasure in the study of fungi will attend the student who
observes carefully and who systematically records that which is
observed.
ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF AUTHORS
OF SPECIES
A. and S., Albertini and Schweinitz
Arrh., Arrhenius
B. or Bull., Bulliard
Bad., Badham
Bagl., Baglietto
Bat. or Batsch, Batsch
Batt., Battara
Berk. or M.J.B., Berkeley
Berk. and Br., Berkeley and Broome
Bolt., Bolton
Bon., Bonorden
Boud., Boudier
Boud. and Pat., Boudier and Patonillard
Bref., Brefeld
Bres., Bresadola
Brig., Briganti
Brond., Brondeau
Brot., Brotero
Cav. and Sech., Cavalier and Séchier
C.B.P., Plowright
Chev., Chevalier
Cke., Cooke
Cord., Corda
Crn., Crouan
Cum., Cumino
Curt., Curtis
D. and L., Durieu and Léveillé
D.C., De Candolle
De Guern., De Guernisac
Desm., Desmazieres
Dill., Dillenius
Dittm., Dittmar
Dun., Dunal
Ehrb., Ehrenberg
Ellis or J.B.E., J.B. Ellis
Eng., English Botany
Fayod, Fayod
Fl. d., Flora danica
Forq., Forquignon
Fr., Elias Fries
Fckl. or Fuck., Fuckel
G. or Gill., Gillet
G. and R., Gillet and Rounreguére
God., Goddard
Grév., Gréville
H. and M., Harkness and Moore
Hazs., Hazslinsky
Hedw., Hedwig
Hoffm., Hoffmann
Holmsk., Holmskiold
Huds., Hudson
Huss., Mrs. T.J. Hussey
Jacq., Jacquin
Jungh., Junghuhn
Kalchb., Kalchbrenner
Karst., Karsten
Klotzsch, Klotzsch
K., Krombholz
Lam., Lamark
Lang., Langlois
Lasch, Lasch
Lenz, Lenz
Let., Letell., Letellier
Lév., Léveillé
Leys., Leysser
Lib., Libert
Linn. or L., Linnæus
Mart., Martius
Mich., Micheli
M.J.B., Berkeley
Mont., Montagne
Morg., Morgan
Moug., Mougeot
Müll., Müller
Nees, Nees
Osb., Osbeck
Pat., Patouillard
Paul., Paulet
Pers., Persoon
Pk., Peck
Pol. or Poll., Pollini
Q. or Quel., Quelet
Rab., Rabenhorst
Rav., Ravenel
Relh., Relhan
Retz., Retzius
Riess, Riess
Rost., Rostkovius
Roz., Roze
Roz. and Rich., Roze and Richon
Sacc., Saccardo
Saund. and Sm., Saunders and Smith
Sch., Schaeff., Schaeffer
Schr. or Schrad., Schrader
Schroet., Schröter
Schulz, Schulz
Schum., Schumacher
Schw., Schweinitz
Scop., Scopoli
Sec., Secretan
Somm., Sommerfelt
Sow., Sowerby
Sw., Swartz
T. or Tul., Tulasne
Tod., Tode
Tour., Tournefort
Trat., Trattinik
U. and E., Underwood and Earle
Vent., Venturi
Vill., Villars
Vitt., Vittadini
Wahl., Wahlenberg
Wall., Wallroth
Weinm., Weinmann
Willd., Willdenow
With., Withering
W.P., Phillips
W.G.S., Sm. or Worth. Sm, Worthington Smith
Wulf., Wulfen
NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL REPORTERS OF
AMERICAN SPECIES
Alabama Lucien M. Underwood, F.S. Earle
(U. and E.).
California H.W. Harkness, Justin P. Moore
(H. and M.), Wm. Phillips.
Canada John Dearness.
Connecticut —- Wright.
Florida —- Calkins.
Georgia Berry Benson, H.N. Starnes,
Val W. Starnes.
Illinois Frederick J. Brændle.
Indiana H.I. Miller, Dr. J.R. Weist.
Iowa Charles E. Bessey, T.H. Macbride.
Kansas F.W. Cragin, Elam Bartholomew,
W.A. Kellerman.
Kentucky C.G. Lloyd, A.P. Morgan.
Louisiana Rev. A.B. Langlois.
Maryland Miss Mary E. Banning.
Massachusetts Charles C. Frost, W.G. Farlow,
James L. Bennett, Charles
J. Sprague,
Robert K. Macadam,
Julius A. Palmer, Hollis Webster.
Minnesota Asa Emory Johnson.
Mississippi U.S. Geological Survey.
Missouri William Trelease.
Nebraska Charles E. Bessey, F.E. Clements,
—-- Webber.
New Brunswick A.C. Waghorne, James Fowler.
New England Boston Mycological Club.
New Jersey J.B. Ellis, Benjamin Everhart,
E.B. Sterling, Charles
McIlvaine.
New York Charles H. Peck, George F. Atkinson,
John Torrey.
North Carolina Rev. M.A. Curtis,
Rev. Lewis de Schweinitz,
Charles McIlvaine.
Nova Scotia Dr. John Somers.
Ohio Charles G. Lloyd, A.P. Morgan,
W.S. Sullivant.
Oregon Dr. Harry Lane.
Pennsylvania Dr. William Herbst,
Rev. Lewis de Schweinitz,
Charles McIlvaine,
Philadelphia Mycological
Center.
Rhode Island James L. Bennett.
South Carolina Dr. H.W. Ravenel.
West Virginia Charles McIlvaine, L.W. Nuttall.
Wisconsin W.F. Bundy, William Trelease.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration]
PLATE III.
PROGRESSIVE GROWTH OF AGARICS.
A. STERILE CELLS. B. BASIDIA. C. CYSTIDIA.
FIGS.
A. B. C. D. E. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF AN AGARIC.
F. GILLS SHEDDING SPORES.
FIGS.
A. SPORE-PRINT.
G. SECTION OF GILL MAGNIFIED.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration]
PLATE IV.
GILL SHAPES.
FIG. 1. GILLS AS VEINS; INFUNDIBULIFORM.
2. GILLS ROUNDED IN FRONT (anteriorly.)
3. GILLS ROUNDED BEHIND (posteriorly.)
4. GILLS LANCEOLATE.
5. GILLS VENTRICOSE.
6. GILLS UNEQUAL; CAP CONVEX.
7. GILLS ADNEXED.
8. GILLS EMARGINATE, ALSO ADNATE AND HAVING DECURRENT TOOTH.
FIG. 9. GILLS SERRATE.
10. GILLS FLEXUOSE; WAVED.
11. GILLS DICHOTOMOUS.
12. GILLS FREE; CAP BROADLY UMBONATE.
13. GILLS NARROW; CAP MARGIN REFLEXED.
14. GILLS SLIGHTLY ADNEXED; CAP UMBONATE; MARGIN INVOLUTE.
15. GILLS DECURRENT; CAP UMBILICATE.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration]
PLATE V.
RING SHAPES AND POSITIONS; VOLVA SHAPES.
FIG. 1. RING SUPERIOR, BROAD.
2. RING MEDIAL, PENDULOUS.
3. RING INFERIOR (low down).
4. RING NARROW, FRAGMENTS APPENDICULATE.
5. RING FIBRILLOSE.
FIG. 6. RING PERSISTENT, SOMETIMES MOVABLE.
7. VOLVA FREE.
8. VOLVA SEPARATING, CIRCUMSCISSILE.
9. VOLVA IRREGULARLY, CIRCUMSCISSILE.
10. VOLVA FRIABLE, DISAPPEARING.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
CLASS, FUNGI
----------
SUB-CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES
COHORT _HYMENOMYCETES_. _Gr._—a membrane, a fruit-bearing surface;
_Gr._—a mushroom. (So called from the hymenium or fruit-bearing
surface.)
Fungi composed of membranes, fleshy, woody or gelatinous, growing on
wood or on the ground. The hymenium or spore-bearing surface exposed at
an early stage. The spores are borne on basidia, spread over the
surface. The common mushroom is typical of the family. All the members
resemble it, more or less, in organization and reproductive organs.
These latter, in the mushroom, are spread over lamellæ or gills. The
spores, after ripening and dissemination, germinate and produce a
mycelium or thread-like vine, which in turn develops the spore-producing
part of the plant. Hymenomycetes is divided into the following six
Families:—
_a._ HYMENIUM FIGURATE.
I. Spread over the surface of lamellæ or AGARICACEÆ.
gills.
II. Lining the interior of tubes or pores. POLYPORACEÆ.
III. Clothing the surface of spines or HYDNACEÆ.
protuberances of various forms.
_b._ HYMENIUM EVEN.
IV. Horizontal and mostly on the under THELEPHORACEÆ.
surface.
V. Vertical and produced all over the CLAVARIACEÆ.
surface.
VI. Superior, gelatinous fungi. TREMELLACEÆ.
FAMILY I.—=AGARICACEÆ.=
In the Agaricaceæ the hymenium is spread over lamellæ or gills which
radiate from a center or stem. The gills are composed of a double
membrane, and are simple or branched.
The parts of an Agaric may all be present as in Amanitæ, or severally
absent in other genera. When the young fungus is entirely enclosed in a
wrapper or case, this case is called the _universal veil_. When this
veil is ruptured by the growth of the stem, that part which remains
attached to the base is called the _volva_. The membrane reaching from
the stem to the margin of the cap is the _partial veil_; when it
ruptures by the expansion of the cap and all or a portion adheres to and
about the stem it forms the _annulus or ring_. In some species one or
both veils may be present, or one or both may be absent.
The stem is _central_ when supporting the cap at its center; _excentric_
when at one side of the center; _lateral_ when it supports the cap from
the side. If the stem is absent, the cap is said to be _sessile_; if the
cap is horizontal and supported by a broad base it is _dimidiate_; if
attached to its place of growth by its back it is _resupinate_.
Genera are largely distinguished by the manner in which the gills are
attached to the stem. These distinguishing attachments are shown in the
plates illustrating genera and in Plate IV. Gill-shapes.
For convenience Agaricaceæ is divided by the color of the spores into
five series: white, pink, brown, purple, black. The last two, owing to
the similarity of hue, are by some writers (preferably) included in the
black-spored series. Spore color is a valuable assistant in determining
species.
_Series I._ =LEUCOSPORÆ.= _Gr._—white; _Gr._—seed.
Spores white, rarely dingy or inclining to reddish. In the genus Russula
the spores of some species are white, in some cream-color, and in
several pale ochraceous. Variations from pure white are found in the
spores of Tricholoma personatum and a few other species. Gill-color is
not a guide to spore-color. Purple, yellow, brown, pinkish gills may
produce white spores.
╔═════════════╤════════════╤════════════╤══════════════╤══════════════╗
║ LEUCOSPORAE │RHODOSPORAE │OCHROSPORAE │PORPHYROSPORAE│MELANOSPORAE. ║
║ (WHITE) │ (PINK) │ (BROWN) │ (PURPLE) │ (BLACK) ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ AMANITA │ │ │ │ ║
║ AMANITOPSIS │ VOLVARIA │ACETABULARIA│ CHITONIA │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ LEPIOTA │ │ │ AGARICUS │ COPRINUS ║
║ │ │ │ (PSALLIOTA) │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ │ PLUTEUS │ BOLBITIUS │ PILOSACE │ ║
╠═════════════╪════════════╪════════════╪══════════════╪══════════════╣
║ ARMILLARIA │ │ PHOLIOTA │ STROPHARIA │ GOMPHIDIUS ║
║ │ │CORTINARIUS │ │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ TRICHOLOMA │ ENTOLOMA │ HEBELOMA │ HYPHOLOMA │ PANÆOLUS ║
║ LACTARIUS │ │ INOCYBE │ │ ANELLARIA ║
║ RUSSULA │ │ │ │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ HYGROPHORUS │ │ │ │ ║
║ CLITOCYBE │ CLITOPILUS │ FLAMMULA │ │ ║
║ XEROTUS │ │ PAXILLUS │ │ ║
║ NYCTALIS │ │ │ │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ LENZITES │ │ │ │ ║
║ LENTINUS │ │ │ │ ║
║ PLEUROTUS │ CLAUDOPUS │ CREPIDOTUS │ │ ║
║ PANUS │ │ │ │ ║
║ TROGIA │ │ │ │ ║
║SCHIZOPHYLLUM│ │ │ │ ║
╠═════════════╪════════════╪════════════╪══════════════╪══════════════╣
║ COLLYBIA │ LEPTONIA │ NAUCORIA │ PSILOCYBE │ ║
║ MARASMIUS │ │ │ │ ║
║ HELIOMYCES │ │ │ │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ MYCENA │ NOLANEA │ PLUTEOLUS │ PSATHYRA │ PSATHYRELLA ║
║ HIATULA │ │ GALERA │ │ ║
╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢
║ OMPHALIA │ ECCILIA │ TUBARIA │ DECONICA │ MONTAGNITES ║
╚═════════════╧════════════╧════════════╧══════════════╧══════════════╝
Plate I.
LEUCOSPORAE.
_Hymenophore distinct from fleshy stem._
AMANITA. LEPIOTA. AMANITOPSIS.
_Hymenophore confluent and homogeneous with fleshy stem._
ARMILLARIA.
TRICHOLOMA.
Lactarius.
Russula.
CLITOCYBE.
Hygrophorus.
Xerotus.
Nyctalis.
PLEUROTUS.
Lentinus.
Lenzites.
Panus.
Trogia.
Schizophyllum.
_Hymenophore confluent with, but heterogeneous from cartilaginous stem._
COLLYBIA.
Marasmius.
Heliomyces.
MYCENA.
Hiatula.
OMPHALIA.
PLATE II.
CHART OF GENERA IN WHITE SPORED SERIES LEUCOSPORAE.
=AMANITA.=
(A name given to some esculent fungi by Galen, perhaps from
Mount Amanus.)
Universal veil (volva), which is at first continuous (completely
enveloping the young plant), distinct from the skin of the cap.
Hymenophore or cap, the part which bears the spore-bearing surface,
distinct and easily separable from the stem, which leaves a socket in
the flesh when it is removed. _All growing upon the ground._ _Fries._
(Plate VII.)
[Illustration: SECTION OF AMANITA PHALLOIDES.]
=Pileus= somewhat fleshy, convex then expanded. =Gills= free. Universal
veil at first enclosing the entire plant, which as it grows bursts
through, generally carrying the upper part on the pileus, where it
appears as patches or scales, the remainder enclosing the stem at the
base as a volva, either in a cup-like form, closely adherent or friable
and evanescent. The partial veil in youth extends from the stem to the
margin of the pileus, enclosing the gills; when ruptured it depends from
the stem as a ring. =Stem= furnished with a ring, and different in
substance from that of the pileus. =Spores= white.
On the ground.
The nearest allied genus, Amanitopsis, is separated by the absence of a
ring, and Lepiota by its lack of a volva; Volvaria, Acetabularia and
Chitonia, possessing volvas, are distinguished by the color of their
spores.
Amanitæ are the most beautiful and conspicuous of fungi. While there are
comparatively few species of them, the individual members are plentiful
in appearing from spring until the coming of frost. They are solitary or
gregarious in growth. Occasionally two or three are found together. They
frequent woods, groves, copse, margins of woods and land recently
cleared of trees. They are seldom found in open fields. A careful study
of all their botanic points should be the first duty of the student of
fungi. Familiarity with every characteristic of the Amanitæ will insure
against fatal toadstool poisoning, for it is the well-grounded belief of
those who have made thorough investigation that, with the exception of
Helvella esculenta, now Gyromitra esculenta, the Amanitæ, alone, contain
deadly poisons.
_No Amanita, or piece of one, should be eaten before its identity is
fully established and its qualities ascertained by referring to the
descriptions herein given or to the opinion of an expert._
They are the aristocrats of fungi. Their noble bearing, their beauty,
their power for good or evil, and above all their perfect structure,
have placed them first in their realm; and they proudly bear the three
badges of their clan and rank—the volva or sheath from which they
spring, the kid-like apron encircling their waists, and patch-marks of
their high birth upon their caps. In their youth, when in or just
appearing above the ground, they are completely invested with a membrane
or universal veil, which is distinct and free from the skin of the cap.
As the plant grows the membrane stretches and finally bursts. It
sometimes ruptures in one place only and remains about the base of the
stem as the volva. When such a rupture occurs the caps are smooth. In
most species portions of the volva remain upon the cap as scruff or
warts—pointed or rough—or as feathery adornment; any or all of which may
in part or whole vanish with age or be washed away by rain.
Extending from the stem to the margin of the cap, and covering the
gills, is the partial =veil=—a membranaceous, white texture of varying
thickness. As the cap expands this veil tears from it. Portions
frequently remain pendant from the edges, the rest contracts to the stem
as a ring, or droops from it as a surrounding ruffle, or, if of slight
consistency, may be fugacious and disappear, but marks, remains, or the
veil itself will always be traceable upon the stem.
The Amanitæ are of all colors, from the brilliant orange of the A.
Cæsarea, the rich scarlet or crimson of the A. muscaria, to the pure
white of the A. phalloides in its white form.
Their stems are usually long, and taper from the base toward the top. In
some forms the base is distinctly bulbous. The =volva= at the base is
attached to the stem at its lower extremity. It may be visible as a cup
or ruptured pouch with spreading mouth, or it may be of such friable
texture as to appear like mealy scales. Often, when the plant is pulled
from the ground, the volva remains, but the marks of its attachment will
appear and should be carefully looked for. Their =gills= are commonly
white, are of equal length and radiate from near the stem, which they do
not reach, to the circumference of the cap. They are white, unless
tinged with age, excepting upon A. Cæsarea and A. Frostiana where they
are yellow.[B] Their caps are umbrella-shaped, flat or convex. Their
flesh is white, does not change color when bruised. They are scentless
and almost tasteless when fresh, when old they have a slightly offensive
odor and taste.