1763.
MICHILLIMACKINAC.
In the spring of the year 1763, before the war broke out, several English
traders went up to Michillimackinac, some adopting the old route of the
Ottawa, and others that of Detroit and the lakes. We will follow one of
the latter on his adventurous progress. Passing the fort and settlement of
Detroit, he soon enters Lake St. Clair, which seems like a broad basin
filled to overflowing, while, along its far distant verge, a faint line of
forest separates the water from the sky. He crosses the lake, and his
voyageurs next urge his canoe against the current of the great river
above. At length, Lake Huron opens before him, stretching its liquid
expanse, like an ocean, to the farthest horizon. His canoe skirts the
eastern shore of Michigan, where the forest rises like a wall from the
water's edge; and as he advances northward, an endless line of stiff and
shaggy fir-trees, hung with long mosses, fringes the shore with an aspect
of monotonous desolation. In the space of two or three weeks, if his
Canadians labor well, and no accident occur, the trader approaches the end
of his voyage. Passing on his right the extensive Island of Bois Blanc, he
sees, nearly in front, the beautiful Mackinaw, rising, with its white
cliffs and green foliage, from the broad breast of the waters. He does not
steer towards it, for at that day the Indians were its only tenants, but
keeps along the main shore to the left, while his voyageurs raise their
song and chorus. Doubling a point, he sees before him the red flag of
England swelling lazily in the wind, and the palisades and wooden bastions
of Fort Michillimackinac standing close upon the margin of the lake. On
the beach, canoes are drawn up, and Canadians and Indians are idly
lounging. A little beyond the fort is a cluster of the white Canadian
houses, roofed with bark, and protected by fences of strong round pickets.
The trader enters at the gate, and sees before him an extensive square
area, surrounded by high palisades. Numerous houses, barracks, and other
buildings, form a smaller square within, and in the vacant space which
they enclose appear the red uniforms of British soldiers, the gray coats
of Canadians, and the gaudy Indian blankets, mingled in picturesque
confusion; while a multitude of squaws, with children of every hue, stroll
restlessly about the place. Such was Fort Michillimackinac in 1763.[254]
Its name, which, in the Algonquin tongue, signifies the Great Turtle, was
first, from a fancied resemblance, applied to the neighboring island, and
thence to the fort.
Though buried in a wilderness, Michillimackinac was still of no recent
origin. As early as 1671, the Jesuits had established a mission near the
place, and a military force was not long in following; for, under the
French dominion, the priest and the soldier went hand in hand. Neither
toil, nor suffering, nor all the terrors of the wilderness, could damp the
zeal of the undaunted missionary; and the restless ambition of France was
always on the alert to seize every point of vantage, and avail itself of
every means to gain ascendency over the forest tribes. Besides
Michillimackinac, there were two other posts in this northern region,
Green Bay, and the Sault Ste. Marie. Both were founded at an early period,
and both presented the same characteristic features--a mission-house, a
fort, and a cluster of Canadian dwellings. They had been originally
garrisoned by small parties of militia, who, bringing their families with
them, settled on the spot, and were founders of these little colonies.
Michillimackinac, much the largest of the three, contained thirty families
within the palisades of the fort, and about as many more without. Besides
its military value, it was important as a centre of the fur-trade; for it
was here that the traders engaged their men, and sent out their goods in
canoes, under the charge of subordinates, to the more distant regions of
the Mississippi and the North-west.
During the greater part of the year, the garrison and the settlers were
completely isolated--cut off from all connection with the world; and,
indeed, so great was the distance, and so serious the perils, which
separated the three sister posts of the northern lakes, that often,
through the whole winter, all intercourse was stopped between them.[255]
It is difficult for the imagination adequately to conceive the extent of
these fresh-water oceans, and vast regions of forest, which, at the date
of our narrative, were the domain of nature, a mighty hunting and fishing
ground, for the sustenance of a few wandering tribes. One might journey
among them for days, and even weeks together, without beholding a human
face. The Indians near Michillimackinac were the Ojibwas and Ottawas, the
former of whom claimed the eastern section of Michigan, and the latter the
western, their respective portions being separated by a line drawn
southward from the fort itself.[256] The principal village of the Ojibwas
contained about a hundred warriors, and stood upon the Island of
Michillimackinac, now called Mackinaw. There was another smaller village
near the head of Thunder Bay. The Ottawas, to the number of two hundred
and fifty warriors, lived at the settlement of L'Arbre Croche, on the
shores of Lake Michigan, some distance west of the fort. This place was
then the seat of the old Jesuit mission of St. Ignace, originally placed,
by Father Marquette, on the northern side of the straits. Many of the
Ottawas were nominal Catholics. They were all somewhat improved from their
original savage condition, living in log houses, and cultivating corn and
vegetables to such an extent as to supply the fort with provisions,
besides satisfying their own wants. The Ojibwas, on the other hand, were
not in the least degree removed from their primitive barbarism.[257]
These two tribes, with most of the other neighboring Indians, were
strongly hostile to the English. Many of their warriors had fought against
them in the late war, for France had summoned allies from the farthest
corners of the wilderness, to aid her in her struggle. This feeling of
hostility was excited to a higher pitch by the influence of the Canadians,
who disliked the English, not merely as national enemies, but also as
rivals in the fur-trade, and were extremely jealous of their intrusion
upon the lakes. The following incidents, which occurred in the autumn of
the year 1761, will illustrate the state of feeling which prevailed:--
At that time, although Michillimackinac had been surrendered, and the
French garrison removed, no English troops had yet arrived to supply their
place, and the Canadians were the only tenants of the fort. An adventurous
trader, Alexander Henry, who, with one or two others, was the pioneer of
the English fur-trade in this region, came to Michillimackinac by the
route of the Ottawa. On the way, he was several times warned to turn back,
and assured of death if he proceeded; and, at length, was compelled for
safety to assume the disguise of a Canadian voyageur. When his canoes,
laden with goods, reached the fort, he was very coldly received by its
inhabitants, who did all in their power to alarm and discourage him. Soon
after his arrival, he received the very unwelcome information, that a
large number of Ojibwas, from the neighboring villages, were coming, in
their canoes, to call upon him. Under ordinary circumstances, such a
visitation, though disagreeable enough, would excite neither anxiety nor
surprise; for the Indians, when in their villages, lead so monotonous an
existence, that they are ready to snatch at the least occasion of
excitement, and the prospect of a few trifling presents, and a few pipes
of tobacco, is often a sufficient inducement for a journey of several
days. But in the present instance there was serious cause of apprehension,
since Canadians and Frenchmen were alike hostile to the solitary trader.
The story could not be better told than in his own words.
"At two o'clock in the afternoon, the Chippewas (Ojibwas) came to the
house, about sixty in number, and headed by Minavavana, their chief. They
walked in single file, each with his tomahawk in one hand and
scalping-knife in the other. Their bodies were naked from the waist
upward, except in a few examples, where blankets were thrown loosely over
the shoulders. Their faces were painted with charcoal, worked up with
grease, their bodies with white clay, in patterns of various fancies. Some
had feathers thrust through their noses, and their heads decorated with
the same. It is unnecessary to dwell on the sensations with which I beheld
the approach of this uncouth, if not frightful assemblage.
"The chief entered first, and the rest followed without noise. On
receiving a sign from the former, the latter seated themselves on the
floor.
"Minavavana appeared to be about fifty years of age. He was six feet in
height, and had in his countenance an indescribable mixture of good and
evil. Looking steadfastly at me, where I sat in ceremony, with an
interpreter on either hand, and several Canadians behind me, he entered,
at the same time, into conversation with Campion, inquiring how long it
was since I left Montreal, and observing that the English, as it would
seem, were brave men, and not afraid of death, since they dared to come,
as I had done, fearlessly among their enemies.
"The Indians now gravely smoked their pipes, while I inwardly endured the
tortures of suspense. At length, the pipes being finished, as well as a
long pause, by which they were succeeded, Minavavana, taking a few strings
of wampum in his hand, began the following speech:--
"'Englishman, it is to you that I speak, and I demand your attention.
"'Englishman, you know that the French King is our father. He promised to
be such; and we, in return, promised to be his children. This promise we
have kept.
"'Englishman, it is you that have made war with this our father. You are
his enemy; and how, then, could you have the boldness to venture among us,
his children? You know that his enemies are ours.
"'Englishman, we are informed that our father, the King of France, is old
and infirm; and that, being fatigued with making war upon your nation, he
is fallen asleep. During his sleep you have taken advantage of him, and
possessed yourselves of Canada. But his nap is almost at an end. I think I
hear him already stirring, and inquiring for his children, the Indians;
and when he does awake, what must become of you? He will destroy you
utterly.
"'Englishman, although you have conquered the French, you have not yet
conquered us. We are not your slaves. These lakes, these woods and
mountains, were left to us by our ancestors. They are our inheritance; and
we will part with them to none. Your nation supposes that we, like the
white people, cannot live without bread, and pork, and beef! But you
ought to know that He, the Great Spirit and Master of Life, has provided
food for us in these spacious lakes, and on these woody mountains.
"'Englishman, our father, the King of France, employed our young men to
make war upon your nation. In this warfare many of them have been killed;
and it is our custom to retaliate until such time as the spirits of the
slain are satisfied. But the spirits of the slain are to be satisfied in
either of two ways; the first is by the spilling of the blood of the
nation by which they fell; the other, by _covering the bodies of the
dead_, and thus allaying the resentment of their relations. This is done
by making presents.
"'Englishman, your king has never sent us any presents, nor entered into
any treaty with us; wherefore he and we are still at war; and, until he
does these things, we must consider that we have no other father nor
friend, among the white men, than the King of France; but for you, we have
taken into consideration that you have ventured your life among us, in the
expectation that we should not molest you. You do not come armed, with an
intention to make war; you come in peace, to trade with us, and supply us
with necessaries, of which we are in much want. We shall regard you,
therefore, as a brother; and you may sleep tranquilly, without fear of the
Chippewas. As a token of our friendship, we present you this pipe to
smoke.'
"As Minavavana uttered these words, an Indian presented me with a pipe,
which, after I had drawn the smoke three times, was carried to the chief,
and after him to every person in the room. This ceremony ended, the chief
arose, and gave me his hand, in which he was followed by all the
rest."[258]
These tokens of friendship were suitably acknowledged by the trader, who
made a formal reply to Minavavana's speech. To this succeeded a request
for whiskey on the part of the Indians, with which Henry unwillingly
complied; and, having distributed several small additional presents, he
beheld, with profound satisfaction, the departure of his guests. Scarcely
had he ceased to congratulate himself on having thus got rid of the
Ojibwas, or, as he calls them, the Chippewas, when a more formidable
invasion once more menaced him with destruction. Two hundred L'Arbre
Croche Ottawas came in a body to the fort, and summoned Henry, together
with Goddard and Solomons, two other traders, who had just arrived, to
meet them in council. Here they informed their startled auditors that they
must distribute their goods among the Indians, adding a worthless promise
to pay them in the spring, and threatening force in case of a refusal.
Being allowed until the next morning to reflect on what they had heard,
the traders resolved on resistance, and, accordingly, arming about thirty
of their men with muskets, they barricaded themselves in the house
occupied by Henry, and kept strict watch all night. The Ottawas, however,
did not venture an attack. On the following day, the Canadians, with
pretended sympathy, strongly advised compliance with the demand; but the
three traders resolutely held out, and kept possession of their stronghold
till night, when, to their surprise and joy, the news arrived that the
body of troops known to be on their way towards the fort were, at that
moment, encamped within a few miles of it. Another night of watching and
anxiety succeeded; but at sunrise, the Ottawas launched their canoes and
departed, while, immediately after, the boats of the English detachment
were seen to approach the landing-place. Michillimackinac received a
strong garrison; and for a time, at least, the traders were safe.
Time passed on, and the hostile feelings of the Indians towards the
English did not diminish. It necessarily follows, from the extremely loose
character of Indian government,--if indeed the name government be
applicable at all,--that the separate members of the same tribe have
little political connection, and are often united merely by the social tie
of totemship. Thus the Ottawas at L'Arbre Croche were quite independent of
those at Detroit. They had a chief of their own, who by no means
acknowledged the authority of Pontiac, though the high reputation of this
great warrior everywhere attached respect and influence to his name. The
same relations subsisted between the Ojibwas of Michillimackinac and their
more southern tribesmen; and the latter might declare war and make peace
without at all involving the former.
The name of the Ottawa chief at L'Arbre Croche has not survived in history
or tradition. The chief of the Ojibwas, however, is still remembered by
the remnants of his people, and was the same whom Henry calls Minavavana,
or, as the Canadians entitled him, by way of distinction, _Le Grand
Sauteur_, or the Great Ojibwa. He lived in the little village of Thunder
Bay, though his power was acknowledged by the Indians of the neighboring
islands. That his mind was of no common order is sufficiently evinced by
his speech to Henry; but he had not the commanding spirit of Pontiac. His
influence seems not to have extended beyond his own tribe. He could not,
or at least he did not, control the erratic forces of an Indian community,
and turn them into one broad current of steady and united energy. Hence,
in the events about to be described, the natural instability of the Indian
character was abundantly displayed.
In the spring of the year 1763, Pontiac, in compassing his grand scheme of
hostility, sent, among the rest, to the Indians of Michillimackinac,
inviting them to aid him in the war. His messengers, bearing in their
hands the war-belt of black and purple wampum, appeared before the
assembled warriors, flung at their feet a hatchet painted red, and
delivered the speech with which they had been charged. The warlike
auditory answered with ejaculations of applause, and, taking up the
blood-red hatchet, pledged themselves to join in the contest. Before the
end of May, news reached the Ojibwas that Pontiac had already struck the
English at Detroit. This wrought them up to a high pitch of excitement and
emulation, and they resolved that peace should last no longer. Their
numbers were at this time more than doubled by several bands of their
wandering people, who had gathered at Michillimackinac from far and near,
attracted probably by rumors of impending war. Being, perhaps, jealous of
the Ottawas, or willing to gain all the glory and plunder to themselves,
they determined to attack the fort, without communicating the design to
their neighbors of L'Arbre Croche.
At this time there were about thirty-five men, with their officers, in
garrison at Michillimackinac.[259] Warning of the tempest that impended
had been clearly given; enough, had it been heeded, to have averted the
fatal disaster. Several of the Canadians least hostile to the English had
thrown out hints of approaching danger, and one of them had even told
Captain Etherington, the commandant, that the Indians had formed a design
to destroy, not only his garrison, but all the English on the lakes. With
a folly, of which, at this period, there were several parallel instances
among the British officers in America, Etherington not only turned a deaf
ear to what he heard, but threatened to send prisoner to Detroit the next
person who should disturb the fort with such tidings. Henry, the trader,
who was at this time in the place, had also seen occasion to distrust the
Indians; but on communicating his suspicions to the commandant, the latter
treated them with total disregard. Henry accuses himself of sharing this
officer's infatuation. That his person was in danger, had been plainly
intimated to him, under the following curious circumstances:--
An Ojibwa chief, named Wawatam, had conceived for him one of those
friendly attachments which often form so pleasing a feature in the Indian
character. It was about a year since Henry had first met with this man.
One morning, Wawatam had entered his house, and placing before him, on the
ground, a large present of furs and dried meat, delivered a speech to the
following effect: Early in life, he said, he had withdrawn, after the
ancient usage of his people, to fast and pray in solitude, that he might
propitiate the Great Spirit, and learn the future career marked out for
him. In the course of his dreams and visions on this occasion, it was
revealed to him that, in after years, he should meet a white man, who
should be to him a friend and brother. No sooner had he seen Henry, than
the irrepressible conviction rose up within him, that he was the man whom
the Great Spirit had indicated, and that the dream was now fulfilled.
Henry replied to the speech with suitable acknowledgments of gratitude,
made a present in his turn, smoked a pipe with Wawatam, and, as the
latter soon after left the fort, speedily forgot his Indian friend and
brother altogether. Many months had elapsed since the occurrence of this
very characteristic incident, when, on the second of June, Henry's door
was pushed open without ceremony, and the dark figure of Wawatam glided
silently in. He said that he was just returned from his wintering ground.
Henry, at length recollecting him, inquired after the success of his hunt;
but the Indian, without replying, sat down with a dejected air, and
expressed his surprise and regret at finding his brother still in the
fort. He said that he was going on the next day to the Sault Ste. Marie,
and that he wished Henry to go with him. He then asked if the English had
heard no bad news, and said that through the winter he himself had been
much disturbed by the singing of evil birds. Seeing that Henry gave little
attention to what he said, he at length went away with a sad and mournful
face. On the next morning he came again, together with his squaw, and,
offering the trader a present of dried meat, again pressed him to go with
him, in the afternoon, to the Sault Ste. Marie. When Henry demanded his
reason for such urgency, he asked if his brother did not know that many
bad Indians, who had never shown themselves at the fort, were encamped in
the woods around it. To-morrow, he said, they are coming to ask for
whiskey, and would all get drunk, so that it would be dangerous to remain.
Wawatam let fall, in addition, various other hints, which, but for Henry's
imperfect knowledge of the Algonquin language, could hardly have failed to
draw his attention. As it was, however, his friend's words were spoken in
vain; and at length, after long and persevering efforts, he and his squaw
took their departure, but not, as Henry declares, before each had let fall
some tears. Among the Indian women, the practice of weeping and wailing is
universal upon all occasions of sorrowful emotion; and the kind-hearted
squaw, as she took down her husband's lodge, and loaded his canoe for
departure, did not cease to sob and moan aloud.
On this same afternoon, Henry remembers that the fort was full of Indians,
moving about among the soldiers with a great appearance of friendship.
Many of them came to his house, to purchase knives and small hatchets,
often asking to see silver bracelets, and other ornaments, with the
intention, as afterwards appeared, of learning their places of deposit,
in order the more easily to lay hand on them at the moment of pillage. As
the afternoon drew to a close, the visitors quietly went away; and many of
the unhappy garrison saw for the last time the sun go down behind the
waters of Lake Michigan.