THE TOMB.
In the neighbourhood of the village of Sikandra rises that magnificent
building, the tasteful splendour of which is the pride of Hindustan,
while it awakens the admiration of all travellers, and is one of the
last memorials of the departed greatness of the Mughals. A wall with
many towers gave entrance, through a broad gateway of red marble,
to a path lined with shady trees, above which rose a building of
majestic height and of great circumference. This building excited
admiration, not alone by the stern beauty of its outline, but also
by the richly-wrought gateways, minarets, cupolas both high and low,
and open galleries, by which it was surrounded, giving it more the
appearance of a number of palaces and pleasure-houses than of a
monument. However, it was not destined for the abode of the living,
but to preserve the memory of the illustrious dead,--of Akbar
himself. [107]
A few years after the occurrences already narrated, a silent pair
stood in this park: a powerful man, in rich attire, one hand resting
on the hilt of his sword, while the right was thrown round a lovely
woman who stood beside him, looking like the graceful ivy that clings
to the oak. It was Siddha Rama, accompanied by Iravati. They stood
lost in admiration before the tomb, and thought of the man of whom
they had so often spoken with the greatest reverence.
Much had happened in these few years. Akbar was no more, and in his
place reigned his son Salim, who, in accordance with the wish of
his father as he lay on his dying bed, had girded on the sword the
Emperor had always worn, and who was now, under the name of Jahangir,
the Emperor of Hindustan. [108] That he was not to be compared to
Akbar was to be expected, still his reign was not bad; and it fell
to the lot of his successors--to Shah Jahan [109] and Aurangzíb
[110]--so to corrupt the formerly powerful empire, as that it fell
an easy prey into the hands of British conquerors.
Salim had not entirely laid aside his evil habits, and Sir Thomas
Roe, the English ambassador, had an opportunity of seeing him in much
the same situation as Siddha had done, at the banquet given in his
palace. Still he was not the hopeless drunkard that he had appeared
to be. [111] To Iravati he had kept his word, and in spite of his
disappointment, found himself happy in his marriage with the wise
and beautiful Mahal, whose influence over him was great, and always
for good.
That Kashmir must in the end submit, had long been foreseen; and after
the failure of Salim's conspiracy, it cost Akbar but little trouble
to penetrate through the ruined country and force it to come under his
rule. The weak king died, his unworthy sons were banished, and Siddha's
father was made Vice-King, Siddha receiving an important appointment,
with the understanding that he should succeed to the Viceroyship;
while Kulluka, faithful as ever, was always ready with counsel and
advice. It was not long before the people began to appreciate the
blessing and prosperity of a wise and settled rule.
The hermit of Badari-Natha did not long survive the subjection of his
country. Once, when Kulluka went to visit him, he found the servant
alone. His master had become suddenly unwell. He died in a few days,
and was buried on the heights overlooking Kashmir. Hara, the tiger,
laid himself down on the grave, and growled fiercely when the servant
sought to entice him back to the house. He refused the food and water
brought to him, and in a few days was lying dead on the grave of his
friend and master.
Parviz knew nothing of the affair with Gulbadan, and Siddha
occasionally received good news from him. He was happy in his marriage
with the daughter of the Treasurer, and though in high office, was
busy in arranging the literary and diplomatic papers of Abú-l Fazl,
his deeply lamented uncle.
Abdul Kadir held himself aloof from public life, and though wiser, was
still an earnest enthusiast for the true faith. He sought consolation
for his many disappointments in writing his history, [112] in which
he complained bitterly of Akbar, and railed at Abú-l Fazl and Faizi,
although they had never harmed him.
Padre Aquaviva did not return to Agra, but others came to continue
his work, with as little success. Though three centuries have passed,
the conversion of Hindustan remains the dream of western zealots.
Whether the faithful Vatsa espoused the talkative but good-hearted
Nipunika, history says not; but it is very probable that they followed
the example of their master and mistress. The happiness of these two
was unbroken, though dark memories often arose in Siddha's mind. But by
degrees he had learnt not to allow himself to be weighed down by them,
and to hide his regrets from Iravati. He had remarked how deeply it
grieved her when his countenance was clouded with gloomy thoughts of
the past, the cause of which she well understood, for he had confessed
all to her. Soon after their marriage she had given him a son, whom he
loved nearly as much as herself. He understood how great a treasure
he had won, when he heard of Salim's wishes, and what her answer had
been; but when he expressed his admiration, she only replied that in
her place every woman would have acted in the same manner.
Siddha remained long lost in thought before Akbar's tomb, when his
attention was roused by an approaching footstep. In dismay he stepped
back as he recognised who drew near; and the exclamation which broke
from him told Iravati what an unhappy meeting had chanced.
"Faizi!" he cried.
He who, lost in thought, was passing them, suddenly stood still, and
then drew back, as he recognised the man who had so deeply injured
him. But, changing his mind, he slowly advanced, and as he saw Siddha
preparing hastily to withdraw, he said:
"Remain, and listen to me. Here, by the tomb of the prince who ever
more willingly forgave than punished his enemies, and who did not
know what hate was, I should feel no anger. I have often striven
to follow his noble example, and to forgive the wrong you have done
me. I could not, I had not the strength; but now, on this holy spot,
where accident has brought us together, I have found strength to do
what Akbar in my place would have done. I forgive you, Siddha."
Deeply touched, and with bowed head, Siddha stood before his noble
enemy, while Iravati gazed with admiration on the man who in such a
strife had been victor over himself.
"Look up," continued Faizi; "no longer avoid the sight of your
former friend. The words that I addressed to you in my anger were
not undeserved, but to a man of your character they were a fearful
and perhaps too severe a punishment; and I know from Kulluka what an
influence they have had on you, and to what wild actions they nearly
drove you. From our friend I learnt that in the first place you were
not the tempter, nor in the beginning did you know who the tempter
was. Her great influence and power I know well myself; but she is
no longer to be feared. In her captivity she herself made an end to
her guilty life. Enough of the past, especially in the presence of
her whom I must greet as your noble consort. Let the past, then, be
forgotten by us. What I have since heard of you, has made you again
worthy of the respect and friendship of a man of honour. Take, then,
my hand, as of old."
It was Iravati who clasped it, while Siddha could scarcely conquer
his emotion.
"I thank you," she said, "from my heart, for your generosity. What
you have said has lifted the dark cloud that overshadowed our married
happiness, and the leaden weight is at last removed which for so long
has weighed my Siddha down."
"I seek for words," at last said Siddha; "but words to express what at
this moment I feel are not to be found. Once I thought myself comforted
and strengthened by the words of a wise man, and as though I were born
to a new life; but now I feel the new birth for the first time. Your
friendship, Faizi, was always most deeply prized by me, and all the
bitterer was my self-reproach, and the harder my punishment, to lose
it so shamefully, and through my own fault. The friendship that you
give me back so nobly, I esteem as the highest gift I could receive."
"Our present accidental meeting," replied Faizi, "must be of short
duration, and in all probability it will be our last. That I have
withdrawn from the service of the State is already known to you. Salim,
or, as he likes better to be called by his proud title, Jahangir,
never looked upon me or my brother with a favourable eye; besides, I
should find it hard to serve him, for reasons which you need not that
I should explain, and so I withdrew myself from public life, and lived
retired at Agra. But now Shah Abbas, King of Persia, has invited me to
his capital, and to occupy myself there with literary studies. [113]
This invitation I have accepted. I start for Ispahan to-morrow, and I
may remain there. But I could not leave this country without a farewell
visit to the last resting-place of my princely friend--the friend who
was everything to me, Siddha, more than life or happiness; and had you
sinned against him, I do not believe that I could ever have pardoned
it. But you have shown that you honoured and prized him, though you
never had the opportunity of knowing him intimately, as but few did,
both in his greatness and his weaknesses, which were still loveable."
"It is true," rejoined Siddha, "I never learnt to know him closely, but
I have known enough to awaken my deepest admiration and reverence. I
knew another prince whose life has ended, to whom I owed a debt of
gratitude, and his memory is dear to me; but if I was asked which
was the greatest, I am now convinced that the secluded philosopher,
who had said farewell to all worldly joys, was surpassed by the
philosopher on his throne, who in the midst of the wildest divisions
and disturbances knew how to preserve the same evenness of character
and uprightness of mind. In truth Akbar deserves his name."
"And that shall be said by all coming generations," replied Faizi,
"both in the East and West. The title of 'the Great' has been given by
favourites and flatterers to many a prince, but with little right. To
be truly great means that a ruler knows how to govern himself as
well as others, and to give up his life to sorrow and trouble for the
welfare of his fellow-men; and it was in this that he who rests yonder
was great. There have been princes, and there still may be more,
whose names in the world's history will be better known than his;
and it is possible that there may be those who will win still higher
fame, but seldom in history can one point to the name of a ruler
who, in the midst of his greatness, knew, like Akbar, how to remain
a man in the most beautiful and noblest meaning of the word. And
now," concluded Faizi, clasping the hands of Siddha and Iravati,
"farewell. Think of me sometimes, when I am far from here. You can
do so now without bitterness; and this also takes from me a burden
which I have often found hard to bear."
For some time after Faizi had left them, Siddha and Iravati remained
in the park. At last they left the spot where they had come to render
a last silent homage to the memory of the Great Emperor.
"So they all pass away," said Siddha, musingly, as they turned towards
home; "all we have learnt to know and reverence. He who has just
left us, in all probability we shall see no more. But such men as
Akbar, Faizi, and Abú-l Fazl do not die when death ends their lives
here; they live in the memory they leave us, and in their works. The
thought of them animates those who come after them; and is not that
true immortality?"
London: Printed by W. H. Allen & Co., 13 Waterloo Place.
NOTES
[1] "Akbar: een Oostersche Roman," door Mr. P. A. S. Van
Limburg-Brouwer. 's Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1872. 8vo. pp. 358.
[2] "Akbar. Ein Indischer Roman. Deutsche autorisirte ausgabe aus
dem Niederlandischen des Dr. V. Limburg Brouwer," von Lina Schneider
(Wilhelm Berg). Leipzig: Heinrich Killinger, 1877. Small 8vo. pp. 346.
[3] Published by J. de Laet in his "De Imperio Magni Mogolis." Leyden:
1631.
[4] Prince Frederick has visited India three times. He made an
extensive tour in 1863-64, and again in 1867-69. After his first visit
he published a narrative of his travels, in three volumes, "Altes
und Neues aus den Landern des Ostens, von Onomander." Hamburg: 1859.
[5] Mahmud of Ghazni, the first Muhammadan invader of India, reigned
from A.D. 997 to A.D. 1030. His dynasty lasted until 1183. The Ghori
dynasty lasted from A.D. 1192 to 1289. The Khilzi dynasty, from 1289
to 1321. The dynasty founded by Tuglak Shah, from 1321 to 1393. Then
followed the inroad of Timur and subsequent anarchy; and the Afghan
Lodi dynasty lasted from 1450 to the invasion of Baber in 1526.
[6] "Mogul" is the old form. Dowson and Thomas have "Mughal"; Blochmann
and Hunter, "Mughul."
[7] Jauhar wrote his "Tazkiratu-l Wákiat" thirty years after the
death of Humayun. It was translated by Major Stewart, and printed
for the Oriental Translation Fund in 1832.
[8] Humayun met this young lady, when on a visit to his brother
Hindal's mother. She was a daughter of a Seyyid, a native of Jami
in Khurasan.
[9] Calotropis gigantea (Asclepiadaceæ). It is a shrub from six to ten
feet high, generally found in waste ground or among ruins. An acrid,
milky juice flows from every part of the plant when wounded, which
is used by native doctors for cutaneous diseases. The bark fibre is
spun into fine thread.
[10] Kashmir was ruled by Hindu princes until the beginning of the
fourteenth century, when it was conquered by the Muhammadans. Owing to
distractions in the reigning family, Akbar sent an army into Kashmir in
1586. The king then submitted, and was enrolled among the Delhi nobles.
[11] Akbar was also much interested in the gospels as explained to
him by Christian missionaries; and, as Colonel Yule says, he never
lost a certain hankering after Christianity, or ceased to display
an affectionate reverence for the Christian emblems which he had
received from his Jesuit teachers.--See "Cathay and the Way thither,"
ii. p. 532, note.
[12] This was in 1579. See "Blochmann," i. p. 185; "Elliot," v. p. 531.
[13] For a plate of Indian arms and accoutrements in the time of Akbar
see the very interesting work by the Hon. Wilbraham Egerton, M.P.,
published by order of the Secretary of State for India in Council,
"A Handbook of Indian Arms," p. 23. (Wm. H. Allen & Co., 1879.)
[14] Mr. Blochmann has supplemented this list with biographical notices
of Akbar's nobles, of which there are four hundred and fifteen. These
notices are chiefly taken from the "Tabakat-i Akbari," the work of El
Badaoni, the "Akbar-namah," the "Tuzuk-i Jahangiri," and a manuscript
called "Maásir ul Umará" in the collection of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal.--Blochmann's "Ain-i Abkari," i. pp. 308 to 526.
[15] See Hunter's "Orissa," ii. p. 5.
[16] Namely the poll tax (jiziah), the port and ferry dues (mirbahri),
the pilgrim tax (kar), the tax on cattle (gau shumari), tax on trees
(sar darakhti), offerings on appointments (peshkash), trade licenses,
fees to darogahs, tahsildars, treasurers, and landlords, fees on hiring
or letting, for bags on cash payments, on the verification of coins,
and market dues.
[17] Akbar's returns are in dams, forty dams making one rupee.
[18] In 1877 the whole land revenue of India, including the Madras
Presidency and Burma, was £19,857,152. Of this sum £3,993,196 came from
Madras, and £835,376 from Burma, which provinces were not included in
the empire of Akbar; nor was a great part of Bombay (probably about
half) under Akbar's revenue system. In Bombay land revenue (including
Sind) in 1877 was £3,344,664; and half this sum £1,672,332. For a
rough comparison these three sums (namely the amount of land revenue
from Madras, Burma, and half Bombay) must be deducted from the land
revenue of 1877, and £807,102 (the revenue of Kabul) from the land
revenue of Akbar. This leaves £15,775,338 as Akbar's land revenue,
and £13,356,248 as the land revenue obtained by our Government in
1877 from the same provinces.
[19] Many Muhammadan princes died of delirium tremens before the
introduction of tobacco, which took place towards the end of Akbar's
reign. Asad Beg says that he first saw tobacco at Bijapur. He brought a
pipe and a stock of tobacco to Agra, and presented it to the Emperor,
who made a trial. The custom of smoking spread rapidly among the
nobles, but Akbar never adopted it himself.--"Dowson," vi. 165.
[20] "Memoirs of Jehanghir."
[21] "Memoirs of Jehanghir," written by himself, and translated by
Major David Price for the Oriental Translation Fund, 1829. When I was
at Madrid Don Pascual de Gayangos gave me a copy of a very interesting
Spanish manuscript by an anonymous missionary (probably Aquaviva)
who describes the personal appearance and habits of Akbar. It
was left at the Asiatic Society, before Mr. Vaux's time, and was
mislaid. Don Pascual has also mislaid the original, so that the loss
is irremediable.
[22] Colonel Yule compares Kublai Khan with Akbar ("Marco Polo,"
i. p. 340), and Mr. Talboys Wheeler has drawn a parallel between
Akbar and Asoka ("History of India," iv. p. 136).
[23] "History of India, as told by its own Historians--the Muhammadan
Period; being posthumous papers by Sir H. M. Elliot, K.C.B., edited
and continued by Professor Dowson."
[24] "The Revenue Resources of the Mughal Empire in India, A.D. 1593
to 1707," by Edward Thomas, F.R.S., pp. 54. Trübner: 1871.
[25] Rudolf Aquaviva was born in 1551. He was a nephew of Claudio
Aquaviva, the fourth General of the Jesuits, and a grandson of
Giovanni Antonio Aquaviva, Duke of Atri, in Naples. The Dukes of Atri
were as famous for their patronage of letters as for their deeds
of arms. The missionary, Aquaviva, after his return from Agra, was
sent to Salsette, where he was murdered by the natives in 1583, aged
only thirty-two. Akbar, on hearing of his death, sent an embassy of
condolence to the Portuguese Viceroy, and to the Jesuit Fathers at Goa.
[26] See my "Hawkins' Voyages" (Hakluyt Society), pages 396 and
403. Pineiro wrote an account of his travels.
[27] See Colonel Yule's "Cathay and the Way thither," ii. pp. 529-591,
for the journey of Benedek Goes. The narrative is taken from a
work entitled "De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, suscepta ab
Societate Jesu, ex P. Matthaei Ricii commentariis, auctore P. Nicolao
Trigantio." 1615.
[28] See the "Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus composée sur
les documents inédits et authentiques par J. Crétineau-Joly" (6
vols. 8vo. Paris: 1844), ii. p. 510-12; also "Ranke Histoire de la
Papauté," iv. p. 159. Colonel Yule refers to the work of Jarric.
[29] Johan de Laet was born at Antwerp in the end of the sixteenth
century and died in 1649. He was a Director of the Dutch West India
Company, had an extensive acquaintance with learned men, and had
special opportunities of collecting geographical and historical
information, of which he diligently availed himself. His chief work
was the "Novus Orbis seu descriptionis Indiae Occidentalis" (folio
1633). He wrote works on England, France, Spain, Portugal, Holland,
and Italy, which form part of the collection known under the name of
"Les Petites Republiques," printed by the Elzevirs at Leyden. De
Laet also had a learned controversy with Grotius on the origin of
the American races. He edited Pliny and Vitruvius.
[30] Fragments of Indian History, "Calcutta Review," July 1873,
No. cxiii. pp. 170-200. De Laet is quoted by Blochmann, and also by
Mr. Thomas and Dr. Hunter.
[31] Fitch's interesting account of this visit to the court of
Akbar was published by Hakluyt.--See "Hakluyt Voyages" (2nd ed.),
ii. pp. 375-399. Besides the narrative of Fitch, there are letters
from Newbery, and the letter from Queen Elizabeth to Akbar.
[32] "Het Ramayana," Gids, 1863.
[33] "Javas Hervormers: een Historische Schets," 1866.
[34] "De Avantoren van een Indisch Edelman," Gids, 1867. "Het Boek
der Koningen: eene proeve van Indische Geschiedenis," Gids, No. 6,
1867. "Vedanta: eene proeve van Indische regtzinnigheid," Gids,
No. 12, 1867.
[35] "Oostersch Atheisme," Gids, 1868. "Eene Schoonheidskuur," Gids,
No. 8, 1868.
[36] "De Maan der Kennis," Theologisch-Metaphysisch Drama, Gids,
No. 70, 1869.
[37] "Poesie der Woestijn," Gids, No. 21, 1870. "De Kabbala," Gids,
No. 7, 1870.
[38] "De Wijze van het Hemelsch Rijk en zijne school."
[39] An obituary notice of Dr. van Limburg-Brouwer ("Ter Nagedachtenis
van Mr. P. A. S. van Limburg-Brouwer") was written by Dr. H. Kern, the
Professor of Sanscrit at Leyden, and published in the "Nederlandsche
Spectator," 1873.
[40] Badari-natha is a place sacred to Vishnu in the Himálayas. The
Badari-natha peaks, in British Gurwhal, form a group of 6 summits
from 22,000 to 23,400 feet above the sea. The town of Badari-natha
is 55 miles N.E. of Srinagar, on the right bank of the Vishnu-ganga,
a feeder of the Alakananda. The temple of Badari-natha is situated
in the highest part of the town, and below it a tank, supplied from a
sulphureous thermal spring, is frequented by thousands of pilgrims. The
temple is 10,294 feet above the sea.
[41] Deva, in Sanscrit, is a god, a divinity.
[42] Siddha, in Sanscrit, means perfected, hence an adept. Siddhanta,
a final conclusion, or any scientific work. The Siddhas are a class
of semi-divine beings, who dwell in the regions of the sky.
[43] Rama is a name in common use. Rama was the hero of the Ramayana
epic, and the form taken by Vishnu in two of his Avataras.
[44] Sanscrit name. Kulluka Bhatta was the famous commentator whose
gloss was used by Sir W. Jones in making his translation of Manu.
[45] Guru, a teacher. Pada, a word.
[46] A common Sanscrit name.
[47] Hara is the name of a branch of the Chuhan Rajpúts. It is also
a name of Siva.
[48] The most popular of the collections of old Hindu tales was
the Kathâ-Sarit-Sâgara, or, "Ocean of the Streams of Narrative." It
originated in the desire of a queen of Kashmir to provide amusement and
instruction for her grandson. Somadeva, the Prime Minister, produced,
in consequence, this collection of tales in verse.
[49] Nandi is the bull of Siva usually placed in front of
temples. Gupta is a concealed ascetic. The Guptas were a dynasty of
kings reigning at Magadha.
[50] Iravati is the Sanscrit name of the river Raví or
Hydrastes. Iravat was a son of Arjuna.
[51] Vishnu, the god, rides on a mythical bird called Garuda.
[52] A spiritual teacher or guide.
[53] Goraksh or Gorakh, a cow-herd.
[54] Yogi, a follower of the Yoga philosophy. An ascetic.
[55] Durga, a goddess, the wife of Siva, and destroyer of evil beings
and oppressors. Also called Kali.
[56] The mystic monosyllable to be uttered before any prayer. It
is supposed to consist of three letters, a u m, combined, being
types of the three Vedas, or of the three great divinities, Brahma,
Vishnu, Siva.
[57] From the hundred love sentences of the Amaru-Sataka, a poem
written by a king named Amaru.
[58] Akbar's palace, in the fort of Agra, is built entirely of red
sandstone. It is a square building, 249 feet by 260 feet. In the centre
is a courtyard, 71 feet by 72 feet, on either side of which are two
halls facing one another. Every feature round this court is of pure
Hindu architecture. There are no arches, but the horizontal style of
construction everywhere. General Cunningham, as Mr. Fergusson thinks
erroneously, ascribes this palace to Jahangir. He describes it in his
"Reports," vol. iv. p. 124, and gives a plan (Plate xiii.).
[59] Abú-l Fazl (called Allami) was a son of Shaikh Mubarak, son of
Shaikh Khizr, who came from Sind. Mubarak was one of the most learned
men of his day, and inclined to be a free-thinker. Abú-l Fazl, his
second son, was born on January 14th, 1551. He was a devoted student,
and his range of reading was very extensive. His elder brother, Faizi,
had been invited to the court of Akbar in the twelfth year of that
sovereign's reign, and by his means Abú-l Fazl was introduced in
1568, when in his seventeenth year. His abilities were immediately
recognised, and every year he grew in favour and power. He was
made Prime Minister and Mansabdar of four thousand, discharging
his duties with distinguished abilities and success. Both brothers
inherited the liberal opinions of their father, and carried them to
greater extremes. Hence orthodox Muslims reviled them as apostates and
free-thinkers. In them Akbar found congenial minds, with feelings and
opinions similar to but more decided than his own. The murder of Abú-l
Fazl on August 12th, 1602, is noted further on. He was the author of
the "Akbar-namah" (2 vols.), a history of his master's reign down to
1602, and of the "A'ín-i-Akbari."
[60] The "A'ín-i-Akbari."
[61] Faizi was the elder brother of the minister Abú-l Fazl. He
was the most popular poet of his time, and a great favourite and
constant companion of Akbar, who gave him the title of the Prince
of Poets. Our author, for the purposes of his story, makes Faizi,
the younger brother.
[62] The story of Nala and Damayanti is a beautiful episode in the
"Mahabharata," which was translated into Persian by Faizi, and into
English by Dean Milman. Nala, King of Nishadha, had been chosen by
the lovely Princess Damayanti for her husband, but the vindictive
demon Kali was the enemy of Nala, and was determined to effect his
ruin. He perverted the king's mind by urging him to play at dice with
his brother Pushkara. Nala lost his kingdom and all he had, but refused
to play for his wife; and the royal pair wandered away destitute from
the palace. Nala, still instigated by the demon, deserted his weary,
sleeping wife, and left her exposed in the forest. She at length
found a hospitable refuge. Nala engaged himself as a charioteer, and
was eventually restored to his faithful wife. Freed from the power of
Kali, and fortified with a preternatural amount of skill in gaming,
he finally won back his kingdom.
Our author, in writing the story of Siddha and Iravati, evidently
had in his mind the classic tale of Nala and Damayanti.
[63] A brother of King Vikramaditya. He wrote a Sanscrit poem called
"Bhatti Kavya," relating the adventures of Rama, in twenty-two
cantos.--See Colebrooke's "Miscellaneous Essays," ii. 115.
[64] History of the reign of Akbar.
[65] The Sankhya system of philosophy was founded by Kapila. Its
aim was rest, or exemption from transmigration, to be attained by
looking steadily at the whole united universe, and recognising that
man, and all which is created, is transitory, but that beyond the
transitory is the eternal. The doctrine of Kapila is taught in six
Sutras or lectures. His main position is that absolute prevention of
all three sorts of pain is the highest purpose of the soul. The three
sorts of pain are evil proceeding from self, from eternal beings,
and from divine causes. Deliverance from these evils is attainable
by knowledge of the twenty-five true principles of existence.
The Vedanta philosophy is intended to give the end and ultimate aim
of the Vedas.
[66] A military title and rank, regulated by the supposed number of
horse the holder of the title could, if required, bring into the field,
varying from ten to ten thousand.
[67] Humayun succeeded his father Baber in 1530. He was driven out of
India by the talented Afghan chief Shir Shah, and his son Akbar was
born in Sind during the flight. Humayun passed fifteen years in exile
in Persia. He recovered Delhi and Agra after the death of Shir Shah,
and died six months afterwards in 1556. Akbar then ascended the throne.
[68] Akbar was the grandson of Baber, who was born in 1482, and died
1530. Baber was the great-grandson of Timur.
[69] Mulla Abdul Kadir Muluk Shah of Badaun was born at that place
in 1540. He studied music, astronomy, and history, and owing to his
beautiful voice he was appointed Court Imám for Wednesdays. He was
introduced early in life to Akbar, and was employed to translate Arabic
and Sanskrit works into Persian. He was a fanatical Muhammadan and
looked upon Abú-l Fazl as a heretic, though he served under him. But
all references to the minister, in the works of Badauni, are couched in
bitter and sarcastic terms. He wrote a work called "Tarikh-i-Badauni,"
which is a history from the time of the Ghaznevides to 1595,
the fortieth year of Akbar's reign. The prevalent tone, in writing
of Akbar his benefactor, is one of censure and disparagement. El
Badauni also translated the "Ramayana," part of the "Mahabharata,"
and a history of Kashmir into Persian. He died in 1615.
[70] Fathpúr Sikri was the favourite residence of Akbar from
1570 to the end of his reign. The chief glory of the place is its
mosque. Fathpúr Sikri is 12 miles from Agra.
[71] Akbar's system is fully described by Abú-l Fazl in the
"A'ín-i-Akbari." The lands were divided into four classes with
different revenue to be paid by each, namely:--
1. Pulaj, cultivated every harvest and never fallow.
2. Paranti, lying fallow at intervals.
3. Checher, fallow for four years together.
4. Bunjar, not cultivated for five years and upwards.
The lands of the two first of these classes were divided into best,
middling, and bad. The produce of a bígah of each sort was added
together, and a third of that was considered to be the average
produce. One third of this average was the share of the State, as
settled by Akbar's assessment. Remissions were made on the two last
classes of land. The Government demand might be paid either in money
or kind. The settlement was made for ten years.
In Akbar's reign the land revenue yielded £16,582,440, and the revenue
from all sources was £32,000,000. Akbar also remitted many vexatious
imposts, including the poll tax on unbelievers, the tax on pilgrims,
ferry dues, and taxes on cattle, trees, trade licenses, and market
dues on many articles.
[72] See note further on.
[73] Alláhu Akbar, jalla jaláluhu: was the inscription on one side
of Akbar's rupee, and on the other the date.
[74] Jayadeva wrote the "Gita-Govinda," a pastoral drama, in about the
twelfth century of our era. It relates to the early life of Krishna,
as Govinda the cowherd, and sings the loves of Krishna with Radha and
other of the cowherd damsels. But a mystical interpretation has been
put upon it. There are some translations in the "Asiatic Researches,"
by Sir W. Jones. Mr. Griffith has translated a few stanzas into
English. He says, "the exquisite melody of the verse can only be
appreciated by those who can enjoy the original." A translation of
the "Gita-Govinda" of Jayadeva was also published by Mr. Edwin Arnold
in 1875.
[75] Jasminum undulatum.
[76] From Griffith's "Specimens of old Indian Poetry," p. 98.
[77] From Edwin Arnold's translation of the "Gita-Govinda," p. 24.
[78] Edwin Arnold's translation of the "Gita-Govinda," p. 28.
[79] Amru-l Kais, was an Arabian poet and King of Kindah, living
shortly before the era of Muhammad. He was the author of one of the
seven Mullakats, or poems, which were inscribed in letters of gold,
and suspended in the temple of Mecca. Pocock and Casiri give an
account of the Arabian poets before Muhammad, and the seven poems of
the Caaba were published in English by Sir William Jones.
[80] An Arabian poet who lived after Amru-l Kais.--See "Casiri,"
i. pp. 71, 72. Casiri calls him Tarpha.
[81] Akbar received a Portuguese embassy in 1578 from Goa, at the head
of which was Antonio Cabral. He afterwards wrote to Goa, requesting
that Jesuits might be sent to him with Christian books. Rudolf
Aquaviva, a man of good family, who was afterwards murdered at
Salsette, Antonio Monserrat, and Enriques (as interpreter) were
selected for this mission, and despatched to Agra. They were most
honourably received by Akbar, and great hopes of his conversion were
conceived. But there was no practical result. Some years afterwards,
in 1590, Akbar again applied for instructors, and in 1591 three
brethren came to Lahore. But after a while, seeing no hope of good,
they returned to Goa.
[82] Kalidasa is the most popular poet of India. His "Sakuntala"
has been translated into English by Professor Monier Williams. His
best known lyrical poems are the "Cloud Messenger" and the
"Seasons." Portions of the latter have been translated into English
by Mr. Griffith.
[83] Yoga (concentration) is the name of the second division of
the Sánkhya system of Hindu philosophy. It was first taught by
Patanjali. He asserted that the soul was Iswara (God), and that
man's liberation is to be obtained by concentrating his attention on
Iswara. Yoga is, therefore, the union of man's mind with the Supreme
Soul. When a man is perfect in profound meditations or "steadyings
of the mind," he gains a knowledge of the past and future, he has
the power of shrinking into the form of the minutest atom, and gains
mastery over Nature's laws.
[84] Professor Wilson records instances of a Brahman sitting in the
air wholly unsupported for twelve minutes, and another for forty
minutes.--"Wilson's Works," i. p. 209.
[85] These Englishmen were John Newbery and Ralph Fitch, merchants,
William Leedes, a jeweller, and James Story, a painter. They came to
India by way of Aleppo and Ormuz, and were sent prisoners to Goa by
the Portuguese Governor of Ormuz. At Goa they fell in with a priest
named Thomas Stevens, who was an Englishman, a native of Wiltshire,
and who afterwards wrote an account of his voyage. They also met
the Dutch traveller Linschoten. This was in January 1584. Stevens
interceded for them, and "stood them in much stead." In September 1585
they reached Agra, and also visited Fathpúr Sikri. Thence Newbery set
out on his return journey through Persia. Fitch went to Bengal, whence
he visited Pegu and Malacca, and eventually took ship for Cochin and
Ormuz, in 1589. Leedes took service under Akbar, who gave him a house
and suitable allowances. Newbery had a letter from Queen Elizabeth to
"Zelabdim Echebar."--See "Hakluyt," ii. pp. 375 to 399, 2nd ed.
[86] Pieter van der Broeche was the President of the Dutch factory
at Surat. He had an intimate knowledge of the commerce and exchanges
of the East, and of Akbar's revenue system; and was also a man of
great learning. He supplied much valuable information to De Laet,
which appears in the work entitled, "De Imperio Magni Mongolis, sive
India vera. Joannes de Laet. Lugduni Batavorum. 1631." Indian events
are brought down to 1628 in this work.
[87] The Vedanta is the second great division of the Mimansa school
of Hindu philosophy. The name is from the Sanscrit Veda and anta
(end), meaning that it gives the end or ultimate aim of the Vedas,
which is a knowledge of Brahma or the Supreme Spirit; and of the
relations in which man's soul stands towards the Universal Soul.
[88] Moses ben Maimon, or Maimonides, one of the most celebrated of
the Jewish Rabbis, was born at Cordova in 1133. He studied philosophy
and medicine under Averroes. He retired to Egypt, where he died at the
age of seventy. His chief work is the "Moreh Nevochim" ("Teacher of
the Perplexed") in which he explains difficult passages, types, and
allegories in the Old Testament. He wrote several other treatises on
the Jewish law, and founded a college at Alexandria for his countrymen.
[89] Amír (corruptly Emir) is a Muhammadan nobleman of high rank. Umara
(corruptly Omrah) is the nobility of a Muhammadan court collectively.
[90] The "Atharva Veda," in the opinion of Professor Wilson, is of
later date than the "Rig," "Yajar," and "Sama" Vedas. It contains
many forms of imprecation for destruction of enemies, prayers for
averting calamities, and hymns to the gods.
[91] Raja Todar Mal, the celebrated financier and administrator,
was a Khatri and native of Lahore. His father died when he was a
child, leaving him no provision, and he entered life as a writer. He
was employed by the talented Afghan ruler Shir Shah, who drove out
Humayun, Akbar's father, and afterwards under Akbar himself. His
revenue settlement of Gujrat was highly approved by the Emperor;
and he was similarly employed in other provinces of India. Abú-l Fazl
says of him, in the "Akbar-nama,"--"For honesty, rectitude, manliness,
knowledge of business, and administrative ability, he was without a
rival in Hindustan." Todar Mal died at Lahore on November 10th, 1589.
[92] See Blochmann's "Ain-i-Akbari," i., p. 266, for an account of
the ceremony of weighing the Emperor.
[93] The Charak-puja. It is the swinging festival held on the sun
entering Aries. As a religious observance it is confined to Bengal;
but the swinging is practised in other parts of India as a feat of
dexterity, for obtaining money. The swinger is suspended by hooks
passed through the skin above each blade-bone, and connected by ropes
with one end of a lever traversing an upright post with a circular
motion. Charak means a wheel.
[94] "Gulbadan" means rose-body. The Emperor had an aunt of that name,
own sister of his uncle Askari, who married Khizr Khan, Governor of
the Punjab. She made a pilgrimage to Mecca.
[95] See note at p. 62.
[96] A goddess, the wife of Siva, named Kali, from her black
complexion. The same as Durga.
[97] "The unity of God." The divine monotheism of Akbar.
[98] Tobacco was introduced in the reign of Akbar. Before that time
it was no uncommon thing for a Muhammadan prince to die of delirium
tremens.
[99] The founder of the Yoga philosophy.
[100] Uitgebreidheid (D.); Ausbreitung (German).
[101] Rig-Veda.
[102] "Rig-Veda," x. 129.--H. S. Colebrooke. See also Max Muller,
"Hist. Anc. Sansk. Lit.," p. 560.
[103] Abú-l Fazl, in 1598, was sent by Akbar to the Dakhin. Salim
broke out in rebellion; and the Emperor, in his trouble, sent for
his trusty Minister. Abú-l Fazl hastened to rejoin his master. But
Salim, who had always hated the Minister, instigated a Rajpút chief
of Bandalkhand, named Bir Singh of Urchah, to waylay him. Abú-l Fazl
was murdered near Narwar, on the 12th of August 1602, and Bir Singh
fled from the wrath of Akbar, leading the life of an outlaw in the
jungle until the death of the great Emperor.
[104] A favourite allegory in the Rig-Veda, connected with Indra's
power over the elements, is his war with the demon Vritra. "With
his vast destroying thunderbolt Indra struck the darkling mutilated
Vritra. As the trunks of the trees are felled by the axe, so lies
Vritra prostrate on the earth. The waters carry off the nameless body
of Vritra, tossed into the midst of the never-stopping, never-resting
currents. The foe of Indra has slept a long darkness."--"Rig-Veda,"
Sukta xxxii.
[105] Akbar came into possession of Surat in 1572.
[106] There have been many discussions on the true meaning of
Nirvána. The best essay on the subject will be found in the "Pali
Dictionary" of Mr. Childers.
[107] Akbar died in October 1605, aged sixty-three. There is grave
suspicion that he was poisoned at the instigation of his son Salim,
who ascended the throne under the name of Jahangir. He was buried
at Sikandra, about four miles from Agra, and a splendid mausoleum
was erected over his grave. The building was commenced by himself;
and Mr. Fergusson says that it is quite unlike any other tomb built
in India either before or since, and of a design borrowed from a
Hindu or Buddhist model. It stands in an extensive garden, and is
approached by one noble gateway. In the centre of the garden, on
a raised platform, stands the tomb, of a pyramidal form. The lower
storey measures 320 feet each way, exclusive of the angle towers. It
is thirty feet high, and is pierced by ten great arches on each face,
with a larger entrance in the centre. On this terrace stands another
far more ornate, measuring 186 feet on each side, and fourteen feet
nine inches in height. A third and fourth of similar design stand
on this, all being of red sandstone. Within and above the last
is a white marble enclosure, its outer wall entirely composed of
marble trellis work of the most beautiful patterns. Inside is the
tombstone, a splendid piece of arabesque tracery. But the mortal
remains repose under a plainer stone in a vaulted chamber in the
basement.--Fergusson's "Indian Architecture," p. 583.
The Earl of Northbrook, when Viceroy of India, presented a rich
carpet to the tomb at Sikandra, to be placed over the stone which
covers the remains of the greatest ruler of India.
[108] Salim, under the name of Jahangir, reigned from 1605 to 1627. His
mother was a Rajpút. He was cruel, avaricious, and debauched. He
suppressed the rebellion of his son Khusru with the most horrible
cruelties. In 1608 Captain William Hawkins landed at Surat, and was
received with great favour by Jahangir at Agra. But, after two years,
he failed in securing trading privileges for the East India Company,
and left Agra in 1611. The influence of Nur Mahal, his favourite wife,
was paramount over Jahangir; but he had no children by her. Of his four
sons, he kept the eldest, Khusru, in prison for rebellion. Parwiz,
the second, was a drunkard. Khurram, afterwards known as Shah Jahan,
succeeded his father. Shahryar was the youngest. In 1615 Sir Thomas
Roe arrived at the court of Jahangir, as ambassador from James I.,
and remained until 1618. Jahangir died on October 12th, 1627, and
was succeeded by his rebellious son as Shah Jahan.
[109] Shah Jahan reigned from 1628 to 1658.
[110] Aurangzíb reigned from 1658 to 1707.
[111] It was Nur Mahal who induced Jahangir to be more moderate in
his cups.
[112] Best known as the "Tarikh-i-Badauni."
[113] This invitation is, of course, not historical. Our author, as
he tells us in his Introduction, has prolonged the life of Faizi for
the purposes of his story. In reality, Faizi died before the murder
of his brother Abú-l Fazl.