SUMMER FLOWERS OF THE HIGH ALPS
[Illustration: CIRCIUM SPINOSISSIMUM. SCOP.
The Spiny Fuller’s Thistle. Le Chardon le plus épineux. Stachlige
Kratzdistel.
FRONTISPIECE, _see page 50_.]
SUMMER FLOWERS
OF
THE HIGH ALPS
BY
SOMERVILLE HASTINGS
M.S.
AUTHOR OF “ALPINE PLANTS AT HOME,” SERIES I. AND II.
[Illustration]
ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS
FROM DIRECT COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHS
BY THE AUTHOR
LONDON: J. M. DENT & SONS, LTD.
NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.
Preface
The coloured plates of Alpine plants, which are the special feature of
this book, are all reproduced from colour photographs taken directly from
nature. The plants were all photographed exactly as they were found,
with two exceptions, in the immediate neighbourhood of Rosenlaui in the
Bernese Oberland during the month of July 1909; so that the pictures are
true portraits of the flowers “at home.”
The Lumière process of colour photography which was used, depends on the
action of light on a photographic plate after its passage through various
coloured starch grains. The process is entirely beyond the control of
the operator, and the exact colours are automatically reproduced. These
photographs have in turn been carefully reproduced for this work by the
three colour process.
The flowers here photographed were selected as good examples of common
and typical species; and, of course, they represent but a very small
portion of the rich flora of Switzerland. The present volume is intended
as a short introduction to the subject, for the fuller study of which the
following works are recommended:—
A. Gremli, “The Flora of Switzerland.” Translated by Paitson.
A. W. Bennett, “The Flora of the Alps.”
G. Hoffmann, “Alpine Flora.” Translated by E. S. Barton.
L. and C. Schröter, “Coloured Vade-mecum to the Alpine Flora.”
C. Schröter, “Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen.”
F. E. Hulme, “Familiar Swiss Flowers.”
“Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps,” being the General
Introduction to Ball’s Alpine Guide.
They have all been freely referred to in the preparation of the
accompanying notes.
Wherever possible the common name of each plant in English, French, and
German has been given on the corresponding plate. It is hoped that this
may be of use to the reader.
In conclusion I would like to thank the publishers for the great trouble
they have taken in the preparation of the plates, and Mr Howard Farmer,
of the Polytechnic School of Photography, for much valuable advice.
SOMERVILLE HASTINGS.
NEW CAVENDISH STREET, W.
_April 1910._
Illustrations
THE SPINY FULLER’S THISTLE _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
THE NARCISSUS-FLOWERED ANEMONE 2
THE GLOBE FLOWER 4
THE COMMON MONK’S-HOOD 6
THE YELLOW WOLF’S-BANE 8
THE TWO-FLOWERED VIOLET 10
THE LONG-SPURRED PANSY 12
THE BOX-LEAVED MILKWORT 14
THE CREEPING GYPSOPHILA 16
THE MOSS CAMPION OR CUSHION PINK 18
THE WOOD GERANIUM 20
THE ALPINE CLOVER 22
THE BROWN CLOVER 24
THE COLD MOUNTAIN-LENTIL 26
THE DULL-FLOWERED SWEET CLOVER OR ALPINE SAINFOIN 28
THE WHITE DRYAS 30
THE ALPINE ROSE 32
FLEISCHER’S WILLOW-HERB 34
THE MOUNTAIN HOUSE-LEEK 36
SEMPERVIVUM FUNCKII 38
THE EVERGREEN SAXIFRAGE 40
THE LARGE ASTRANTIA 42
THE ALPINE STARWORT OR ALPINE ASTER 44
THE CAT’S-FOOT, MOUNTAIN EVERLASTING OR MOUNTAIN CUDWEED 46
THE ARNICA 48
THE ROUND-HEADED RAMPION 52
THE BEARDED BELL-FLOWER OR CAMPANULA 54
THE DWARF HAIR-BELL OR BELL-FLOWER 56
THE HAIRY-LEAVED ALPENROSE 58
THE LESSER WINTER-GREEN 60
THE STEMLESS GENTIAN 62
THE SHORT-LEAVED GENTIAN 64
THE ALPINE TOAD-FLAX 66
THE ALPINE BALSAM 68
THE LEAFY LOUSEWORT 70
THE YELLOW AURICULA 72
THE MARSH ORCHIS 74
THE LADY’S SLIPPER 76
THE WHITE VERATRUM 78
Introduction
No one can visit Switzerland for the first time without being struck
with the singular beauty of its wild flowers. In the early summer the
whole country from the lowland meadows right up to the snowline is ablaze
with beauty. Probably in no other part of the world are the forms of
the flowers more pleasing and their colours more brilliant. Hence it is
that almost everyone who visits the Alps, however little interest he may
take in the wild flowers of his own home, desires to know something of
the wonderful new forms that everywhere meet his gaze. Here the charm
of novelty also comes in, for at least half the flowers met with in the
Alps are absent from the plains, and many of the species that occur in
both situations have, as we shall see later, acquired such different
characters at high altitudes as to be with difficulty at first sight
recognised. Those who would see Switzerland in all its beauty, and as
far as its floral treasures are concerned, at its best, must visit it in
early June before the hay is cut. Otherwise they will miss the glory of
the unmown meadows, and although many of the spring flowers, like the
Crocuses and Primulas (Plate 35), may still be found in small quantities
at high altitudes even in July, the striking effect of the large masses
of these flowers will be entirely wanting.
If we travel to Switzerland by the ordinary tourist route, across Germany
or France, and then ascend the mountain peaks, we shall, in the first
part of our journey, notice but few differences in the vegetation from
that to which we are accustomed. The wild flowers of France and Germany
are very like those of the South of England and, except that perhaps the
yellow Fuller’s Thistle (_Circium oloraceum_) may be seen in damp places
near the railway, very little of botanical interest will be observed
until the customs are passed and Switzerland itself is reached. Even
here the traveller may be for a time a little disappointed. The first
unfamiliar plant to be noticed will very likely be the Red-berried Elder
(_Sambucus racemosa_). A little later, in some shady wood, the tall
feathery Spiræa (_Spiræa Aruncus_), or the beautiful little May-Lily
(_Maianthemum bifolium_), may be seen. Or a glimpse of the white-flowered
Rampion (_Phyteuma spicatum_) or the Alpine Honeysuckle (_Lonicera
alpigena_), with its twin red berries, may be had in passing. But not
until the mountains themselves are reached will the tourist discover that
he has entered into an entirely new plant world.
The main factor which determines the character of the flora of any given
region in the Alps is its altitude. But we must not forget that there are
other things to be considered beside the absolute height above the sea
level, and the local conditions of exposure to the sun and protection
from the cold winds are quite important factors. Generally speaking,
it may be said that the climate is a good deal milder on the southern
slopes of the Alps than in the north. Olives can be grown in some of
the lower mountain regions of the south, and with them are found many
of the plants of Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region which are
never seen in places of the same altitude on the northern slopes. It
is exceedingly probable that most of the lower parts of the Alps were
originally covered to a large extent by forest trees. The oak, ash, and
beech still flourish in many parts, although much of the original forest
has been removed long ago, and used for building purposes or as fuel,
and large areas have been thus cleared for meadow and pasture land. In
many districts the spruce and the pine appear to be usurping the place of
the other forest trees mainly because the young plants are less eagerly
devoured by browsing animals, especially the goats. Below 4000 feet on
the northern slopes and 5000 feet or a little over on the south side of
the Alps may be described as the REGION OF FOREST TREES, and above this
level the ordinary deciduous trees become dwarfed and scarce. That this
altitude corresponds fairly well with a transition to a colder climate
is seen by the change in the character of the herbaceous plants also.
For the next 2000 feet we have the SUBALPINE REGION covered mainly by
Coniferous trees. Here are vast forests, particularly of Spruce (_Picea
excelsa_) and Silver Fir (_Abies pectinata_). The former is the familiar
“Christmas tree,” which grows to a great height on the mountain sides,
its lower branches festooned with grey lichens. Besides these trees the
Larch (_Larix Europæa_) on primary rock, and the Scotch Fir (_Pinus
sylvestris_) and the Arolla (_Pinus Cembra_) are also to be seen.
Above 6000 feet in the north and 7000 in the south the Conifers become
dwarfed and stunted, and gradually disappear to give place to the ALPINE
REGION. Sometimes as we look along a valley the line of transition is
seen to be abrupt and straight, at other times irregular and undulating.
Bushes of Alpenrose, Juniper, and Alpine Willow extend upward to the
Alpine region, but larger trees are entirely absent. Here are found in
profusion the greater number of the plants and flowers peculiar to the
Alps. Many of the species may of course be found in sheltered or secluded
spots at much lower levels, but here are to be seen in abundance the
bright-coloured Saxifrages, Gentians, Anemones, and Pansies, which make
the Alps their particular home. Here are the _alps_ or upland pasture
grounds of the Swiss, and here are situated the _châlets_ or summer homes
of Swiss herdsmen. In June or July, when the pasture is becoming scarce
in the valleys and when all the snow is melted on the mountain slopes,
the native farmer packs a large copper caldron and whatever else he may
require for making cheese into his bullock waggon, and accompanied by his
cattle, and often by his family as well, treks upward. The “alps” may be
two or three days’ journey from his home, so that he must take with him
all that he will probably require for his two or three months’ stay.
The Alpine region extends from the upper tree limit to the snowline,
which may be taken as somewhere between 8000 and 9000 feet. Some of the
most charming and brightly coloured of Alpine plants like _Eritrichium
nanum_ and the Cushion pinks (Plate 9) are to be found just below the
snowline. Even above this level flowering plants may be met with, for
even at the highest altitudes bare rock is to be found from which the
snow has been blown by the wind or melted by the sun, or where the slope
is too great for more than a very thin covering to remain lodged. The
Glacier Crowfoot (_Ranunculus glacialis_), a pink-flowered buttercup,
has for example been found within a short distance of the summit of the
Finsteraarhorn, the highest peak in the Bernese Oberland.
Just over two thousand different species of flowering plants are to be
found in Switzerland, and a little over half of these are exclusively
Alpine. In contrasting the flowers of the Alps with those of our own
country, it may be first of all well to consider what we have that
Switzerland has not. Of course our seashore plants will be mainly absent,
but strange to say a few species of Thrift are here and there found,
and the yellow Horned Sea-poppy (_Glaucium luteum_) even grows in the
neighbourhood of Lake Neuchâtel. We are so used to the bluebells of our
woods, the purple heather of our heaths, and the yellow gorse of our
commons, that we hardly realise how glorious they are. In Switzerland
the gorse is very rare, the bluebells are not found at all, and the
bell-heathers are absent though the ling is found everywhere. Even the
purple foxglove is replaced by a yellow variety. These facts should be
borne in mind, lest a too unfavourable comparison be made with our own
rich flora.
But the flowers of the mountains are truly wonderful, and it is their
abundance as well as their bright colours that make them so striking.
At the same time, it must be remembered that though so numerous neither
the flowers themselves nor the plants that bear them are really
larger than their lowland relatives. Indeed, in spite of their bright
conspicuous flowers, the plants that grow at the higher altitudes are
generally stunted and dwarfed. Most of the peculiarities of Alpine
plants, which we will now enumerate, are to be accounted for by the
conditions under which they live. That this is really so is shown by the
fact that “within the bounds of what must unquestionably be regarded
as a single species, individuals change in character as we ascend to
higher altitudes, the leaves become more hairy and more fleshy, and the
flowers brighter and larger.” Even more direct evidence of this is to
be obtained by cultivating Alpine plants at lower levels and lowland
plants at high altitudes. Not a few of the plants of the mountains when
grown in our gardens at home change in character very considerably.
They tend to elongate so that their leaves are separated by longer
intervals of stem, and their hairy characters very largely disappear.
The Bearded Bell-flower (Plate 26) may lose its bearded character,
and the familiar Edelweiss may, in some cases, develop smooth green
leaves almost as hairless as those of an ordinary plant. Conversely, we
have the observations of Professor Bonnier, who cultivated the plants
of the lowlands at high altitudes in the Alps and Pyrenees. Where the
plants were able to grow at all they became, in most cases, stunted and
dwarfed. The Jerusalem Artichoke, for example, which forms a tall leafy
stem like a sunflower in the plains, became a short stumpy plant with
leaves arranged in a rosette at its base. Generally speaking, the plants
developed a better marked underground stem, and thicker, darker green
leaves than the same species grown under more ordinary conditions.
One of the principal characteristics of Alpine plants is the extensive
development of the rootstock and underground stem. This is required to
protect them against the strong winds, and to extract as large a supply
of water and nourishment as possible from the frequently scanty soil. But
there is another consideration of at any rate equal importance. During at
least half of the year owing to the white coverlet of snow, all activity
in the Alpine plant world ceases so that the production of flowers and
seeds, indeed all the vital processes of the plants must be crowded into
the few months when the ground is clear. Crocuses and Snowbells and
other plants are found blooming at the very edge of the snow, therefore
everything must be ready for immediate flower production directly the
snow melts. For this to take place a reserve store of nourishment
is essential, and accordingly Alpine plants are furnished with thick
underground stems and fleshy roots where the food substances can be
stored.
It is further interesting to note that the number of plants that go
through their life cycle in a single year and then die off (annuals as
they are called), is in the Alps comparatively small, for most of the
plants persist from year to year. Kerner states that while only 44 per
cent. of the plants on the Danube plains are perennials, there are as
many as 96 per cent. in the Alps. That this has something to do with
the conditions under which the plants grow is seen by the fact that the
annual meadow-grass (_Poa annua_) becomes perennial in the Alps. Annuals
persist through the winter season, only in the form of seed, so that
a single wet summer such as the last (1909), by interfering with the
ripening of the seeds, might threaten with extinction an entire species.
Annuals have but little food stored up for a sudden outburst of activity
on the approach of spring, nor can the tiny root of a budding seedling
obtain from the soil all that is necessary for the rapid production of
flowers and seeds. Moreover, as we shall see immediately, the production
of seeds is in most plants very largely dependent on the presence of
insect visitors, and without them either less fertile seeds or no seeds
at all are in most cases formed. Insects are said to be less numerous
in the Alps than in the plains, and thus the assumption of a perennial
character makes the existence of the plant less dependent on external
conditions.
Another point which has already been referred to is the low stature
and stunted character of so many Alpine plants. Undoubtedly there are
marked exceptions, such as the tall Gentians; but, generally speaking,
it must be admitted that mountain plants are short stemmed and dwarfed,
the vegetative part of the plant being often merely represented by a
wreath of leaves. This is also very largely the result of the peculiar
conditions of plant-life at high altitudes. The bright sunlight by day
and intense cold at night have both a retarding effect on the growth
of the stem. As regards light, the converse result is well seen in the
long, lanky shoots of a potato growing in a dark cellar. But there is
also another factor of some importance. The green leaves of plants are
constantly giving out as watery vapour the fluid which has been absorbed
by the roots. The decreased atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, the
general dryness of the air, and the bright sunlight by day all unite to
accelerate this process. During the day the ground is warmed even to
a larger extent than the air, and thus the absorption of water by the
roots is correspondingly hastened. During the night the intense radiation
rapidly cools down the soil on which the plant grows, but the surrounding
air is not cooled to anything like the same extent. The result is that
the absorption of fluid by the roots is diminished in a much larger
degree than the effusion of watery vapour from the leaves, and the plant
is in imminent danger of being dried up. To this danger the plants of
high altitudes respond in various ways. In the first place, their stunted
character not only diminishes the area of leaf surface for the exhalation
of watery vapour and protects them to some extent from strong winds, but
it also places them in the lowest stratum of air which is most likely
to assume the temperature of the soil. The felted, cushion-like habit
(Plate 9) of so many Alpine plants, and the rosette-like arrangement
of their leaves (Plate 19), are also of advantage to the plants by
exposing less leaf surface directly to the air. The succulent leaves of
plants like the house-leeks (Plates 18 and 19), and the hairy covering
of the Cat’s-foot (Plate 23), Edelweiss, and others, seem also designed
to counteract the tendency to too rapid desiccation, and the tough
leathery character of many leaves (Plate 7), and the thickened cuticle of
others (Plate 30), are clearly of like value. The relatively increased
thickness of the leaves of many Alpine plants is also, no doubt, due to
the intensity of the sunlight, for direct experiments have shown that
increased illumination has this effect. Their usual dark green colour is
thought to result from an excess of the green pigment by which plants
are able to extract the carbon required for their growth from the air.
The rarefaction of the air and shortness of the season of growth at high
altitudes, as well as the low stature of most Alpine plants, make it
essential that assimilation should take place as rapidly as possible when
conditions are favourable for it.
But it is in connection with their flowers that the wonderful adaptation
of Alpine plants to their surroundings is perhaps best seen. The plants
of high altitudes generally bear more numerous and more brightly coloured
flowers than do their relatives of the plains. The low stature of the
plants that bear them gives rise to the impression that the flowers of
the Alps are also larger than those of lowland districts, but though
undoubtedly more numerous and more crowded together they are of about the
same size as those of other nearly related species. The colours of the
flowers are, however, undoubtedly deeper and more intense. If we examine
specimens of the same kind of flower, for instance the Forget-me-not or
Eyebright, that have been found growing at different altitudes, we shall
be struck with the deeper tints of the flowers from the higher regions.
That this character has something to do with the conditions of life in
Alpine districts is shown by the disappointment that we sometimes feel
at the diminished brilliancy of the flowers of Alpine plants when grown
in our gardens at home. The flowers of the Alps are also, as a rule, of
a more highly organised type than those of the plains, and corresponding
with this increase in complexity is a relative increase in the number of
pink and blue flowers, and a diminution in that of the yellow and white.
Alpine plants, too, seem to produce more honey than do the corresponding
plants in the plains; at any rate, the yield of honey from bee-hives is
greater, and Bonnier has shown that the secretion of honey by flowers of
the same kind increases with the altitude, and that in some cases there
is a corresponding increase in the intensity of the scent of the flower.
While many of the characteristics of Alpine flowers are to be explained
as a direct result of the conditions of life at high altitudes, it is
probable that the process of natural selection has also had a good
deal to do with their production. One of the principal objects of the
life of a flowering plant is to produce seeds. It has been shown that,
generally speaking, more numerous and healthier seeds are produced when
the seed-producing apparatus of a flower is fertilised by pollen from
the stamens of a flower of a different plant. Hence arrangements have
to be made by plants for the conveyance of their pollen from flower
to flower. This is sometimes effected by the wind, but much pollen is
lost, so that this is manifestly a very wasteful method. Plants have
therefore adopted the more economical plan of getting insect visitors to
do this carrying business for them. The bright colours and sweet scents
are to attract insects to the flower, and honey is provided for their
entertainment there. It is generally believed that the total number of
insect visitors in the Alps is less than in the plains, and therefore the
competition for their services being more severe, greater attractions in
the form of brighter coloured flowers and more abundant honey have to
be provided for them. But, unfortunately, the direct observations of H.
Müller do not confirm this view. There can be no question, however, that
the relative proportion of the several varieties of insects in the Alps
is very different from that in the plains. There are comparatively few
flies, bees, and wasps, but numerous humble-bees, butterflies, and moths
in the mountain regions. These insects have longer tongues and prefer to
visit flowers of a more complicated structure, where the honey cannot
be reached by their shorter tongued relatives. Flowers of this sort
with less easily obtained honey are more often of a red or blue or pink
colour, and more rarely of a yellow tint. Not a few Alpine flowers like
the Aconites (Plates 3 and 4) are entirely dependent on humble-bees for
their fertilisation, and an even larger number, such as the Long-Spurred
Pansy (Plate 5), and several of the Gentians are exclusively visited by
butterflies and moths. Müller even goes so far as to suggest that not a
few of the Alpine flowers, especially those of a pale crimson colour and
with a clove-like smell, such as the Pinks (Plate 9), have been evolved
in the Alps under the influence of butterflies and moths. In spite of
this it is curious to note that the number of flowers that are habitually
self-fertilised is greater in the Alps than in the plains. But when it
is explained that these are for the most part of the same type of flower
that is pollinated by flies, bees, and wasps in lowland districts the
apparent anomaly becomes clear.
The question of the origin of the Alpine flora is a subject upon which
botanists are by no means completely agreed at the present time. A large
number of the thousand different plants that are found in the high Alps
reappear in distant mountains and the Arctic regions, though absent in
the intervening country. Thus the late John Ball calculated that 17 per
cent. of the Alpine species were met with in the Arctic regions, and 25
per cent. in the Altai Mountains of Northern Asia. That this is not due
to the conveyance of seeds from place to place by the agency of wind
or birds is shown by the fact that the resemblance of the plants of
different mountain chains to one another is in no way proportional to
their geographical proximity, even when their climate is similar. The
true explanation is probably to be sought in the Glacial Period, in which
the greater part of Europe was covered by ice, so that the climate of
the plains was very similar to that of the high Alps and Arctic regions
at the present time. At this period the flora of the extreme north was
able to mingle with that of the mountain regions. When the climate of the
intervening districts became once more less severe, the competition with
the present lowland flora became so keen that the Alpine-Arctic plants
retreated to high altitudes or the far north. It may be that the high
mountain regions have formed centres for the evolution of new species, as
Mr John Ball believed, but there is but little direct evidence for this
view.
Nearly every visitor to Switzerland who regards its rich flora in any
way worthy of notice is desirous to obtain some permanent record of the
pleasing impressions obtained. Either the flowers are pressed, or the
plants are pulled up with more or less of their roots to be planted in
some garden at home, or, as the author would suggest is by far the best
method, photographs of the plants are taken. May we here, first of all,
protest against the wholesale destruction of Alpine plants that goes on
every year by careless visitors. Where a few flowers are required for
study or to be preserved by pressing, they may, by all means, be picked.
There seems no reason also why a few of the more common or abundant
plants should not be dug up with their roots, carefully packed, and taken
home, although the Swiss authorities do not permit even this, but it is
disgraceful that large nosegays of choice flowers should be gathered
for the mere pleasure of watching them wither in the hand, and then
thrown away. The Swiss natives, unhappily, set us a very bad example
in this respect; but it is fortunate that the Edelweiss and Alpenrose
are the only flowers that they at all extensively attack. Many of the
more frequented tourist routes have become almost bare of any but the
commonest flowers. One has only to ascend to some peak or glacier by two
paths, one that is well-trodden, and a second but little used, to see how
complete this destruction of wild flowers has been.
Excellent little presses for preserving plants and flowers can be bought
in Switzerland. They take up no more room in one’s bag than a Baedeker
or Bradshaw’s Guide, and do the work much more efficiently. Their only
disadvantage is that they are generally too small to display any but
the tiniest plants completely, and it is really wiser to take out from
England a couple of boards with straps and a good supply of blotting
paper. The special paper sold for pressing plants is much to be preferred
to ordinary white or pink blotting-paper, as the plants tend to stick to
it much less. A fair amount will be required, as the plants need frequent
changing and the paper must be dried. Specimens should be carefully set
out by pressing on them with the finger till they take up the required
positions, and stored when dry in some exercise book or between sheets of
paper.
The cultivation of Alpine plants in our gardens at home is by no means
as easy as might at first be supposed. The climate and conditions of
life in Peckham are very different to those at the summit of Pilatus,
and unless the thing is done carefully and thoroughly it had better not
be attempted at all. The chief difficulty in growing Alpine plants in
our climate is not the cold but the excessive moisture of winter, which
tends to rot their roots, and from which they are protected in their
native home by their snowy covering. Our object should be to reproduce,
as far as possible, in our gardens the conditions under which the plants
grow in the high Alps. For the rockery a porous stone will be required,
such as limestone or sandstone, and it is essential to select a kind
that does not crumble with the frost. The partially fused masses of
brick, which can be obtained very cheaply as a waste product from brick
kilns, when washed over with a mixture of cement and sand do very well.
The rocks and stones must be so laid that every bed or pocket in which
the plants are to grow is thoroughly well drained, for nothing is so
destructive to them as water-logging of the soil. Plants that grow in
the clefts of rocks should be planted in a sloping position, as water is
then less liable to collect in the rosettes of leaves. Those that grow
in cool, moist, spongy soil are best planted in a mixture of peat moss
and earth. It is also important to notice whether the plant which is
being cultivated was previously growing on limestone or granitic soil,
for it is easy to add a little chalk to the earth if this is required. In
planting out one has to be careful not to curl up the roots, and it is
wise to sprinkle the plant with water two or three times a day for the
first week or so. Alpine plants should never be manured. It should be
remembered that mountain plants grow slowly, and though very many species
can be successfully cultivated, the Houseleeks and Saxifrages are likely
to give the best results with a minimum of trouble.
It is impossible in such a book as this to give more than a few general
suggestions as to the photography of Alpine plants. One of the chief
difficulties with which one has to contend is the wind. When the plant is
photographed anywhere near its natural size the smallest stop has to be
used to obtain depth of focus, and this greatly increases the duration
of the exposure. Many of the colour photographs herein reproduced were
given as long as five or ten minutes. When the wind is intermittent it
is quite safe to give repeated exposures of a few seconds at a time,
being careful in removing and replacing the cap not to shake the camera,
for the plant is sure to return to exactly the same position after being
blown to and fro by the wind. Where tall plants are being taken it is
wisest to select a time in the early morning or near sunset, for though
the intensity of light is diminished at these times, there is usually but
little wind. The writer has found a strip of white calico, some 12 or 15
inches wide, with long knitting needles sewn on to it at intervals, of
great value as a wind screen in plant photography. The knitting needles
can be pushed into the ground, and the plant surrounded on three sides or
completely by such a screen, and thus very largely shaded from the wind.
With a little care the screen does not appear in the photograph, and it
is easily rolled up and carried from place to place. For near objects
the intensity of light in the Alps is only slightly greater than that in
England at the same time of day, but it is always wiser to make use of an
exposure meter if the best results are desired. By the use of the swing
back any plane surface, whatever be its inclination to the vertical, can
be easily focussed. This will be found of especial value where a blurred
background is desired, and the slight distortion thus obtained, which is
so noticeable in architectural subjects, is quite negligible in the case
of plant portraits. The deep shadows that are produced when flowers are
photographed in bright sunlight are generally best avoided.
SUMMER FLOWERS OF THE HIGH ALPS
HERE FOLLOW COLOURED PLATES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF 39 SWISS
PLANTS, WITH THEIR NAMES IN LATIN, ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GERMAN
The Narcissus-Flowered Anemone
(_ANEMONE NARCISSIFLORA_)
Many varieties of Anemone are found in Switzerland. Not only have we the
common English Wood Anemone (_A. nemorosa_) of the early spring, and the
much rarer Pasque Flower (_A. Pulsatilla_) of our downs, but there is
also the white or yellow Alpine Anemone (_A. alpina_), which forms so
marked a feature of the Alpine pastures in early summer. Even in July and
August, when most of the flowers have faded, the feathery tufts of seeds
of the Alpine Anemone are still to be seen as the so-called “Chamois’
beards.”
The Narcissus-flowered Anemone, here photographed, is a widely
distributed plant. It occurs on grassy slopes and in pastures between
4000 and 7000 feet above the sea level, and seems to prefer a limestone
soil. The finely divided leaves are well seen in the photograph. Unlike
every other species of Anemone found in Switzerland the flower stalk
bears not a single flower only but two to eight, or even more, and at the
point where the flower stalk divides a green collaret or involucre is
seen. The flowers are pure white inside, and their external surfaces are
often slightly woolly and tinged with pink, especially in the bud. The
seeds have no feathery appendages like those of the Alpine Anemone. The
flowers are without honey. They are visited by pollen-collecting insects,
and should these fail will become self-fertilised. The plant blooms in
May and June, and some flowers may still be found even in July in the
highest Alpine pastures. It is met with widely distributed over Central
Europe, North America and Northern Asia, but is absent in Scandinavia.
On account of the numerous closely allied species which are found in
Northern Asia, it is thought that this plant may have originated in that
region and then spread east and west to America and Europe respectively.
[Illustration: PLATE I.
ANEMONE NARCISSIFLORA. L.
The Narcissus-flowered Anemone. Anémone à fleurs de Narcisse.
Narcissenblüthige Anemone oder Berg-Windröschen.]
The Globe Flower
(_TROLLIUS EUROPÆUS_)
THIS large and stately plant is common in mountain pastures from the
lower levels right up to 7000 feet. It has finely divided leaves and
bright yellow globe-like flowers, borne on long stalks which are
usually unbranched. It is evidently a near relation of the buttercups,
but differs from them in the possession of numerous brightly-coloured
sepals, which enclose and conceal the much smaller tongue-shaped petals.
Although not exclusively Alpine, being found all over Central Europe,
in Scandinavia, and the north of England, it has been included in this
series because it is sure to be noticed by anyone visiting Switzerland
for the first time.
It flowers in May, June, and July, and flourishes best in damp places. A
much smaller form, bearing only a single flower, is found exclusively on
high mountains (_var. humilis_). It should probably be regarded merely as
a variety and not as a distinct species.
The Globe Flower, the Anemones, and the two species of Aconitum
illustrated in the two following plates are all examples of the buttercup
order, the Ranunculaceæ. The common yellow buttercup so abundantly
found in Alpine meadows is _Ranunculus montanus_. This species very
closely resembles the ordinary upright buttercup of our English fields
(_Ranunculus acris_), which it replaces in the Alps, but differs from it
in the possession of a solid (not hollow) stem and a hairy disc beneath
the seeds. It is a somewhat smaller plant, with less numerous—generally
only two or three—flowers.
[Illustration: PLATE II.
TROLLIUS EUROPÆUS. L.
The Globe Flower. Trolle d’Europe ou Boule d’Or. Echte oder Europäische
Trollblume.]
The Common Monk’s-Hood
(_ACONITUM NAPELLUS_)
Several species of Aconitum are met with in Switzerland. They have
all bright-coloured flowers, especially adapted for fertilisation by
humble-bees. It is only where there are humble-bees to convey the
pollen from flower to flower that seeds can mature, so that where these
insects do not exist the Aconites cannot spread. The five sepals of
the Aconite flowers are coloured for attractive purposes, the highest
being especially large and helmet-shaped. Protected by this are the
representatives of the petals, so modified and reduced that they no
longer have any attractive function, and are only of use to the plant by
producing honey. They form a couple of nectaries on long stalks inside
the helmet-shaped sepal.
The Common Monk’s-Hood is found in rich moist meadows between 3000 and
7000 feet. It seems to be especially common in the neighbourhood of
Alpine dairies and cow houses. It flowers in June and July, and is very
poisonous. From the conical root, resembling that of horseradish, the
preparations of aconite used in medicine are prepared. When applied
externally, aconite causes tingling and numbness and may relieve the pain
of neuralgia. Internally, it depresses the action of the heart and lowers
the temperature of the body. Homeopathists still use it for this purpose,
but in doses so small as to have no appreciable action whatever. The
single straight flower stalk, closely packed with blossoms, is rarely
branched in its upper part, though small branches may be met with below.
The Panicled Monk’s-hood (_Ac. paniculatum_) resembles the above rather
closely, but differs from it in the more open arrangement of the flowers
on the hairy flower stalk, which is usually branched near the top. The
leaves of both plants are finely divided, but the sub-divisions of those
of the common Monk’s-hood are longer and narrower, more strap-shaped in
fact, than those of the panicled form.
[Illustration: PLATE III.
ACONITUM NAPELLUS. L.
The Common Monk’s-Hood. Aconit Napel ou Napel bleu. Rübenwurzliger
Eisenhut.]
The Yellow Wolf’s-Bane
(_ACONITUM LYCOCTONUM_)
This plant is a species of Aconite, and a close relation of the common
Monk’s-hood illustrated on the previous page. It is common on the
borders of woods and in bushy places between 3000 and 7000 feet above
the sea level. In this species, which, like the common Monk’s-hood, is
visited almost exclusively by humble-bees, the upper helmet-like sepal
which conceals the honey is especially long. It is interesting to note
that the humble-bees do not, in all cases, obtain the honey in the way
intended by the plant. A dark spot is often to be seen near the tip of
the helmet where a humble-bee has nibbled through the flower leaf and
obtained access to the nectary direct. In this way the designs of the
plant for cross fertilisation may be frustrated, for where the honey is
obtained in this manner no pollen is carried from flower to flower by the
insect visitor. _Aconitum Anthora_, which is rather like the above, has
more finely divided leaves and darker yellow flowers which are much less
elongated than those of the Wolf’s-bane. The flowers, in fact, closely
resemble those of the common Monk’s-hood except that they are yellow
instead of blue. Both plants are poisonous.
[Illustration: PLATE IV.
ACONITUM LYCOCTONUM. L.
The Yellow Wolf’s-bane. Aconit Tue-loup ou Cappe de Moine. Wolftödtender
Eisenhut.]
The Two-Flowered Violet
(_VIOLA BIFLORA_)
This pretty little plant is common in moist shady places between 3000 and
7000 feet all over Switzerland. It is also found in Bohemia, Silesia,
the Vosges, and other parts of Central Europe. It flowers from May to
August in the clefts of rocks, and amongst the boulders on the banks of
streams. It was in just such a place as this that the present photograph
was taken. The flowers are bright yellow, streaked with brown, and the
dark green leaves are kidney-shaped and entire. Although there are
several other violets with yellow flowers to be found in Switzerland, no
other species has broad kidney-shaped leaves. The smooth, erect flower
stalk, which also bears some leaves, frequently divides into two near
the middle, each branch being terminated by a bright yellow flower.
This character, which has given to the violet its name, is, however, by
no means constant, and flower stems bearing a single or three or more
flowers are also often seen. The number of flowers borne by the plant
would seem rather to be determined by its size and vigour, which, of
course, again depend largely on the conditions under which it grows.
[Illustration: PLATE V.
VIOLA BIFLORA. L.
The Two-flowered Violet. Violette à deux Fleurs. Zweiblüthiges Veilchen
oder Zwillings-Veilchen.]
The Long-Spurred Pansy
(_VIOLA CALCARATA_)
The Long-Spurred Pansy flowers in June and July, and is a typical Alpine
plant. The high mountain pastures are sometimes literally carpeted with
its large purple flowers, all turned towards the sun. It is common on
sunny slopes and among rocky débris between 5000 and 9000 feet, and
prefers a limestone soil. The underground stem of the plant bears at its
extremity a small rosette of leaves, and a short flower stalk terminated
by the single large flower. The flower, which has a delicate and sweet
scent, is usually of a rich purple colour, much more rarely yellow (_var.
flava_). Sometimes the purple becomes paler and a lavender variety
results, and, rarest of all, the flower may be pure white. From the many
other violets and pansies which are found in Switzerland, the species
we are now considering is recognised by its narrow, notched leaves, by
the upward direction of the lateral petals, and especially by the long,
narrow spur, which is quite as long as the corolla.
Unlike most of the violets which are fertilised by bees, the Long-Spurred
Pansy depends entirely on butterflies for the conveyance of its pollen.
The narrow opening to the flower and the long spur, at the bottom
of which the honey is concealed, are only suited to insects such as
butterflies and moths with relatively long tongues. It is pretty to see
the butterflies flitting from flower to flower, and Müller observed a
single insect visit no less than one hundred and ninety-four different
blossoms in 6¾ minutes.
[Illustration: PLATE VI.
VIOLA CALCARATA. L.
The Long-spurred Pansy. Violette à long éperon ou Violette éperonnée.
Langgesporntes Veilchen.]
The Box-Leaved Milkwort
(_POLYGALA CHAMÆBUXUS_)
The Box-leaved Milkwort is a shrubby mountain plant with a woody
branching stem and leathery evergreen leaves, which resemble those of the
common box but are somewhat thicker. The flowers occur singly or in pairs
in the axils of the upper leaves. They consist of a boat-shaped corolla
of a pale yellow colour, which becomes darker towards the tip, and two
wing-like appendages, which look like petals but are really sepals. These
are usually white but are sometimes purple red. It is stated that their
colour is determined by the soil on which the plant grows and is white or
pure slate; on calcareous, slate coloured.
The Box-leaved Milkwort is widely distributed in Switzerland, Germany,
and Austria, between 1500 and 7000 feet, and grows on wooded hills and in
dry rocky places, where it is often extremely abundant. It flowers from
May till the end of August. The plant is quite distinctive and will be
readily recognised. Although belonging to the Milkwort tribe it is quite
different from all other species, which have red, white or blue, never
yellow, flowers and deciduous, not evergreen, leaves.
The Common Milkwort (_Polygala vulgaris_) of our English downs and heaths
is also found in the Alps. It is a small herbaceous plant with a slender
stem, perhaps three or four inches long, which is thickly covered with
leaves, and terminates in a cluster of pink, blue, or white flowers.
_Polygala calcarea_, a nearly-related species found only in limestone
districts, has sky-blue flowers and leaves for the most part clustered in
the form of a rosette at the base of the stem.
[Illustration: PLATE VII.
POLYGALA CHAMÆBUXUS. L.
The Box-leaved Milkwort. Polygala faux-buis. Immergrüne Kreuzblume.]
The Creeping Gypsophila
(_GYPSOPHILA REPENS_)
The Creeping Gypsophila is a perennial plant with a woody stem, from
which branches arise bearing the narrow strap-shaped leaves and pale
crowded flowers. It is found in all the limestone regions of the Alps,
amongst the rocky boulders beside mountain streams, and in dry torrent
beds between 1000 and 7000 feet, and even descends to the plains with
certain of the rivers. It is found, for example, near Munich on the banks
of the Isar. The plant is also widely distributed in the mountain regions
of Central Europe and extends from the Pyrenees to the Carpathians. The
flowers, which open in July and August, are white with more or less of
a tinge of pink about them, which may be quite marked in certain cases.
Together they form what is botanically known as a corymb. The numerous
flower stalks branching off from different points of the ascending stem
are of such a length that all the flowers are approximately on the same
level. In this way they are displayed to the best advantage, so that
their insect visitors may find it easy to pass from flower to flower.
There are several species of Sandwort and Chickweed to be found in
Switzerland that closely resemble the Creeping Gypsophila. Apart from
technicalities the chief points to keep in mind in the identification of
the plant are the woody creeping stem, the much-branched flower stalks,
and the entire absence of hairs.
[Illustration: PLATE VIII.
GYPSOPHILA REPENS. L.
The Creeping Gypsophila. Gypsophile rampante. Kriechendes Gipskraut.]
The Moss Campion or Cushion Pink
(_SILENE ACAULIS_)
Wherever conditions are unfavourable to plant life, not only on high
mountains but also in deserts and by the seashore, the plants that manage
to survive frequently respond by a process of co-operation and form dense
cushion-like masses. In the high Alps many examples of this are seen. The
individual plants are closely huddled together in the form of a tuft, not
only on account of warmth and natural protection and to prevent their
being blown away by rough winds, but also because the cushion acts as a
sort of reservoir or sponge and prevents the little plants being dried up
by the fierce rays of the sun.
The Moss Campion is a typical “Cushion plant.” It is found abundantly
all over the Alps, especially in the limestone regions between 5000 and
10,000 feet or even higher. It grows in open rocky places, often on the
bare rock itself, and in the neighbourhood of glaciers, and may be found
close up to the snowline. The bright green moss-like cushions formed of
the dense clusters of leaves become sprinkled over with pinkish-purple
star-like flowers in June, July, and August. Occasionally the flowers are
white. The long conical root penetrates far into the soil or into some
fissure in the rocks, thus securely anchoring the plant, and divides
above into numerous branches, which radiate in all directions and are
thickly covered below with brown dead leaves and terminate above in a
rosette of bright green linear leaflets. The flowers, which are visited
by many kinds of insects, are of three kinds. Rarely we find cushions
of flowers containing both stamens and pistil in the same flower, but
even here the pistil becomes ready to receive pollen before the stamens
open so as to prevent self-fertilisation. Usually, however, the flowers
are unisexual and contain stamens or pistil only, and staminate and
pistillate flowers are borne on different cushions.
The Moss Campion is widely distributed in the mountain regions of
Southern Europe, North America, and the Arctic regions. _Silene exscapa_
closely resembles the above, but is much less common. Its flowers are
smaller and less brightly coloured, and the separation between calyx and
flower stalk is more gradual and less abrupt than in the Moss Campion.
Its seed-vessel or capsule is, moreover, hardly longer than the remains
of the calyx which encloses it, whereas the capsule of the Moss Campion
projects well beyond the enclosing calyx leaves.
[Illustration: PLATE IX.
SILENE ACAULIS. L.
The Moss Campion or Cushion Pink. Silène à Courte tige. Stengelloses
Leimkraut oder Moos-Leimkraut.]
The Wood Geranium
(_GERANIUM SYLVATICUM_)
Seventeen species of Geranium or Crane’s-bill, so named from the shape
of the seed, are met with in Switzerland, and several of them are rather
difficult to distinguish from one another.