"Those who imagine language invented by _The English Language

confined and limited in its powers, and gradually enlarged and enriched

by continuous practice and the reflection of wise and learned

individuals--unless, indeed, they look upon it as potentially only--in

_posse_ though not in _esse_--as the tree may be said to exist in the

seed, though requiring time and culture to flourish in all its

majesty--appear to neglect the facts which history proves. There is

nothing more certain than this, that the earlier we can trace back any

one language, the more full, complete, and consistent are its forms;

that the later we find it existing, the more compressed, colloquial,

and business-like it has become. Like the trees of our forests, it

grows at first wild, luxuriant, rich in foliage, full of light and

shadow, and flings abroad in its vast branches the fruits of a vigorous

youthful nature: transplanted into the garden of civilization and

trained for purposes of commerce, it becomes regulated, trimmed and

pruned; nature indeed still gives it life, but art prescribes the

direction and extent of its vegetation. Compare the Sanscrit with the

Gothic, the Gothic with the Anglo-Saxon, and again the Anglo-Saxon with

the English: or what is even better, take two periods of the

Anglo-Saxon itself, the eighth and tenth centuries for example. Always

we perceive a compression, a gradual loss of fine distinctions, a

perishing of forms, terminations and conjugations, in the younger state

of the language. The truth is, that in language up to a certain period,

there is a real indwelling vitality, a principle acting {577}

unconsciously but pervasively in every part: men wield their forms of

speech as they do their limbs, spontaneously, knowing nothing of their

construction, or the means by which these instruments possess their

power. There are flexors and extensors long before the anatomist

discovers and names them, and we use our arms without inquiring by what

wonderful mechanism they are made obedient to our will. So is it with

language long before the grammarian undertakes its investigation. It

may even be said, that the commencement of the age of

self-consciousness is identical with the close of that of vitality in

language; for it is a great error to speak of languages as dead, only

when they have ceased to be spoken. They are dead when they have ceased

to possess the power of adaptation to the wants of the people, and no

longer contain in themselves the means of their own extension. The

Anglo-Saxon, in the spirit and analogy of his whole language, could

have used words which had never been heard before, and been at once

understood: if we would introduce a new name for a new thing, we must

take refuge in the courtesy of our neighbours, and borrow from the

French, or Greek, or Latin, terms which never cease to betray their

foreign origin, by never putting off the forms of the tongue from which

they were taken, or assuming those of the tongue into which they are

adopted. The English language is a dead one.

"In general it may be said that dialects possess this vitality in a

remarkable degree, and that their very existence is the strongest proof

of its continuance. This is peculiarly the case when we use the word to

denote the popular or provincial forms of speech in a country where, by

common consent of the learned and educated classes, one particular form

of speech has been elevated to the dignity of the national language. It

is then only the strength of the principles which first determined the

peculiarities of the dialect that continues to support them, and

preserves them from being gradually rounded down, as stones are by

friction, and confounded in the course of a wide-spreading

centralization. Increased opportunity of intercommunion with other

provincials or the metropolis (dependent upon increased facilities of

locomotion, {578} the improvement of roads and the spread of mechanical

inventions) sweeps away much of these original distinctions, but it

never destroys them all. This is a necessary consequence of the fact

that they are in some degree connected with the physical features of

the country itself, and all those causes which influence the

atmosphere. A sort of pseudo-vitality even till late periods bears

witness to the indwelling power, and the consciousness of oppression

from without: _false_ analogies are the form this life assumes. How

often have we not heard it asserted that particular districts were

remarkable for the Saxonism of their speech, because they had retained

the archaisms, _kine_, _shoon_, _housen_! Well and good! Archaisms they

are, but they are false forms nevertheless, based upon an analogy just

as erroneous as that which led men in the last century to say _crowed_,

_hanged_ for _crew_, _hung_. The Anglo-Saxon language never knew any

such forms, and one wonders not to find by their side equally

gratuitous Saxonisms, _mousen_, _lousen_."--Phil. Soc. No. 35.

The doctrine that languages become _dead_ when they lose a certain power of

evolving new forms out of previously existing ones, is incompatible with

views to which the present writer has committed himself in the preface. If

the views there exhibited be true the test of the _vitality_ of a language,

if such metaphors _must_ be used, is the same as the test of vitality in

material organisms, _i.e._, the power of fulfilling certain functions.

Whether this is done by the evolution of new forms out of existing

materials, or by the amalgamation (the particular power of the English

language) of foreign terms is a mere difference of process.

s. 719. _Effect of common physical conditions._--I again quote the same

paper of Mr. Kemble's:--

"Professor Willis of Cambridge, in the course of some most ingenious

experiments upon the organization and conditions of the human larynx,

came upon the law which regulated the pronunciation of the vowels. He

found this to be partly in proportion to the size of the opening in the

pipe, partly to the force with which the air was propelled through it,

and by the adaptation of a tremulous artificial larynx to the pipe of

an {579} organ, he produced the several vowels at will. Now bearing in

mind the difference between the living organ and the dead one, the

susceptibility of the former to dilatation and compression, from the

effects, not only of the human will, but also of cold, of denser or

thinner currents of air, and above all the influence which the general

state of the body must have upon every part of it, we are furnished at

once with the necessary hypothesis; viz. that climate, and the local

positions on which climate much depends, are the main agency in

producing the original variations of dialect. Once produced, tradition

perpetuates them, with subsequent modifications proportionate to the

change in the original conditions, the migration to localities of a

different character, the congregation into towns, the cutting down of

forests, the cultivation of the soil, by which the prevalent degrees of

cold and the very direction of the currents of air are in no small

degree altered. It is clear that the same influences will apply to all

such consonants as can in any way be affected by the greater or less

tension of the organs, consequently above all to the gutturals; next to

the palatals, which may be defined by the position of the tongue; least

of all to the labials, and generally to the liquids also, though these

may be more or less strongly pronounced by different peoples. This hint

must suffice here, as the pursuit of it is rather a physiological than

a philological problem, and it is my business rather to show

historically what facts bear upon my present inquiry, than to

investigate the philosophical reasons for their existence. Still, for

the very honour of human nature, one of whose greatest and most

universal privileges is the recognition of and voluntary subjection to

the laws of beauty and harmony, it is necessary to state that no

developed language exists which does not acknowledge some internal laws

of euphony, from which many of its peculiarities arise, and which by

these assimilates its whole practice and assumes an artistical

consistency. On this faculty, which is rather to be considered as a

moral quality of the people than a necessity of their language, depends

the facility of employing the language for certain purposes of art, and

{580} the form which poetry and rhythm shall assume in the period of

their cultivation.

"In reviewing the principal languages of the ancient and modern world,

where the migrations of those that spoke them can be traced with

certainty, we are struck with the fact that the dwellers in chains of

mountains, or on the elevated plains of hilly districts, strongly

affect broad vowels and guttural consonants. Compare the German of the

Tyrol, Switzerland, or Bavaria, with that of the lowlands of Germany,

Westphalia, Hanover, and Mecklenburg: compare the Doric with the Attic,

or still more the soft Ionic Greek: follow the Italian of our own day

into the mountains of the Abruzzi: pursue the English into the hills of

Northumberland; mark the characteristics of the Celtic in the highlands

of Wales and Scotland, of the Vascongado, in the hilly ranges of Spain.

Everywhere we find the same type; everywhere the same love for broad

sounds and guttural forms; everywhere these appear as the peculiarity

of mountaineers. The difference of latitude between Holstein and

Inspruck is not great; that between Newcastle and Coventry is less;

Sparta is more southerly than Athens; Crete more so than either; but

this does not explain our problem; its solution is found in the

comparative number of feet above the level of the sea, in the hills and

the valleys which they enclose."

If true, the bearings of this is important; since, if common physical

conditions effect a common physiognomy of language, we may have a certain

amount of resemblance without a corresponding amount of ethnological

affinity.

* * * * *

{581}

PRAXIS.

The following extracts are given in the form of simple texts. They are

meant, more especially, to be explained by masters to their classes; and as

such were used by myself during the time that I was Professor of the

English language and literature at University College. They are almost all

taken from editions wherein either a translation or a full commentary can

be found by reference. To have enlarged the present Appendix into a full

Praxis, would have been to overstep the prescribed limits of the present

work.

MOESO-GOTHIC.

_Mark, Chap. 1._

1. 2. Anastodeins aivaggeljons iesuis xristaus sunaus guths. sve

gamelith ist in esai in praufetau. sai. ik insandja aggilu meinana

faura thus. saei gamanveith vig theinana faura thus. stibna vopjandins

3. in authidai. manveith vig fraujins. raihtos vaurkeith

4. staigos guths unsaris. vas iohannes daupjands in authidai jah

5. merjands daupein idreigos du aflageinai fravaurhte. jah usiddjedun

du imma all iudaialand jah iairusaulymeis jah daupidai

vesun allai in iaurdane awai fram imma andhaitandans fravaurhtim

6. seinaim. vasuth-than iohannes gavasiths taglam ulbandaus

jah gairda filleina bi hup seinana jah matida thramsteins

7. jah milith haithivisk jah merida qithands. qimith svinthoza mis sa

afar mis. thizei ik ni im vairths anahneivands andbindan skaudaraip

8. skohe is. aththan ik daupja izvis in vatin. ith is daupeith izvis

{582}

9. in ahmin veihamma. jah varth in jainaim dagam. qam

iesus fram nazaraith galeilaias jah daupiths vas fram iohanne in

10. iaurdane. jah suns usgaggands us thamma vatin gasaw usluknans

11. himinans jah ahman sve ahak atgaggandan ana ina. jah

stibna qam us himinam. thu is sunus meins sa liuba. in thuzei

12. vaila galeikaida. jah suns sai. ahma ina ustauh in authida.

13. jah vas in thizai authidai dage fidvortiguns fraisans fram satanin

14. jah vas mith diuzam jah aggileis andbahtidedun imma. ip afar

thatei atgibans varth iohannes. qam iesus in galeilaia merjands

15. aivaggeljon thiudangardjos guths qithands thatei usfullnoda thata

mel jah atnewida sik thiudangardi guths. idreigoth jah galaubeith

16. in aivaggeljon. jah warbonds faur marein galeilaias gasaw

seimonu jah andraian brothar is. this seimonis. vairpandans

17. nati in marein. vesun auk fiskjans. jah qath im iesus. hirjats

18. afar mis jah gatauja igqis vairthan nutans manne. jah suns

19. affetandans tho natja seina laistidedun afar imma. jah jainthro

inngaggands framis leitil gasaw iakobu thana zaibaidaiaus jah

20. iohanne brothar is jah thans in skipa manvjandans natja. jah

suns haihait ins jah affetandans attan seinana zaibaidaiu in thamma

skipa mith asnjam galithun afar imma jah galithun in kafarnaum.

21. jah suns sabbato daga galeithands in synagogen laisida

22. ins jah usfilmans vaurthun ana thizai laiseinai is. unte vas

laisjands

23. ins sve valdufni habands jah ni svasve thai bokarjos. jah

vas in thizai synagogen ize manna in unhrainjamma ahmin jah

24. ufhropida qithands. fralet. wa uns jah thus iesu nazorenai.

qamt fraqistjan uns. kann thuk was thu is. sa veiha guths.

25. jah andbait ina iesus qithands. thahai jah usgagg ut us thamma.

26. ahma unhrainja. jah tahida ina ahma sa unhrainja jah hropjands

27. stibnai mikilai usiddja us imma. jah afslauthnodedun

allai sildaleikjandans. svaei sokidedun mith sis misso qithandans.

wa sijai thata. wo so laiseino so niujo. ei mith valdufnja jah

ahmam thaim unhrainjam anabiudith jah ufhausjand imma.

28. usiddja than meritha is suns and allans bisitands galeilaias.

29. jah suns us thizai synagogen usgaggandans qemun in garda seimonis

30. jah andraiins mith iokobau jah iohannem. ith svaihro

31. seimonis log in brinnon. jah suns qethun imma bi ija. jah

duatgaggands urraisida tho undgreipands handu izos. jah affailot

32. tho so brinno suns jah andbahtida im. andanahtja than vaurthanamma.

than gasaggq sauil. berun du imma allans thans ubil

{583}

33. habandans jah unhulthons habandans. jah so baurgs alla garunnana

34. vas at daura. jah gahailida managans ubil habandans

missaleikaim sauhtim jah unhulthons managos usvarp jah ni

35. fralailot rodjan thos unhulthons. unte kunthedun ina. jah air

uhtvon usstandans usiddja jah galaith ana authjana stath jah jainar

36. bath. jah galaistans vaurthun imma seimon jah thai mith

37. imma. jah bigitandans ina qethun du imma thatei allai thuk

38. sokjand. jah qath du im. gaggam du thaim bisunjane haimom

39. jah baurgim. ei jah jainar merjau. unte duthe qam. jah

vas merjands in synagogim ize and alla galeilaian jah unholthons

40. usvairpands. jah qam at imma thrutsfill habands bidjands

ina jah knivam knussjands jah qithands du imma thatei. jabai

41. vileis. magt mik gahrainjan. ith iesus infeinands ufrakjands

handu seina attaitok imma jah qath imma. viljau. vairth hrains.

42. jah bithe qath thata iesus. suns thata thrutsfill affaith af imma jah

43. hrains varth. jah gawotjands imma suns ussandida ina jah qath

44. du imma. saiw ei mannhun ni qithais vaiht ak gagg thuk silban

ataugjan gudjin jah atbair fram gahraineinai peinai. thatei

45. anabauth moses du veitvodithai im. ith is usgaggands dugann

merjan filu jah usqithan thata vaurd. svasve is juthan ni mahta

andaugjo in baurg galeithan ak uta ana authjaim stadim vas.

jah iddjedun du imma allathro.

II.

OLD HIGH-GERMAN.

MUSPILLI.

_From Schmeller._

... s[^i]n ta piqueme,

Das er towian scal,

Wanta s[^a]r so sih dui s[^e]la

In dem sind arhevit,

Ente si den l[^i]hhamun

Likkan l[^a]zzit;

So quimith ein heri

Fona himilzungalon;

Daz andar fona pehhe:

{584}

Dar p[^a]gant siu umpi.

Sorg[^e]n mac diu s[^e]la,

Unzi diu suona arg[^e]t,

Za wideremo herie,

Si gihalot werde.

Wanta ipu sia daz Satanazsses

Kisindi giwinnit,

Das leitet sia s[^a]r

Dar iru leid wirdit,

In fiur enti in finstri,

Dazu ist reht virinlih ding.

Upi sia avar kihalont die,

Die dar fona himile quemant,

Enti si dero engilo eigan wirdit,

Die pringant sia s[^a]r [^u]f in himilo r[^i]hhi,

Dar[^i] est l[^i]p [^a]no t[^o]d, lioht [^a]no finstri,

Selida [^a]no sorgun; dar nist neoman suih.

Denne der mar in pard[^i]su

P[^u] kiwinnit,

H[^u]s in himile,

Dar quimit imu hilfa kinuok

Pidiu ist durft mihhil allero manno welilihemo

Daz in es s[^i]n muot kispane,

Daz er kotes willun

Kerno tuo,

Ente hella fuir

Harto w[^i]s[^e],

Pehhes pina,

Dar piutit den Satanaz altist

Heizzan lauc. So mac huckan za diu,

Sorg[^e]n dr[^a]to

Der sih suntigen weiz.

W[^e] demo in vinstr[^i] scal

S[^i]no virina stuen,

Prinnan in pehhe;

Daz ist rehto palwig ding--

Daz man den har[^e]t ze gote,

Ente imo helfa ni quimit;

W[^a]nit sih kin[^a]da

{585}

Diu w[^e]naga s[^e]la

Ni ist in kihuctin

Himiliskin gote,

Wanta hiar in werolti

After ni werk[^o]ta.

So denne der mahtigo khuninc

Daz mahal kipannit

Dara scal queman

Chunno kil[^i]hhaz

Denne ni kitar parno nohhein

Den pan furisizzan,

D[^i] allero manno wel[^i]h

Ze demo mahale sculi,

Der scal er, vora demo ricche,

Az rahhu stantan,

P[^i] daz er, in werolti,

Kiwerkota hap[^e]ta.

Daz h[^o]rt ih rahhon

Dia werolt-rehtw[^i]son,

Daz sculi der Antichristo

Mit Eliase p[^a]gan.

Der warch ist kiw[^a]fanit;

Denne wirdit untar in w[^i]k arhapan;

Khensun sind so kreftic,

Diri kosa ist so mihhil.

Elias str[^i]t[^i]t

P[^i] den ewigon l[^i]p,

Wili den rehtkernon

Daz r[^i]hhi kistarkan;

Pidiu scal imo halfan

Der himiles kiwaltit.

Der Anticristo st[^e]t

P[^i] dem Altfiante

St[^e]t p[^i] demo Satanase,

Der inan farsenkan scal;

Pidiu scal er in der w[^i]csteti

Wunt pivallan,

Enti in demo sinde

Sigalos werdan.

{586}

Doh w[^a]nit des vila gotmanno,

Daz Elias in demo w[^i]ge arwartit (werdit).

S[^a]r so daz Eliases pluot

In erda kitruifit,

So inprinnant die perga,

Poum ni kistentit

Einic in erdu,

Aha artrukn[^e]nt,

Muor varsuilhet sih,

Suilizot lougui der himil

M[^a]no vallit,

Prinnit mittilagart,

Stein ni kistentit einik in erdu.

Verit denne stuatago in lant,

Verit mit diu viuriu

Viriho w[^i]s[^o]n,

Dar ni mai denne m[^a]k andremo

Helfan vora dema Muspille.

Denne daz preita wasal

Allaz varprinnit,

Enti viur enti luft

Iz allaz arfurpit,

War ist denne diu marha,

Dar man dar eo mit s[^i]nem magon

(Diu marha ist farprunnan

Diu s[^e]la st[^e]t pidungan),

Ni weiz mit win puoze;

S[^a]r verit si za w[^i]ze.

Pidui ist dem manne so guot,

Denne er ze demo mahale quimit,

Daz er rahhono welihha

Rehto arteile;

Denne ni darf er sorg[^e]n,

Denne er ze deru suonu quimit.

Denne varant engila;

Uper dio marho,

Wecchant diota,

W[^i]ssant ze dinge;

Denne scal manno gel[^i]h

{587}

Fona deru moltu arsten;

L[^o]ssan sih ar dero l[^e]uuo vazzon

Scal imo avar s[^i]n l[^i]p piqueman,

Daz er s[^i]n reht allaz

Kirahhon muozzi,

Enti imo after s[^i]nen t[^a]tin

Arteilet werde.

Denne der gisizzit,

Der dar suonnan scal,

Enti arteillan scal,

T[^o]ten enti quekken,

Denne st[^e]t darumpi

Engilo menigi,

Quotero gomono girust so mihhil.

Dara quimit ze deru rightungu so vilo dia dar arstent,

So dar manno nohhein

Wiht pim[^i]dan ni mak;

Dar scal denne hant sprehhan,

Houpit sag[^e]n,

Allero lido wehh

Unsi id den luzigun vinger.

Ni weiz der w[^e]nago man

Wielihhan urteil er hab[^e]t;

Denne er mit den miaton

Marrit daz rehta,

Daz der tiuval darp[^i]

Kitarnit stentit;

Der hab[^e]t in ruovu

Rahhono welihha,

Daz der man er enti s[^i]d

Upiles kifrumita,

Daz er iz allaz kisag[^e]t,

Denne or ze deru suonu quimit.

* * * * * *

{588}

III.

ANGLO-SAXON.

Evangelium Nicodemi, xxi.

_From Thwaite's Heptateuch._

Hyt waes dha swithe angrislic, dha dha Satanas, dhaere Helle ealdor and

thaes deathes heretoga, cwaeth to thaere Helle; "Gegearwa the sylfe,

that dhu maege Chryst onfon; se hyne sylfne gewuldrod haefdh, and ys

Godes sunu and eac man, and eac se Deadh ys hyne ondraedende, and myn

sawl ys swa unrot thaet me thincth thaet ic alybban ne maeg, for thig

he ys mycel wydherwynna and yfel wyrcende ongean me, and eac ongean

the: and faela, the ic haefde to me gewyld and to atogen, blynde and

healte, gebygede and hreoslan, eallo he fram dhe atyhdh." Seo Hell tha,

swithe grymme and swithe egeslice, answarode dha Satanase dham ealdan

deofle, and cwaedh: "Hwaet is se the ys swa strang and swa myhtig, gif

he man is, thaet he ne sig thone Deadh ondraedende, the wyt gefyrn

beclysed haefdon, for tham ealle tha the on eorthan anweald haefdon thu

hig myd thynre myhte to me getuge, and ic hig faeste geheold; and, gif

thu swa mihhtig eart swa thu aer waere, hwaet ys se man and se Haelend

the ne sig thone Deadh and thyne mihte ondraedende? to fordhan ic wat,

gif he on mennyscnysse swa mihtig ys, thaet he nather ne unc ne thond

Deadh ne ondraet, thonne gefohdh he the and the byth aefre wa to ecere

worulde." Satanos tha, thaes cwicsusles ealdor thaere Helle andswarode,

and thus cwaed: "Hwaet twynedh the, oththe hwaet ondraedst thu the

thone Haelend to onfonne, mynne wytherwynnan and eac thynne; Ac fordhon

ic his costnode, and ic gedyde him thaet eal thaet Iudeisce folc thaet

hig waeron ongean him myd yrre and mid andan awehte, and ic gedyde

thaet he waes mid spere gesticod, and ic gedyde thaet hym man dryncan

mengde myd eallan and myd ecede, and ic gedyde thaet man hym treowene

rode gegearwode, and hyne thaer on aheng, and hyne mid naeglum

gefaestnode and nu aet nextan ic wylle his deadh to the gelaedan, and

he sceal beon undertheod agwhaer ge me ge the." Seo Hell tha swythe

angrysenlice thus cwoeth; "Wyte thaet dhu swa do thaet he dha deadan

fram me ateo, for tham the her faela syndon geornfulle fram me mig,

thaet hig on me wunian noldon; ac ic wat thaet hig {589} fram mig ne

gewytath thurh heora agene myhte, butan hig se Aelmytiga God fram me

ateo, se the Lazarum of me genam, thone the ic heold deadne feower nyht

faestne gebunden, ac ic hyne aeft cwicne ageaf thurh his bedodu." Da

andswarode Satanas and cwaeth: "Se ylca hyt is se the Lazarum of unc

bam genam." Seo Hell hym tha thus to cwaep. "Eala hic halgige the thuhr

thyne maegenu, and eac thuhr myne, thaet thu naefre ne gethafige paet

he on me cume, for tham tha ic gehyrde, thaet worde his bebodes, ic was

myd miclum ege afyriht, and ealle mynne arleasan thenas waeron samod

myd me gedrehte and gedrefede, swa thaet we ni myhton Lazarum

gehealdan, ac he waes hyne asceacende eal swa earn thonne he myd

hraedum flythe wyle fordh afleon, and he swa waes fram us raefende, and

seo eorthe the Lazarus deadan lichaman heold, heo hyne cwycne ageaf,

and thaet ic nu wat thaet se man the eall thaet gedyde thaet he ys on

Gode strang and myhtig, and gif thu hyne to me laedest, ealle tha the

her syndon on thysum waelhreowan cwearterne beclysde, and on thysum

bendum myd synnum gewrydhene, ealle he myd thys godcundnysse fram me

atyhdh, and to lyfe gelaet."

IV.

_From Schmid's Anglo-Saxon Laws._

This syndon tha domas the Aelfred se cyning geceas.

Drihten waes precende thaes word to Moyse and thus cwaedh:

1. Ic eam drihten thin god. Ic the utgelaedde of Aegypta land and of

heora theowdome; ne lufa thu odhre fremde godas ofer me.

2. Ne minne naman ne cig thu on idelnesse, forthon the thu ne bist

unscyldig widh me, gif thu on idelnesse cigst minne naman.

3. Gemine thaet thu gehalgie thone raestedaeg. Wyrceadh eow syx dagas,

and on tham seofadhan restadh eow, thu and thin sunu and thine dohter

and thin theowe and thine wylne and thin weorcynten and se cuma the

bidh binnan thinan durum. Fortham on syx dagum Crist geworhte heofenas

and eordhan, saeas and ealle gesceafta the on him sint and hine gereste

on tham seofadhan daege, and forthon drihten hine gehalgode.

4. Ara thinum faeder and thinre meder, tha the drihten sealde the,

thaet thu sy thy leng libbende on eordhan.

5. Ne slea thu.

{590} 6. Ne stala thu.

7. Ne lige thu dearnunga.

8. Ne saege thu lease gewitnesse widh thinum nehstan.

9. Ne wilna thu thines nehstan yrfes mid unrihte.

10. Ne wyrc thu the gyldene godas odhdhe seolfrene.

11. This synd tha domas the thu him settan scealt. s. 1. Gif hwa

gebycge Christenne theow, VI gear theowige he, the seofodhan beo he

freoh orceapunga. s. 2. Mid swylce hraegle he ineode, mid swilce gange

he ut. s. 3. Gif he wif sylf haebbe, gange heo ut mid him. s. 4. Gif se

hlaford thonne him wif sealde, sy heo and hire beam thaes hlafordes.

s. 5. Gif se theowa thonne cwaedhe: nelle ic fram minum hlaforde, ne

fram minum wife, ne fram minum bearne,--breng hine thonne his hlaford

to thaere dura thaes temples and thurhthyrlige his eare mid eale to

tacne, thaet he sy aefre sydhdhan theow.

* * * * *

13. Se man the his gewealdes monnan ofslea, swelte se deadhe. Se-the

hine thonne neades ofsloge odhdhe unwillum odhdhe ungewealdes, swylce

hine god swa sende on his honda and he hine ne ymb syrede, sy he his

feores wyrdhe and folcrihtre bot, gif he frydhstowe gesece. Gif hwa

thonne of gyrnesse odhdhe gewealdes ofslea his thone nehstan thurh

syrwa, aluc thu hine fram minum weofode, to tham thaet he deadhe

swelte.

14. Se-the slea his faeder odhdhe his modor, ne sceal deadhe sweltan.

15. Se-the frione forstaele and he hyne bebycge and hit onbetaeled sy,

thaet he hine bereccan ne maeg, swelte se deadhe. s. 1. Se-se wyrge his

faeder odhdhe his modor, swelte se deadhe.

16. Gif hwa slea his thone nehstan mid stane odhdhe mid fyste, and he

theah utgangan maege be stafe, begyte him laece and wyrce his weorc tha

hwile, the he sylf ne maege.

17. Se-the slea his agenne theowne esne odhdhe mennen, and he ne sy thy

daeges dead, theah he libbe twa niht odhdhe threo, ne bidh he ealles

swa scyldig, forthon the hit waes his agen feoh. Gif he thonne sy

idaeges dead, thonne sitte seo scyld on him.

18. Gif hwa on ceast eacniend wif gewerde, bete thone aefwyrdlan swa

him domeras gereccan. Gif heo dead sy, sylle sawle widh sawle.

19. Gif hwa odhrum his eage odhdo, sylle his agen for; todh for todh,

handa for handa, fet for fet, baerning for baerning, wund widh wund,

lael widh laele.

{591} 20. Gif hwa ofslea his theowe odhdhe his theowenne thaet eage ut,

and he thonne hi gedo aenigge, gefreoge hi forthon. Gif he thonne todh

ofslea, do thaet ylce.

21. Gif oxa ofhnite wer odhdhe wif, thaet hy deade synd, sy he mid

stanum ofweorpod and ne sy his flaesc geeton and se hlaford bidh

unscyldig. s. 1. Gif se oxa hnitol waere twam dagum aere odhdhe thrym

and se hlaford hit wist and hine inne betynan nolde, and he thonne were

odhdhe wif ofsloge, sy he mid stanum ofworpod and sy se hlaford

ofslegen odhdhe forgolden, swa thaet witan to riht findan. s. 2. Sunu

odhdhe dohtor gif he ofstinge, thaes ylcan domes sy he wyrdhe. s. 3.

Gif he thonne theow odhdhe theowe mennen ofstynge, gesylle thaem

hlaford XXX scill. seolfres and se oxa sy mid stanum ofworpod.

22. Gif hwa adelfe waeterpytte odhdhe betynedne untyne and hine eft ne

betyne, gyld swylc neat swa thaer on befealle and haebbe him thaet

dead.

23. Gif oxa odhres mannes oxan gewundige and he thonne dead sy,

bebycggen thone oxan and haebben him thaet weordh gemaene and eac thaet

flaesc swa thaes deadan. Gif se hlaford thonne wiste, thaet se oxa

hnitol waere and hine healdan nolde, sylle him odherne oxan fore and

haebbe him ealle thaet flaesc.

24. Gif hwa forstaele odhres oxan and hine ofslea odhdhe bebycge, sylle

twegen widh and feower sceap widh anum. Gif he haebbe hwaet he sylle,

sy he sylf beboht widh tham feoh.

25. Gif theof brece mannes hus nihtes and he wyrdhe thaer ofslaegen, ne

sy he na manslaeges scyldig, the him sloge. Gif he sydhdhan aefter

sunnan upgonge this dedh, he bidh mansleges scyldig and he thonne sylfa

swylte, butan he nyddaeda waere. Gif mid him cwicum sy funden thaet he

aer stale, be twyfealdum forgylde hit.

26. Gif hwa gewerde odhres monnes wingeard odhdhe his aeceras odhdhe

his landes awuht, gebete swa hit man geeahtige.

27. Gif fyr sy ontended ryt to baernenne, gebete thone aefwerdelsan se

thaet fyr ontendedh.

28. Gif hwa odhfaeste his friend feoh, gif he hit sylf stael, forgylde

be twyfealdum. s. 1. Gif he nyste, hwa hit staele, geladige hine

sylfne, thaet he thaer nan facn ne gefremede. s. 2. Gif hit thonne cucu

feoh waere and he secge, thaet hit here name odhdhe thaet hit sylf

acwaele, and he gewitnesse haebbe, ne thearf he thaet gyldan. s. 3. Gif

he thonne gewitnesse naebbe, and he him ne getriewe ne sy, swerige he

thonne. {592}

* * * * *

30. Tha foemnan the gewunniadh onfon galdorcraeftigan and scinlaecan

and wiccan, ne laet thu tha libban.

* * * * *

32. And se the godgeldum onsaecge ofer god aenne, swelte deadhe.

33. Utancumene and aettheodige ne geswenc thu no, forthon the ge waeron

aeltheodige on Aegypta land.

34. Tha wudewan and tha steopcilde ne sceadhdhadh ne hi nawer deriadh.

Gif ge thonne elles dodh, hi cleopiadh to me and ic gehire hi, and ic

eow thonne slea mid minum sweorde and ic gedo paet eowra wif bidh

wudewan and eowre bearn bydh steopcilde.

35. Gif thu feoh to borh gesylle thinum geferan, the mid the eardian

wille, ne nide thu hine swa nidling and ne gehene thu hine mid thy

eacan.

36. Gif man naebbe butan anfeald hraegle hine mid to wreonne and to

werianne and he hit to wedde sylle, aer sunnan setlgange sy hit agyfen.

Gif thu swa ne dest, thonne cleopadh he to me and ic hine gehyre,

forthon the ic eom swidhe mildheort.

37. Ne tael thu thinne drihten, ne thone hlaford thaes folces ne werge

thu.

38. Thine teodhan sceattas and thine frumripan gangendes and weaxendos

agyfe thu gode.

39. Ealle thaet flaesc thaet wilddeor laefan, ne etan ge thaet ac

sylladh hit hundum.

40. Leases mannes word ne recce thu no thaes to gehyranno, ne his domas

ne gethafa thu, ne naene gewitnysse aefter him ne saga thu.

41. Ne wend thu the na on thaes folces unraed and on unriht gewillon

hiora spraece and gecleps ofer thin riht, and on thaes unwisestan lare

thu ne gethafa.

42. Gif the becume odhres mannes gymeleas feoh on hand, theah hit sy

thin feonde, gecydhe hit him.

43. Dem thu swidhe emne; de dem thu odherne dom paem welegan odherne

tham earman, ne odherne tham leofran odherne tham ladhran ne deme thu.

44. Onscuna thu a leasunga.

45. Sodhfaestne man and unscildigne, ne acwele thu thone aefre.

46. Ne onfo thu naefre medsceattum, forthon hi ablendadh ful oft wisra

manna gethoht and hiora word onwendadh.

{593} 47. Tham aeltheodigan and utancumenan ne laet thu na uncudhlice

widh hine, ne mid nanum unrihtum thu hine ne drecce.

48. Ne swerigen ge naefre under haedhene godas, ne on nanum thingum ne

cleopien ge to him.

OPENING OF BEOWULF.

_Edited and Translated by J. M. Kemble._

Hwaet we G['a]r-Dena,

in gear-dagum,

the['o]d-c[.y]ninga,

thr[.y]m ge-frunon--

h[^u] dha aethelingas

ellen fremedon--

oft Sc[.y]ld Scefing,

sceathen(a) thre['a]tum,

moneg[=u] maegthum,

meodo-setla of-te['a]h--

egsode eorl--

s[.y]dhdhan ['ae]rest weardh

fe['a]-sceaft funden;

he thaes fr['o]fre ge-b['a](d),

we['o]x under wolcnum,

weordh-m[.y]ndum th['a]h;

odh [=th] him ['ae]g-hwl[.y]c

th['a]ra ymb-sittendra,

ofer hron-r['a]de,

h['y]ran scolde,

gomban g[.y]ldan--

[=th] w['ae]s g['o]d c[.y]ning--

dhaem eafera w['ae]s

aefer cenned,

geong in geardum,

thone g['o]d sende

folce to fr['o]fre;

f[.y]ren-thearfe on-geat,

[=th] h['i]e ['ae]r drugon,

aldor-(le)['a]se.

lange hw['i]le,

him thaes l['i]f-fre['a],

wuldres wealdend,

worold-['a]re for-geaf--

Be['o]-wulf w['ae]s breme,

bl['ae]d w['i]de sprang,

Sc[.y]ldes eafera,

Scede-landum in--

swa sceal (wig-fru)ma

g['o]de ge-wircean--

fromum feo-giftum,

on faeder-(feo)rme;

[=th] hine, on [.y]lde,

eft ge-wunigen

wi(l)-ge-s['i]thas,

thonne wig cume.

le['o]de ge-l['ae]sten,

lof-d['ae]d[=u] sceal,

in maegthage-hwaere,

man ge-the['o]n----

him, dh['a] Sc[.y]ld ge-w['a]t

t['o] ge-scaep hw['i]le

fela-hror feran

on fre['a]n wae re--

h['i] h[.y]ne th['a] aet-b['ae]ron

t['o] brimes farodhe,

sw['ae]se ge-s['i]thas,

sw['a] he selfa baed;

{594}

thenden wordum we['o]ld

wine Sc[.y]ldinga

le['o]f land-fruma

lange ['a]hte----

thaer aet h['y]dhe st['o]d

hringed-stefna,

isig and ['u]t-f['u]s,

aethelinges faer;

['a]-ledon th['a]

le['o]fne the['o]den,

be['a]ga br[.y]ttan,

on bearm scipes,

m['ae]rne be m['ae]ste:

thaer w['ae]s m['a]dma fela

of feor-wegum

fraetwa ge-l['ae]ded.

Ne h['y]rde ic c[.y]mlicor

ceol ge-g[.y]rwan,

hilde-waepnum

and headho-w['ae]dum,

billum and b[.y]rnum

him on bearme laeg

m['a]dma menigo,

tha him mid scoldon

on fl['o]des aeht

feor ge-w['i]tan.

Nalaes h['i] hine laessan

l['a]cum te['o]dan,

the['o]d-ge-stre['o]num,

thon th['a] d[.y]don

the hine, aet frum-sceafte,

fordh on-sendon,

['ae]nne ofer ['y]dhe,

umbor-wesende.

th['a] g[.y]t h['i]e him ['a]-setton

segen (g[.y]l denne,

he['a]h ofer he['a]fod--

leton holm ber(an)

geafon on g['a]r-secg:

him w['ae]s geomor-sefa

murnende m['o]d----

men ne cunnon

secgan, t['o] s['o]dhe,

s['e]le raedenne,

haeledh under heofen[=u]

hw['a] thaem hlaeste on-feng.

VI.

THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURG.

_From Warton's History of English Poetry,_ _Ed._ 1840. Vol. I. p. lxvii.

_Translated_ by R. Taylor.

Aethelst['a]n cyning,

eorla drihten,

boorna be['a]h-gyfa,

and his br['o]ther eac,

Eadmund aetheling,

ealdor langne tir,

geslogon aet secce,

sweorda ecgum,

ymbe Brunanburh.

Bord-weal clufon,

heowon heatho-linda,

hamora lafum,

e['a]foran Eadweardes.

Swa him geaethele waes

from cneo-maegum

thaet h['i]e aet campe oft,

{595}

with lathra gehwaene,

land ealgodon,

hord and h['a]mas,

hettend crungon.

Scotta leode,

and scip-flotan,

faege feollon.

Feld dennade,

secga swate,

sith-than sunne ['u]p,

on morgen-t['i]d,

maere tuncgol,

gl['a]d ofer grundas,

Godes candel be orht,

['e]ces Drihtnes;

oth-thaet sio aethele gesceaft,

s['a]h t['o] setle.

Thaer laeg secg monig,

g['a]rum ageted,

guman northere,

ofer scyld scoten.

Swylc Scyttisc eac,

werig wiges saed.

West-Seaxe forth,

ondlangne daeg

eorod-cystum,

on last laegdon

lathum theodum.

Heowon here-flyman,

hindan thearle,

mecum mylen-scearpum.

Myrce ne wyrndon

heardes hand-plegan,

haeletha nanum,

th['a]ra the mid Anlafe,

ofer ear-geblond,

on lides bosme,

land gesohton,

faege to feohte.

Fife laegon,

on th['a]m campstede,

cyningas geonge,

sweordum aswefede.

Swylc seofen ['e]ac

eorlas Anlafes;

unr['i]m heriges,

flotan and Sceotta.

Thaer geflymed wearth

Northmanna bregu,

nyde gebaeded,

to lides stefne,

litle werede.

Cread cnear on-flot,

cyning ut-gewat,

on fealowe flod,

feorh generede.

Swylc thaer ['e]ac se froda,

mid fleame c['o]m,

on his cyththe north,

Constantinus,

har hylderinc

Hreman ne th['o]rfte

meca gemanan.

Her waes his maga sceard,

freonda gefylled,

on folc-stede,

beslaegen aet secce;

and his sunu (he) forlet

on wael-stowe,

wundum-forgrunden,

geongne aet guthe.

Gylpan ne th['o]rfte,

beorn blanden-feax,

bill-geslehtes,

eald inwitta;

ne Anl['a]f thy m['a],

mid heora here-lafum,

hlihan ne thorfton,

{596}

thaet h['i] beadu-weorca

beteran wurdon,

on camp-stede,

cumbol-gehnastes,

g['a]r mittinge,

gumena gemotes,

waepen-gewrixles,

thaes the h['i]e on wael-felda

with Eadweardes

e['a]foran plegodon.

Gewiton hym tha Northmen,

naegledon cnearrum,

dreorig daretha l['a]f,

on dinges mere,

ofer deop waeter,

Dyflin secan,

eft Yraland,

aewisc-mode.

Swylce th['a] gebrother,

begen aet samne,

cyning and aetheling,

cyththe sohton,

West Seaxna land,

wiges hremige.

Laeton him behindan,

hr['a] brittian,

salowig padan,

thone sweartan hraefn,

hyrned-nebban;

and thone hasean padan,

earn aeftan hwit,

aeses brucan,

graedigne guth-hafoc;

and thaet graege deor,

wulf on wealde.

Ne wearth wael m['a]re,

on thys igland,

aefre gyta,

folces gefylled,

beforan thissum,

sweordes ecgum,

thaes the us secgath b['e]c,

ealde uthwitan,

sith-than eastan hider

Engle and Seaxe

['u]p becomon,

ofer brade brimu

Brytene sohton,

wlance wig-smithas,

Weales ofer-comon,

eorlas ['a]rhw['a]te,

eard begeaton.

VII.

HILDIBRAND AND HATHUBRAND.

TEXT OF GRIMM. TRANSLATION IBID.

Also in--_Langue et Lit['e]rature des Anciens Francs, par G. Gley_.

Ih gihorta that seggen, that sie urhetton aenon muotin

Hildibraht enti Hathubrant untar heriuntuem,

Sunu fatar ungo; iro saro rihtun,

Garutun se iro guthhamun, gurtun sih iro suert ana,

Helidos, ubar ringa, do sie to dero hiltu ritun.

{597}

Hiltibraht gimahalta, Heribrantes sunu, her was heroro man,

Ferahes frotoro, her fragen gistuont,

Fohem wortum: wer sin fater wari;

Fires in folche, eddo weliches cnuosles du sis?

Ibu du mi aenan sages, ik mideo are-wet,

Chind in chuninchriche, chud ist min al irmindeot.

Hadubraht gimahalti Hiltibrantes sunu: Dat sagetun mi

Usere liuti alte anti frote, dea erhina warun,

Dat Hilbrant haetti min fater, ih heittu Hadubrant.

Forn her ostar gihueit, floh her Otachres nid

Hina miti Theotriche enti sinero degano filu;

Her furlach in lante luttila sitten

Prut in bure; barn unwahsan,

Arbeolosa heraet, ostar hina det,

Sid delriche darba gistuontum, fatereres mines,

Dat was so friuntlaos man, her was Otachre unmettirri,

Degano dechisto, unti Deotriche darba gistontum;

Her was eo folches at ente, imo was eo feheta ti leop.

Chud was her chonnem mannuma, ni wanin ih, in lib habbe.

Wittu Irmin-Got, quad Hiltibraht, obana ab havane,

Dat du neo danahalt mit sus sippan man dinc in gileitos!

Want her do ar arme wuntane bouga,

Cheiswringu gitan, so imo seder chuning gap

Huneo truhtin; dat ih dir it un bi huldi gibu!

Hadubraht gimalta, Hiltibrantes sunu:

Mit geru scal man geba infahan,

Ort widar orte, du bist dir, alter Hun, ummet,

Spaher, spenis mi mit dinem wortema,

Wilihuh di nu speru werpan,

Pist al so gialtet man, so du ewin inwit fortos;

Dat sagetun mi Sacolidante

Westar ubar Wentilsaeo, dat man wic furnam,

Tot ist Hiltibraht Heribrantes suno,

Hildibrant gimahalta Heribrantes suno: wela gisihu ih,

In dinem hrustim, dat du habes heine herron goten,

Dat du noh bi desemo riche reccheo ni wurti,

Welaga, nu waltant Got, quad Hiltibrant, we wurt skihit!

Ih wallota sumaro enti wintro sehstick urlante.

Dar man mih eo scerita in folc scestantero.

{598}

So man mir at burc einigeru banun ni gifasta;

Nu scal mih suasat chind suertu hauwan,

Bieton mit sinu billiu, eddo ih imo t['i] banin werden.

Doh maht du nu aodlicho, ibu dir din ellent aoc,

In sus heremo man hrusti girwinnan;

Rauba bi hrahanen ibu du dar enic reht habes.

Der si doh nu argosto, quad Hildibrant, ostarliuto,

Der dir nu wiges warne, nu dih es so wel lustit.

Gudea gimeirum niused emotti.

Wer dar sih hiutu dero prel-zilo hrumen muotti,

Erdo desero brunnono bedero waltan.

Do laettun se aerist asckim scritan

Scarpen scurim, dat in dem sciltim stout;

Do stoptun tosamene, starmbort chludun,

Hewun harmilicco huitte scilti

Unti im iro lintun luttilo wurtun--

VIII.

OLD SAXON.

FROM THE TEXT OF A. YPEIJ.

_Taalkundig Magazijn._ P. 1, No. 1.--_p. 54._

_Psalm_ LIV.

2. Gehori got gebet min, in ne furuuir bida mina; thenke te mi in gehori

mi.

3. Gidruouit bin an tilogon minro, in mistrot bin fan stimmon fiundes, in

fan arbeide sundiges.

4. Uuanda geneigedon an mi unreht, in an abulge unsuoti uuaron mi.

5. Herta min gidruouit ist an mi, in forta duodis fiel ouir mi.

6. Forthta in biuonga quamon ouer mi, in bethecoda mi thuisternussi.

7. In ic quad "uuie sal geuan mi fetheron also duuon, in ic fliugon sal, in

raston sal."

8. Ecco! firroda ic fliende, inde bleif an eudi.

9. Ic sal beidan sin, thie behaldon mi deda fan luzzilheide geistis in fan

geuuidere. {599}

10. Bescurgi, herro, te deile tunga iro, uuanda ic gesag unriht in fluoc an

burgi.

11. An dag in naht umbefangan sal sia ouir mura ira, unreht in arbeit an

mitdon iro in unreht.

12. In ne te fuor fan straton iro prisma in losunga.

13. Uuanda of fiunt flukit mi, is tholodit geuuisso; in of thie thie hatoda

mi, ouir mi mikila thing spreke, ic burge mi so mohti geburran, fan imo.

14. Thu geuuisso man einmuodigo, leido min in cundo min.

15. Thu samon mit mi suota nami muos, an huse gode giengon uuir mit geluni.

16. Cum dot ouir sia, in nithir stigin an hellon libbinda. Uuanda arheide

an selethe iro, an mitdon ini.

17. Ic eft te gode riepo, in herro behielt mi.

18. An auont in an morgan in an mitdondage tellon sal ic, in kundon; in he

gehoron sal.

19. Irlosin sal an frithe sela mina fan then, thia ginacont mi, uuanda

under managon he uuas mit mi.

20. Gehorun sal got in ginetheron sal sia; thie ist er uueroldi.

21. Ne geuuisso ist ini uuihsil; in ne forchtedon got. Theneda hant sina an

uuitherloni.

IX.

MODERN DUTCH OF HOLLAND.

_Mark_, _Chap._ I.

1. Het begin des Evangelies van JEZUS CHRISTUS, den Zoon van God.

2. Gelijk geschreven is in de Profeten: ziet, Ik zend mijnen Engel voor uw

aangezigt, die uwen weg voor u heen bereiden zal.

3. De stem des roependen in de woestijn: bereidt den weg des Heeren, maakt

zijne paden regt!

4. Johannes was doopende in de woestijn, en predikende den doop der

bekeering tot vergeving der zonden.

5. En al het Joodsche land ging tot hem uit, en die van Jer[^u]zalem; en

werden allen van hem gedoopt in the rivier de Jordaan, belijdende hunne

zonden.

6. En Johannes was gekleed met kemelshaar, en met eenen {600} lederen

gordel om zijne lendenen, en at sprinkhannen en wilden honig.

7. En hij predikte, zeggende: na mij komt, die sterker is dan ik, wien ik

niet waardig ben, nederbukkende, den riem zijner schoenen te ontbinden.

8. Ik heb ulieden wel gedoopt met water, maar hij zal u doopen met den

Heiligen Geest.

9. En het geschiedde in diezelve dagen, dat Jezus kwam van N['a]zareth,

_gelegen_ in Galil['e]a, en werd van Johannes gedoopt in de Jordaan.

10. En terstond, als hij uit het water opklom, zag bij de hemelen opengaan,

en den Geest, gelijk eene duive, op hem nederdalen.

11. En er geschiedde eene stem nit de hemelen: gij zijt mijn geliefde Zoon,

in denwelken Ik mijn welbehagen heb!

12. En terstond dreef hem de Geest uit in de woestijn.

13. En hij was aldaar in de woestijn vertig dagen, verzocht van den Satan;

en was bij de wilde gedierten; en de Engelen dienden hem.

14. En nadat Johannes overgeleverd was, kwam Jezus in Galil['e]a,

predikende het Evangelie van het Koningrijk Gods,

15. En zeggende: de tijd is vervuld, en het Koningrijk Gods nabij gekomen;

bekeert u, en gelooft het Evangelie.

16. En wandelende bij de Galil['e]sche zee, zag hij Simon en Andr['e]as,

zijnen broeder, werpende het net in de zee (want zij waren visschers);

17 En Jezus zeide tot hen: volgt mij na, en ik zal maken, dat gij visschers

der menschen zult worden.

18. En zij, terstond hunne netten verlatende, zijn hem gevolgd.

19. En van daar een weinig voortgegaan zijnde, zag hij Jacobus, den zoon

van Zebed['e]ues, en Johannes, zijnen broeder, en dezelve in het schip

hunne netten vermakende.

20. En terstond riep hij hen; en zij, latende hunnen vader Zebed['e]ues in

het schip, met de huurlingen, zijn hem nagevolgd.

21. En zij kwamen binnen Kapernauem; en terstond op den Sabbatdag in de

Synagoge gegaan zijnde, leerde hij.

22. En zij versloegen zich over zijne leer: want hij leerde hen, als magt

hebbende, en niet als de Schriftgeleerden. {601}

23. En er was in hunne Synagoge een mensch, met eenen onreinen geest, en

hij riep uit,

24. Zeggende: laat af, wat hebben wij met u _te doen_, gij Jezus

Nazar['e]ner! zijt gij gekomen, om ons to verderven? Ik ken u, wie gij

zijt, _namelijk_ de Heilige Gods.

25. En Jezus bestrafte hem, zeggende: zwijg stil, en ga nit van hem.

26. En de onreine geest, hem scheurende, en roepende met eene groote stem,

ging uit van hem.

27. En zij werden allen verbaasd, zoodat zij onder elkander vraagden,

zeggende: wat is dit? wat nieuwe leer is deze, dat hij met magt ook den

onreineen geesten gebiedt, en zig hem gehoorzaam zijn!

28. En zijn gerucht ging terstond uit, in het geheel omliggen land van

Galil['e]a.

29. En van stonde aan uit de Synagoge gegaan zijnde, kwamen zij in het huis

van Simon en Andr['e]as, met Jacobus en Johannes.

30. En Simons vrouws moeder lag met de koorts; en terstond zeiden zij hem

van haar.

31. En hij, tot haar gaande, vattede hare hand, en rigtte ze op; en

terstond verliet haar de koorts, en zij diende henlieden.

32. Als het nu avond geworden was, toen de zon onderging, bragten zij tot

hem allen, die kwalijk gesteld, en van den duivel bezeten waren.

33. En de geheele stad was bijeenvergaderd omtrent de deur.

34. En hij genas er velen, die door verscheidene ziekten kwalijk gesteld

waren; en wierpe vele duivelen uit, en liet de duivelen niet toe te

spreken, omdat zij hem kenden.

35. En des morgens vroeg, als het nog diep in den nacht was, opgestaan

zijnde, ging hij uit, en ging henen in eene woeste plaats, en bad aldaar.

36. En Simon, en die met hem _waren_, zijn hem nagevolgd.

37. En zij hem gevonden hebbende, zeiden tot hem: zig zoeken u allen.

38. En hij zeide tot hen: laat ons in de bijliggende vlekken gaan, opdat ik

ook daar predike: want daartoe ben ik uitgegaan.

39. En hij predikte in hunne Synagogen, door geheel Galil['e]a, en wierp de

duivelen uit.

40. En tot hem kwam een melaatsche, biddende hem, en vallende {602} voor

hem op de knieen, en tothem zeggende: indien gij wilt, gij kunt mij

reinigen.

41. En Jezus, met barmhartigheid innerlijk bewogen zijnde, strekte de hand

uit, en raakte hem aan, en zeide tot hem: ik wil, word gereinigd.

42. En als hij _dit_ gezegd had, ging de melaatschheid terstond van hem, en

hy werd gereinigd.

43. En als hij hem strengelijk verboden had, deed hij hem terstond van zich

gaan;

44. En zeide tot hem: zie, dat gij niemand iets zegt; maar ga heen en

vertoon u zelven den Priester, en offer voor uwe reiniging, hetgeen Mozes

geboden heeft, hun tot eene getuigenis.

45. Maar hij vitgegaan zijnde, begon vele dingen te verkondigen, en dat

woord te verbreiden, alzoo dat hij niet meer openbaar in de stad kon komen,

maar was buiten in de woeste plaatsen; en zij kwamen tot hem van alle

kanten.

OLD NORSE.

THE DESCENT OF ODIN.

_From the Edda of Saemund. Copenhagen Edition._

Upp reis ['O]dhinn

alda gautr,

ok hann ['a] Sleipni

soedhul um lagdhi;

reidh hann nidhr thadhan

Niflheljar til,

moetti hann hvelpi

theim er or helju kom.

S['a] var bl['o]dhugr,

um brj['o]st framan,

ok galdrs foedhur

g['o]l um lengi.

Framm reidh ['O]dhinn,

foldvegr dundi,

hann kom at h['a]fu

Heljar ranni.

Th['a] reidh ['O]dhinn

fyr austan dyrr,

thar er hann vissi

voelu leidhi.

Nam hann vittugri

valgaldr kvedha,

unz naudhig reis,

n['a]s ordh um kvadh:

{603}

"Hvat er manna that

m['e]r ['o]kunnra,

er m['e]r hefir aukit

erfit sinni?

var ek snivin snj['o]fi

ok slegin regni

ok drifin doeggu,

daudh var ek lengi.

"Vegtamr ek heiti,

sonr em ek Valtams,

segdhu m['e]r or helju,

ek mun or heimi:

hveim eru bekkir

baugum s['a]nir,

flet fagrlig

fl['o]dh gulli?

"H['e]r stendr Baldri

of brugginn mjoedhr,

skirar veigar,

liggr skjoeldr yfir;

en ['a]smegir

['i] ofvaeni;

naudhug sagdhak

n['u] mun ek thegja.

"Thegiattu voelva!

thik vil ek fregna,

unz alkunna,

vil ek enn vita:

hverr mun Baldri

at bana verdha,

ok Odhins son

aldri raena?

"Hoedhr berr h['a]fan

hr['o]dhrbarm thinnig;

hann mun Baldri

at bana verdha,

ok ['O]dhins son

aldri raena;

naudhug sagdhak,

n['u] mun ek thegja.

10.

"Thegiattu voelva!

thik vil ek fregna,

unz alkunna,

vil ek enn vita:

hverr mun heipt Hedhi

hefnt of vinna

edha Baldrs bana

['a] b['a]l vega?

11.

"Rindr berr

i vostrsoelum,

s['a] mun Odhins sonr

einnaettr vega;

bond um thvaer

n['e] hoefudh kembir

['a]dhr a b['a]l um berr

Baldrs andskota;

naudhug sagdhak,

n['u] mun ek thegja.

12.

"Thegiattu voelva!

thik vil ek fregna,

unz alkunna,

vil ek enn vita:

hverjar 'ro thaer meyjar,

er at muni gr['a]ta

ok ['a] himin verpa

h['a]lsa skautum?

{604}

13.

"Ertattu Vegtamr,

sem ek hugdha,

heldr ertu ['O]dhinn,

aldinn gautr."

"Ertattu voelva

n['e] vis kona,

heldr ertu thriggja

thursa m['o]dhir.

14.

"Heim ridh th['u], ['O]dhinn!

ok ver hr['o]dhigr!

sv['a] komit manna

meir aptr ['a] vit,

er lauss Loki

lidhr or boendum,

ok ragna roek

rj['u]fendr koma."

XI.

ICELANDIC.

_From Snorro's Heimskringla. Translated by Laing._

Y'NGLINGA SAGA.

KAP. I.

_Her Segir fr['a] Landa Skipan._

Sva er sagt, at kringla heimsins, s['u] er mannf['o]lkit byggir, er mjoek

vag-skorin: g['a]nga hoef st['o]r ['u]r ['u]tsj['a]num inn ['i] jordina. Er

that kunnigt, at haf gengr af Njorvasundum, ok allt ['u]t til

J['o]rsala-lands. Af hafinu gengr l['a]ngr hafsbotn til landnordrs, er

heitir Svartahaf: sa skilr heims thridj['u]ngana: heitir fyrin austan Asia,

en fyrir vestan kalla sumir Evr['o]pa, en sumir Enea. En nordan at

Svartahafi gengr Svithjod in mikla eda in kalda. Sv['i]thj['o]d ena miklu

kalla sumir menn ecki minni enn Serkland h['i]t mikla; sumir jafna henni

vid Bl['a]land hit mikla. Hinn neyrdri lutr Sv['i]thj['o]dar liggr

['o]bygdr af frosti ok kulda, swa sem hinn sydri lutr Bl['a]lands er audr

af s['o]larbruna. I Sv['i]thj['o]d eru st['o]r h['e]rut moerg: thar eru ok

margskonar thjodir undarligar, ok margar t['u]ngur: thar eru risar, ok thar

eru dvergar: thar eru ok bl['a]menn; thar eru d['y]r ok drekar furdulega

st['o]rin. Ur Nordri fr['a] fjoellum theim, er fyrir utan eru bygd alla,

fellr ['a] um Sv['i]thj['o]d, s['u] er at rettu heitir Tanais; h['u]n var

fordum koellut Tanaqv['i]sl edr Vanaqu['i]sl; h['u]n k['e]mur til sj['a]var

inu i Svarta-haf. I Vanaqlv['i]slum var tha kallat Vanaland, edr Vanheimr;

s['u] ['a] skiir heimsthridj['u]ngana; heitir fyrir austan Asia, en fyrir

vestan Evr['o]pa. {605}

KAP. II.

_Fr['a] As['i]a Moennum._

Fyrir austan Tanaqv['i]sl ['i] As['i]a, var kallat Asa-land edr Asaheimr;

en hoefutborgina, er ['i] var landinu, koelludu their Asgard. En ['i]

borginni var hoefd['i]ngi s['a] er Odinn var kalladr, thar var bl['o]tstadr

mikill. Thar var thar sidr at 12 hofgodar v['o]ru aeztir; skyldu their

r['a]da fyrir bl['o]tum ok d['o]mum manna ['i] milli; that eru Diar

kalladir edr drottnar: theim skyldi thj['o]nustu veita allr folk ok

lotn['i]ng. Odinn var hermadr mikill ok mjoek vidfoerull, ok eignadiz moerg

riki: han var sva Sigrfaell, at ['i] hvoerri orustu feck hann gagn. Ok sva

kom at hans menn tr['u]du thv['i], at hann aetti heimilann sigr ['i] hverri

orustu. That var h['a]ttr hans ef ann sendi menn s['i]na til orustu, edr

adrar sendifarar, at hann lagdi adr hendur ['i] hoefut theim, ok gaf theim

bjanak; tr['u]du their at th['a] mundi vel faraz. Sva var ok um hans menn,

hvar sem their urdu ['i] naudum staddir ['a] sj['a] edr ['a] landi, th['a]

koelludu their ['a] nafn hans, ok th['o]ttuz jafnan f['a] af thvi fro; thar

thottuz their ega allt traust er hann var. Hann f['o]r opt sva l['a]ngt

['i] brot, at hann dvaldiz ['i] ferdinni moerg misseri.

XII.

SAGA ['O]LAFS KON['U]NGS TRYGGVASONAR.

_Bardagi ['i] Stordh_.

H['a]kon kon['u]ngr hafdhi th['a] fylkt lidhi s['i]no, ok segja menn at

hann steypti af s[`e]r brynjunni ['a]dhr orrostan taekist; H['a]kon

kon['u]ngr valdi mjoek menn medh s[`e]r ['i] hirdh at afli ok hreysti,

sv[^a] sem gert hafdhi Haraldr kon['u]ngr fadhir hans; thar var th['a] medh

kon['u]ngi Thor['a]lfr hinn sterki Sk['o]lmsson, ok gekk ['a] adhra hlidh

kon['u]ngi; hann hafdhi hj['a]lm ok skjoeld, kesju ok sverdh that er kallat

var Fetbreidhr; that var maelt at their H['a]kon kon['u]ngr vaeri

jafnsterkir; thessa getr Th['o]rdhr Sj['a]reksson ['i] dr['a]pu theirri er

hann orti um Th['o]r['a]lf:

Thar er bavdhbardhir boerdhust

bands j['o] draugar landa

lystr gekk herr til hjoerva

hnitz ['i] Stordh ['a] Fitjum:

ok gimsloengvir g['a]nga

g['i]frs hl[`e]m['a]na dr['i]fu

nausta blaks hit naesta

Nordhmanna gram thordhi.

{606} En er fylk['i]ngar gengu saman, var fyrst skotit spj['o]tum,

thv['i]naest brugdhu menn sverdhum; Gerdhist th['a] orostan ['o]dh ok

mannskjaed; H['a]kon kon['u]ngr ok Th['o]r['a]lfr gengu th['a] fram um

merkin ok hjoeggu til beggja handa; H['a]kon kon['u]ngr var audhkendr,

meiri enn adhrir menn, l['y]sti ok mjoek af hj['a]lmi hans er s['o]lin

shein ['a]; th['a] vardh vopnaburdhr mikill at kon['u]ngi; t['o]k th['a]

Eyvindr Finnsson hatt einn, ok setti yfir hj['a]lm kon['u]ngsins; th['a]

kalladhi h['a]tt Eyvindr Skreyja: leynist hann n['u] Nordhmanna kon['u]ngr,

edhr hefir hann fl['y]it, thv['i]at horfinn er n['u] gullhj['a]lmrinn?

Eyvindr ok ['A]lfr br['o]dhir hans gengu th['a] hart fram sv[^a] sem

['o]dhir ok galnir vaeri, hjoeggu til beggja handa; tha maelti H['a]kon

kon['u]ngr h['a]tt til Eyvindar: haltu sv[^a] fram stefnunni ef th['u] vill

finna hann Nordhmanna kon['u]ng, Var th['a] skampt at b['i]dha at Eyvindr

kom thar, reiddi upp sverthit ok hj['o] til kon['u]ngs; Th['o]r['a]lfr

skaut vidh honum Eyvindi skildinum, sv[^a] at hann stakadhi vidh;

kon['u]ngr t['o]k th['a] tveim hoendum sverthit Kvernb['i]t, ok hj['o] til

Eyvindar, klauf hj['a]lminn ok hoefudhit alt ['i] herthar nidhr; ['i]

thv['i] bili drap Th['o]r['a]lfr ['A]lf Askmann. Sv[^a] segir Eyvindr

Sk['a]ldaspillir:

Veit ek at beit enn bitri

byggv['i]ng medhal dyggvan

b['u]lka skidhs or b['a]dhum

benvoendr kon['u]ngs hoendum:

['u]faelinnklauf ['a]la

eldraugar skoer hauga

gullhjaltadhum galtar

grandr['a]dhr Dana brandi.

Eptir fall theirra braedhra gekk H['a]kon kon['u]ngr sv[^a] hart fram at

alt hravkk fur honum; sl['o] th['a] felmt ok fl['o]tta ['a] lidh Eir['i]ks

sona, en H['a]kon kon['u]ngr var ['i] oendverdhri sinni fylk['i]ng, ok

fylgdhi fast fl['o]ttamoennum, ok hj['o] t['i]dt ok hart; th['a] fl['o] oer

ein, er Fleinn er kalladhr, ok kom ['i] hoend H['a]koni kon['u]ngi uppi

['i] m['u]sina firir nethan oexl, ok er that margra manna soegn at

sk['o]sveinn Gunnhildar, s['a] er Kisp['i]ngr er nefndr, lj['o]p fram ['i]

thysinn ok kalladhi: gefi r['u]m kon['u]ngs bananum, ok skaut th['a]

fleinnum til kon['u]ngs; en sumir segja at engi vissi hverr skaut; m['a]

that ok vel vera, firir thv['i] at oervar ok spj['o]t ok oennur skotv[^a]pn

flugu sv[^a] thykkt sem dr['i]fa; fjoeldi manns f[`e]ll thar af Eir['i]ks

sonum, en hon['u]ngarnir allir komust ['a] skipin, ok r[`e]ro thegar undan,

en H['a]konar menn eptir theim; sv[^a] segir Th['o]rdhr Sj['a]reksson:

{607}

Vardhi v['i]ga myrdhir

v['i]dt sv['a] skal fridh sl['i]ta

joefur vildo thann eldast

oendvert f['o]lk ['a] loendum:

starf h['o]fst upp, th['a] er arfi

['o]tta vanr ['a] fl['o]tta

gulls er gramr var fallinn

Gunnhildar kom sunnan.

Thr['o]t var s['y]nt th['a] er settust

sinn r['o]dhr vidh thraum stinna

madhr l[`e]t oend ok annarr

['u]f['a]r baendr s['a]rir

afreks veit that er joefri

allr['i]kr ['i] styr sl['i]kum

goendlar njoerdhr s['a] er gerdhi

gekk naest hugins drekku.

XIII.

MODERN SWEDISH.

FRITHIOFS SAGA.

XI.

_Frithiof hos Angantyr._

Nu aer att saega huru

Jarl Angantyr satt aen;

Uti sin sal af furu,

Ock drack med sina maen;

Han var s[oa] glad i h[oa]gen,

S[oa]g ut [oa]t bl[oa]nad ban,

Der solen sjunk i v[oa]gen,

Allt som aen gyllne svan.

Vid foenstret, gamle Halvar

Stod utanfoer p[oa] vakt;

Hann vaktade med allvar,

Gaf ock p[oa] mjoedet akt.

En sed den gamle hade;

Hann jemt i botten drack;

Ock intet ord hann sade;

Blott hornett i hann stack.

Nu slaengde han det vida

I salen in och qvad,

"Skepp ser jag boeljan rida;

Den faerden aer ej glad.

Maen ser jag doeden naera,

Nu laegga de i land:

Ock tvenne jaettar baera

De bleknade p[oa] strand."

{608}

Utoefver boeljans spegel,

Fr[oa]n salen Jarl s[oa]g ned:

"Det aer Ellidas segel,

Och Frithiof, tror jag, med.

P[oa] g[oa]ngan och p[oa] pannan,

K[oa]nns Thorstens son igen:

S[oa] blickar ingen annan

I Nordens land som den."

Fr[oa]n dryckesbord held modig

Sprang Atle Viking d[oa]:

Svartsk[oa]ggig Berserk, blodig

Ock grym at se upp[oa].

"Nu, sad' han, vil jag proefva,

Hvad rycktet ment dermed,

At Frithiof svaerd kann doefva;

Och alldrig ber om fred."

Och upp med honom sprungo

Hanns bistra kaempar tolf:

Med forhand luften stungo,

Och svaengde svaerd ock kolf.

De stormade mot stranden,

Hvor troettadt drakskepp stod.

Men Frithiof satt [oa] sanden

Ock talte kraft och mod.

"Laett kunde jag dig faella,"

Shrek Atle med stort gny.

"Vill i ditt val dock staella,

Att kaempa eller fly.

Men blott on fred du beder

Fastaen aen kaempe h[oa]rd,

Jag som aen vaen dig leder,

Allt up til Jarlens g[oa]rd."

"Vael aer jag troett af faerden;"

Genmaelte Frithiof vred,

"Dock m[oa] vi proefva svaerden,

Foerr aen jag tigger fred."

D[oa] s[oa]g man st[oa]len ljunga,

I solbrun kaempehand;

P[oa] Angurvadels tunga,

Hvar runa stod i brand.

Nu skiftas svaerdshugg dryga,

Och dr[oa]pslag hagla nu;

Och begges skjoeldar flyga,

P[oa] samma g[oa]ng itu.

De kaempar utan tadel

St[oa] dock i kredsen fast;

Men skarpt bet Angurvadel,

Och Atles klinga brast.

10.

"Mod svaerdloes man jag svaenger,"

Sad Frithiof, "ei mitt svaerd."

Men lyster det dig laenger,

Vi proefva annan faerd.

Som v[oa]gor d[oa] on hoesten,

De begge storma an;

Ock st[oa]llbeklaedda broesten,

Sl[oa] taett emot hvarann.

11.

De brottades som bjoernar,

Upp[oa] sitt fjaell af snoe;

De spaende hop som oernar,

Utoefver vredgad sjoe.

Rodfaestad klippa hoelle

Vel knappast ut att st[oa];

Ock lummig jernek foelle

Foer mindre tag aen s[oa].

{609}

12.

Fr[oa]n pannan svetten lackar,

Och broestet haefves kallt;

Och buskar, sten, ock backar,

Uppsparkas oefver allt.

Med baefvaen slutet bida

St[oa]llklaedde maen [oa] strand;

Det brottandet var vida

Beroemdt i Nordens land.

13.

Til slut dock Frithiof faellde

Sin fiende til jord,

Hann knaet mod broestet staellde,

Och tallte vredens ord,

"Blott nu mitt svaerd jag hade,

Du svarte Berserksskaegg,

Jag genom lifvet lade,

P[oa] dig den hvassa aegg.

14.

"Det skal ei hinder bringa,"

Sad Atle stolt i h[oa]g,

"G[oa] du, ock ta din klinga,

Jag licgar som jag l[oa]g.

Den ena, som den andra,

Skal eng[oa]ng Valhall se:

Idag skal jag vael vandra;

I morgon du kanske."

15.

Ei lange Frithiof droejde;

Den lek han sluta vill:

Han Angurvadel hoejde;

Men Atle l[oa]g dock still.

Det roerde hjeltens sinne;

Sin vrede d[oa] hann band;

Hoell midt i huggett inne,

Ock tog den fallnes hand.

THE END.

LONDON:

Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY & CO.,

Bangor House, Shoe Lane.

* * * * *

NOTES

[1] Qu. the people of _Euten_, in Holstein.

[2] Zeus, p. 591.

[3] From Zeuss, _v. v. Frisii, Chauci_.

[4] The chief works in the two dialects or languages.

[5] Probably, for reasons, too long to enter upon, those of Grutungs and

Tervings; this latter pointing to Thuringia, the present provincial dialect

of which tract was stated, even by Michaelis, to be more like the

Moeso-Gothic than any other dialect of Germany.

[6] Nearly analogous to _Ostro_-goth, and _Visi_-goth.

[7] The meaning of these terms is explained in s. 90-92. The order of the

cases and genders is from Rask. It is certainly more natural than the usual

one.

[8] Compare with the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in s. 85.

[9] Compare with the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in s. 85.

[10] The syllables _vulg-_, and _Belg-_, are quite as much alike as

_Teuton-_, and _Deut-sch_; yet how unreasonable it would be for an

Englishman to argue that he was a descendant of the _Belgae_ because he

spoke the _Vulgar_ Tongue. _Mutatis mutandis_, however, this is the exact

argument of nine out of ten of the German writers.

[11] Tacitus, De Mor. Germ. 40.

[12] And on the west of the Old Saxons is the mouth of the river Elbe and

Friesland; and then north-west is the land which is called _Angle_ and

Sealand, and some part of the Danes.

[13] He sailed to the harbour which is called Haedhum, which stands betwixt

the Wends (_i.e._ the Wagrian Slaves, for which see s. 42) and Saxons, and

_Angle_, and belongs to Denmark ... and two days before he came to Haedhum,

there was on his starboard Gothland, and Sealand, and many islands. On that

land lived _Angles_, before they hither to the land came.

[14] Zeus, in _voc_.

[15] Zeus, in _voc._

[16] Zeus, in _voc._

[17] See G. D. S. Vol. ii. II.

[18] Zeus, p. 492.

[19] As in _Amherst_ and _inherent_.

[20] The meaning of the note of interrogation is explained in s. 148.

[21] Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine.

[22] Natural History of Man.

[23] This list is taken from Smart's valuable and logical English Grammar.

[24] As in _Shotover Hill_, near Oxford.

[25] As in _Jerusalem artichoke_.

[26] A sort of silk.

[27] _Ancient Cassio_--"Othello."

[28] This class of words was pointed out to me by the very intelligent

Reader of my first edition.

[29] V. Beknopte Historie van't Vaderland, i. 3, 4.

[30] Hist. Manch. b. i. c. 12.

[31] Dissertation of the Origin of the Scottish Language.--JAMIESON'S

Etymological Dictionary, vol. i. p. 45, 46.

[32] Sir W. Betham's Gael and Cymry, c. iii.

[33] Scripturae Linguaeque Phoeniciae Monumenta, iv. 3.

[34] To say, for instance, _Chemist_ for _Chymist_, or _vice vers[^a]_; for

I give no opinion as to the proper mode of spelling.

[35] Mr. Pitman, of Bath, is likely to add to his claims as an

orthographist by being engaged in the attempt to determine, inductively,

the orthoepy of a certain number of doubtful words. He collects the

pronunciations of a large number of educated men, and takes that of the

majority as the true one.

[36] Gesenius, p. 73.

[37] Write one letter twice.

[38] Rev. W. Harvey, author of Ecclesiae Anglicanae Vindex Catholicus.

[39] Murray's Grammar, vol. i. p. 79.

[40] Used as adverbs.

[41] Used as the plurals of _he_, _she_, and _it_.

[42] Different from _ilk_.

[43] Guest, ii. 192.

[44] Or _call-s._

[45] _Thou s_a_ngest_, _thou dr_a_nkest_, &c.--For a reason given in the

sequel, these forms are less unexceptionable than _s_u_ngest_,

_dr_u_nkest_, &c.

[46] Antiquated.

[47] As the present section is written with the single view of illustrating

the subject, no mention has been made of the forms [Greek: tupo]

(_typ[^o]_), and [Greek: etupon] (_etypon_).

[48] Obsolete.

[49] Obsolete.

[50] Obsolete.

[51] The forms marked thus^{[51]} are either obsolete or provincial.

[52] Obsolete.

[53] Sounded _wun_.

[54] Obsolete.

[55] Praeterite, or Perfect.

[56] Philological Museum, ii. p. 387.

[57] Vol. ii. p. 203.

[58] Found rarely; bist being the current form.--Deutsche Grammatik, i.

894.

[59] _Over, under, after._--These, although derived forms, are not

prepositions of derivation; since it is not by the affix _-er_ that they

are made prepositions. _He went over_, _he went under_, _he went

after_--these sentences prove the forms to be as much adverbial as

prepositional.

[60] In the first edition of this work I wrote, "Verbs substantive govern

the nominative case." Upon this Mr. Connon, in his "System of English

Grammar," remarks, "The idea of the _nominative_ being _governed_ is

contrary to all received notions of grammar. I consider that the verb _to

be_, in all its parts, acts merely as a connective, and can have no effect

in governing anything." Of Mr. Connon's two reasons, the second is so

sufficient that it ought to have stood alone. The true view of the

so-called verb substantive is that it is no verb at all, but only the

fraction of one. Hence, what I wrote was inaccurate. As to the question of

the impropriety of considering nominative cases fit subjects for government

it is a matter of definition.

[61] The paper _On certain tenses attributed to the Greek verb_ has already

been quoted. The author, however, of the doctrine on the use of _shall_ and

_will_, is not the author of the doctrine alluded to in the Chapter on the

Tenses. There are, in the same number of the Philological Museum, two

papers under one title: first, the text by a writer who signs himself T. F.

B.; and, next, a comment, by the editor, signed J. C. H. (Julius Charles

Hare). The _usus ethicus_ of the future is due to Archdeacon Hare; the

question being brought in incidentally and by way of illustration.

The subject of the original paper was the nature of the so-called second

aorists, second futures, and preterite middles. These were held to be no

separate tenses, but irregular forms of the same tense. Undoubtedly this

has long been an opinion amongst scholars; and the writer of the comments

is quite right in stating that it is no novelty to the learned world. I

think, however, that in putting this forward as the chief point in the

original paper, he does the author somewhat less than justice. His merit,

in my eyes, seems to consist, not in showing that real forms of the

_aoristus secundus_, _futurum secundum_, and _praeteritum medium_ were

either rare or equivocal (this having been done before), but in

illustrating his point from the English language; in showing that between

double forms like [Greek: sunelechthen] and [Greek: sunelegen], and double

forms like _hang_ and _hanged_, there was only a difference in degree (if

there was that), not of kind; and, finally, in enouncing the very

legitimate inference, that either we had two preterites, or that the Greeks

had only one. "Now, if the circumstances of the Greek and English, in

regard to these two tenses, are so precisely parallel, a simple and obvious

inquiry arises, Which are in the right, the Greek grammarians or our own?

For either ours must be wrong in not having fitted up for our verb the

framework of a first and second preterite, teaching the pupil to say, 1st

pret. _I finded_, 2d pret. _I found_; 1st pret. _I glided_, 2d pret. _I

glode_: or the others must be so in teaching the learner to imagine two

aorists for [Greek: heurisko], as, aor. 1, [Greek: heuresa], aor. 2,

[Greek: heuron]; or for [Greek: akouo], aor. 1, [Greek: ekousa], aor. 2,

[Greek: ekoon]."--p. 198.

The inference is, that of the two languages it is the English that is in

the right. Now the following remarks, in the comment, upon this inference

are a step in the wrong direction:--"The comparison, I grant, is perfectly

just; but is it a just inference from that comparison, that we ought to

alter the system of our Greek grammars, which has been drawn up at the cost

of so much learning and thought, for the sake of adapting it to the system,

if system it can be called, of our own grammars, which are seldom

remarkable for anything else than their slovenliness, their ignorance, and

their presumption? Is the higher to be brought down to the level of the

baser? is Apollo to be drest out in a coat and waistcoat? Rather might it

be deemed advisable to remodel the system of our own grammars."

This, whether right or wrong as a broad assertion, was, in the case in

hand, irrelevant. No _general_ superiority had been claimed for the English

grammars. For all that had been stated in the original paper they might, as

compared with the Greek and Latin, be wrong in ninety-nine cases out of a

hundred. All that was claimed for them was that they were right in the

present instance; just as for a clock that stands may be claimed the credit

of being right once in every twelve hours. That the inference in favour of

altering the _system_ of the Greek grammars is illegitimate is most

undeniably true; but then it is an inference of the critic's not of the

author's. As the illustration in question has always seemed to me of great

value,--although it may easily be less original than I imagine,--I have

gone thus far towards putting it in a proper light.

Taking up the question where it is left by the two writers in question, we

find that the difficulties of the so-called _second_ tenses in Greek are

met by reducing them to the same tense in different conjugations; and,

according to the current views of grammarians, this is a point gained. Is

it so really? Is it not rather the substitution of one difficulty for

another? A second conjugation is a second mode of expressing the same idea,

and a second tense is no more. Real criticism is as unwilling to multiply

the one as the other. Furthermore, the tendency of English criticism is

towards the very doctrines which the Greek grammarian wishes to get rid of.

_We_ have the difficulty of a second conjugation: but, on the other hand,

instead of four past tenses (an imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and

aorist), we have only one (the aorist). Now, when we find that good reasons

can be given for supposing that the strong preterite in the Gothic

languages was once a reduplicate perfect, we are at liberty to suppose that

what is now the same tense under two forms, was, originally, different

tenses. Hence, in English, we avoid the difficulty of a second conjugation

by the very same process which we eschew in Greek; viz., the assumption of

a second _tense_. But this we can do, as we have a tense to spare.

Will any process reconcile this conflict of difficulties? I submit to

scholars the following hypotheses:--

1. That the _true_ second future in Greek (_i.e._, the future of verbs with

a liquid as a characteristic) is a variety of the _present_, formed by

accentuating the last syllable; just as _I be['a]t you_=_I will beat you_.

2. That this accent effects a change on the quantity and nature of the

vowel of the penultimate.

3. That the second aorist is an _imperfect_ formed from this secondary

present.

4. That the so-called perfect middle is a similar perfect active.

[62] Transactions of Philological Society. No. 90, Jan. 25, 1850.

[63] Notwithstanding the extent to which a relative may take the appearance

of conjunction, there is always one unequivocal method of deciding its true

nature. The relative is always a _part_ of the second proposition. A

conjunction is _no part_ of either.

[64] Unless another view be taken of the construction, and it be argued

that [Greek: edoke] is, etymologically speaking, no aorist but a perfect.

In form, it is almost as much one tense as another. If it wants the

reduplication of the perfect, it has the perfect characteristic [kappa], to

the exclusion of the aorist [sigma]; and thus far the evidence is equal.

The persons, however, are more aorist than perfect. For one of Mathiae's

aorists ([Greek: metheke]) a still better case might be made, showing it to

be, even in etymology, more perfect than aorist.

[Greek: Kteinei me chrusou, ton talaiporon, charin]

[Greek: Xenos patroios, kai ktanon es oidm' halos]

[Greek: Methech', hin' autos chruson en domois echei.]

[Greek: Keimai d' ep' aktais.]

Eur. _Hec._

[65] It is almost unnecessary to state that the sentence quoted in the text

is really a beautiful couplet of Withers's poetry _transposed_. It was

advisable to do this, for the sake of guarding against the effect of the

rhyme. To have written,

What care I how fair she _is_

If she be not fair to me?

would have made the grammar seem worse than it really was, by disappointing

the reader of a rhyme. On the other hand, to have written,

What care I how fair she _were_,

If she were not kind as _fair_?

would have made the grammar seem better than it really was, by supplying

one.

[66] In the first edition of the present work I inaccurately stated that

_neither_ should take a plural and _either_ a singular verb; adding that

"in predicating something concerning _neither you nor I_, a negative

assertion is made concerning _both_. In predicating something concerning

_either you or I_, a positive assertion is made concerning _one of two_."

This Mr. Connon (p. 129) has truly stated to be at variance with the

principles laid down by me elsewhere.

[67] Latin Prose Composition, p. 123.

[68] Quoted from Guest's English Rhythms.

[69] To the definition in the text, words like _old_ and _bold_ form no

exception. At the first view it may be objected that in words like _old_

there is no part preceding the vowel. Compared, however, with _bold_, the

negation of that part constitutes a difference. The same applies to words

like _go_ and _lo_, where the negation of a part following the vowel is a

point of identity. Furthermore, I may observe, that the word _part_ is used

in the singular number. The assertion is not that every individual sound

preceding the vowel must be different, but that the aggregate of them must

be so. Hence, _pray_ and _bray_ (where the _r_ is common to both forms)

form as true a rhyme as _bray_ and _play_, where all the sounds preceding

_a_, differ.

[70] For _pros['o]pa_. The Greek has been transliterated into English for

the sake of showing the effect of the accents more conveniently.

[71] For the sake of showing the extent to which the _accentual element_

must be recognised in the classical metres, I reprint the following paper

On the Doctrine of the Caesura in the Greek senarius, from the Transactions

of the Philological Society, June 23, 1843:--

"In respect to the caesura of the Greek tragic senarius, the rules, as laid

down by Porson in the Supplement to his Preface to the Hecuba, and as

recognized, more or less, by the English school of critics, seem capable of

a more general expression, and, at the same time, liable to certain

limitations in regard to fact. This becomes apparent when we investigate

the principle that serves as the foundation to these rules; in other words,

when we exhibit the _rationale_, or doctrine, of the caesura in question.

At this we can arrive by taking cognizance of a second element of metre

beyond that of quantity.

"It is assumed that the element in metre which goes, in works of different

writers, under the name of ictus metricus, or of arsis, is the same as

accent, _in the sense of that word in English_. It is this that constitutes

the difference between words like _t['y]rant_ and _res['u]me_, or

_s['u]rvey_ and _surv['e]y_; or (to take more convenient examples) between

the word _A['u]gust_, used as the name of a month, and _aug['u]st_, used as

an adjective. Without inquiring how far this coincides with the accent and

accentuation of the classical grammarians, it may be stated that, in the

forthcoming pages, arsis, ictus metricus, and accent (_in the English sense

of the word_), mean one and the same thing. With this view of the arsis, or

ictus, we may ask how far, in each particular foot of the senarius, it

coincides with the quantity.

_First Foot._--In the first place of a tragic senarius it is a matter of

indifference whether the arsis fall on the first or second syllable; that

is, it is a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as

_t['y]rant_ or as _res['u]me_, as _A['u]gust_ or as _aug['u]st_. In the

following lines the words [Greek: heko], [Greek: palai], [Greek: eiper],

[Greek: tinas], may be pronounced either as [Greek: he'ko], [Greek:

pa'lai], [Greek: ei'per], [Greek: ti'nas], or as [Greek: heko'], [Greek:

palai'], [Greek: eiper'], [Greek: tina's], without any detriment to the

character of the line wherein they occur.

[Greek: He'ko nekron keuthmona kai skotou pulas.]

[Greek: Pa'lai kunegetounta kai metroumenon.]

[Greek: Ei'per dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen.]

[Greek: Ti'nas poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete.]

or,

[Greek: Heko' nekron keuthmona kai skotou pulas.]

[Greek: Palai' kunegetounta kai metroumenon.]

[Greek: Eiper' dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen.]

[Greek: Tina's poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete.]

_Second Foot._--In the second place, it is also a matter of indifference

whether the foot be sounded as _A['u]gust_ or as _aug['u]st_. In the first

of the four lines quoted above we may say either [Greek: ne'kron] or

[Greek: nekro'n], without violating the rhythm of the verse.

_Third Foot._--In this part of the senarius it is no longer a matter of

indifference whether the foot be sounded as _A['u]gust_ or as _aug['u]st_;

that is, it is no longer a matter of indifference whether the arsis and the

quantity coincide. In the circumstance that the last syllable of the third

foot _must_ be accented (in the English sense of the word), taken along

with a second fact, soon about to be exhibited, lies the doctrine of the

penthimimer and hepthimimer caesuras.

The proof of the coincidence between the arsis and the quantity in the

third foot is derived partly from _a posteriori_, partly from _a priori_

evidence.

1. In the Supplices of Aeschylus, the Persae, and the Bacchae, three dramas

where licences in regard to metre are pre-eminently common, the number of

lines wherein the sixth syllable (_i. e._, the last half of the third foot)

is without an arsis, is at the highest sixteen, at the lowest five; whilst

in the remainder of the extant dramas the proportion is undoubtedly

smaller.

2. In all lines where the sixth syllable is destitute of ictus, the iambic

character is violated: as

[Greek: Threken perasa'ntes mogis polloi ponoi.]

[Greek: Duoin gerontoi'n de strategeitai phuge.]

These are facts which may be verified either by referring to the

tragedians, or by constructing senarii like the lines last quoted. The only

difficulty that occurs arises in determining, in a dead language like the

Greek, the absence or presence of the arsis. In this matter the writer had

satisfied himself of the truth of the two following propositions:--1. That

the accentuation of the grammarians denotes some modification of

pronunciation other than that which constitutes the difference between

_A['u]gust_ and _aug['u]st_; since, if it were not so, the word [Greek:

angelon] would be sounded like _m['e]rrily_, and the word [Greek: angelon]

like _dis['a]ble_; which is improbable, 2. That the arsis lies upon radical

rather than inflectional syllables, and out of two inflectional syllables

upon the first rather than the second; as [Greek: ble'p-o, bleps-a's-a],

not [Greek: blep-o', bleps-as-a']. The evidence upon these points is

derived from the structure of language in general. The _onus probandi_ lies

with the author who presumes an arsis (accent in the English sense) on a

_non_-radical syllable. Doubts, however, as to the pronunciation of certain

words, leave the precise number of lines violating the rule given above

undetermined. It is considered sufficient to show that wherever they occur

the iambic character is violated.

The circumstance, however, of the last half of the third foot requiring an

arsis, brings us only half way towards the doctrine of the caesura. With

this must be combined a second fact, arising out of the constitution of the

Greek language in respect to its accent. In accordance with the views just

exhibited, the author conceives that no Greek word has an arsis upon the

last syllable, except in the three following cases:--

1. Monosyllables, not enclitic; as [Greek: spho'n, pa's, chtho'n, dmo's,

no'n, nu'n], &c.

2. Circumflex futures; as [Greek: nemo', temo'], &c.

3. Words abbreviated by apocope; in which case the penultimate is converted

into a final syllable; [Greek: do'm', pheides'th', kentei't', ego'g'], &c.

Now the fact of a syllable with an arsis being, in Greek, rarely final,

taken along with that of the sixth syllable requiring, in the senarius, an

arsis, gives as a matter of necessity, the circumstance that, in the Greek

drama, the sixth syllable shall occur anywhere rather than at the end of a

word; and this is only another way of saying, that, in a tragic senarius,

the syllable in question shall generally be followed by other syllables in

the same word. All this the author considers as so truly a matter of

necessity, that the objection to his view of the Greek caesura must lie

either against his idea of the nature of the accents, or nowhere; since,

that being admitted, the rest follows of course.

As the sixth syllable must not be final, it must be followed in the same

word by one syllable, or by more than one.

1. _The sixth syllable followed by one syllable in the same word._--This is

only another name for the seventh syllable occurring at the end of a word,

and it gives at once the hepthimimer caesura: as

[Greek: Heko nekron keuthmo'na kai skotou pulas.]

[Greek: Hikteriois kladoi'sin exestemmenoi.]

[Greek: Homou te paiano'n te kai stenagmaton.]

2. _The sixth syllables followed by two_ (_or more_) _syllables in the same

word_. This is only another name for the eighth (or some syllable after the

eighth) syllable occurring at the end of a word; as

[Greek: Odme broteion hai'maton me prosgela.]

[Greek: Lamprous dunastas em'prepontas aitheri.]

Now this arrangement of syllables, taken by itself, gives anything rather

than a hepthimimer; so that if it was at this point that our investigations

terminated, little would be done towards the evolution of the _rationale_

of the caesura. It will appear, however, that in those cases where the

circumstance of the sixth syllable being followed by two others in the same

words, causes the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) to be final,

either a penthimimer caesura, or an equivalent, will, with but few

exceptions, be the result. This we may prove by taking the eighth syllable

and counting back from it. What _follows_ this syllable is immaterial: it

is the number of syllables in the same word that _precedes_ it that demands

attention.

1. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by nothing._--This is

equivalent to the seventh syllable at the end of the preceding word: a

state of things which, as noticed above, gives the hepthimimer caesura.

[Greek: Anerithmon gela'sma pam|metor de ge.]

2. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by one syllable._--This

is equivalent to the sixth syllable at the end of the word preceding; a

state of things which, as noticed above, rarely occurs. When however it

does occur, one of the three conditions under which a final syllable can

take an arsis must accompany it. Each of these conditions requires notice.

[alpha]). With a non-enclitic _mono_-syllable the result is a penthimimer

caesura; since the syllable preceding a monosyllable is necessarily final.

[Greek: Heko sebi'zon so'n Klu'tai|mnestra kratos.]

No remark has been made by critics upon lines constructed in this manner,

since the caesura is a penthimimer, and consequently their rules are

undisturbed.

[beta]). With _poly_-syllabic circumflex futures constituting the third

foot, there would be a violation of the current rules respecting the

caesura. Notwithstanding this, if the views of the present paper be true,

there would be no violation of the iambic character of the senarius.

Against such a line as

[Greek: Kago to son nemo' pothei|non aulion]

there is no argument _a priori_ on the score of the iambic character being

violated; whilst in respect to objections derived from evidence _a

posteriori_, there is sufficient reason for such lines being rare.

[gamma]). With _poly_-syllables abbreviated by apocope, we have the state

of things which the metrists have recognised under the name of

quasi-caesura; as

[Greek: Kenteite me pheide'sth' ego | 'tekon Parin.]

3. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by two syllables._--This

is equivalent to the fifth syllable occurring at the end of the word

preceding: a state of things which gives the penthimimer caesura; as

[Greek: Odme broteion hai' maton | me prosgela.]

[Greek: Lamprous dunastas em'prepon tas aitheri.]

[Greek: Apsuchon eiko pro'sgeloisa somatos.]

4. _The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by three or more than

three syllables._--This is equivalent to the fourth (or some syllable

preceding the fourth) syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding;

a state of things which would include the third and fourth feet in one and

the same word. This concurrence is denounced in the Supplement to the

Preface to the Hecuba; where, however, the rule, as in the case of the

quasi-caesura, from being based upon merely empirical evidence, requires

limitation. In lines like

[Greek: Kai talla poll' epei'kasai | dikaion en,]

or (an imaginary example),

[Greek: Tois soisin aspide'strophois|in andrasi,]

there is no violation of the iambic character, and consequently no reason

against similar lines having been written; although from the average

proportion of Greek words like [Greek: epeikasai] and [Greek:

aspidestrophoisin], there is every reason for their being rare.

After the details just given, the recapitulation is brief.

1. It was essential to the character of the senarius that the sixth

syllable, or latter half of the third foot, should have an arsis, ictus

metricus, or accent in the English sense. To this condition of the iambic

rhythm the Greek tragedians, either consciously or unconsciously, adhered.

2. It was the character of the Greek language to admit an arsis on the last

syllable of a word only under circumstances comparatively rare.

3. These two facts, taken together, caused the sixth syllable of a line to

be anywhere rather than at the end of a word.

4. If followed by a single syllable in the same word, the result was a

hepthimimer caesura.

5. If followed by more syllables than one, some syllable in an earlier part

of the line ended the word preceding, and so caused either a penthimimer, a

quasi-caesura, or the occurrence of the third and fourth foot in the same

word.

6. As these two last-mentioned circumstances were rare, the general

phaenomenon presented in the Greek senarius was the occurrence of either

the penthimimer or hepthimimer.

7. Respecting these two sorts of caesura, the rules, instead of being

exhibited in detail, may be replaced by the simple assertion that there

should be an arsis on the sixth syllable. From this the rest follows.

8. Respecting the non-occurrence of the third and fourth feet in the same

word, the assertion may be withdrawn entirely.

9. Respecting the quasi-caesura, the rules, if not altogether withdrawn,

may be extended to the admission of the last syllable of circumflex futures

(or to any other polysyllables with an equal claim to be considered

accented on the last syllable) in the latter half of the third foot.

[72] _Sceolon_, _aron_, and a few similar words, are no real exceptions,

being in structure not present tenses but preterites.

[73] Quarterly Review, No. clxiv.

[74] Quarterly Review, No. clxiv.

[75] From the Quarterly Review, No. cx.

[76] From the Quarterly Review, No. cx.

[77] Apparently a _lapsus calami_ for _spede_.

[78] J. M. Kemble, "On Anglo-Saxon Runes," _Archaeologia_, vol. xxviii.

[79] But not of _Great Britain_. The Lowland Scotch is, probably, more

Danish than any South-British dialect.

[80] In opposition to the typical Northumbrian.

[81] Quarterly Review--_ut supra_.

[82] The subject is a Lincolnshire tradition; the language, also, is

pre-eminently Danish. On the other hand, the modern Lincolnshire dialect is

by no means evidently descended from it.

[83] For some few details see Phil. Trans., No. 36.

[84] Transactions of the Philological Society. No. 93.

[85] Philological Transactions. No. 84.

[86] Transactions of the Philological Society, No. 92.

[87] Quarterly Review, vol. xliii.

* * * * *

Changes made against printed original.

Page xxv. "227. The combination _-pth_": 'combinations' in original.

Page xxxiv. "465, 466. The Slavonic praeterite": 'paerterite' in original.

Page xli. "676, 677. Rhyme--its parts": '677, 677' in original.

Page 3, s. 9. "The south-eastern parts of Scotland": 'south-western' in

original (compare 'south-eastern', 2 sentences earlier).

Page 6, s. 13(3c). "half a century earlier than the epoch of Hengist":

'earlier that' in original.

Page 50. s. 94. "certain Anglo-Saxon inflections.": 'Anglo-Saxons' in

original.

Ibid. "h['e]r, d['e]de, br['e]da, Frisian;": 'Frisian; Fris.' in original.

Ibid. "ju=y or eo": 'eo' omitted in original.

Page 71. s. 127. "a population originating in places": 'orginating' in

original.

Page 112. s. 174. "Smidhum however, is a single": 'Smdhium' in original.

Page 143. s. 198. "Concerning the consonants as a class": 'vowels' (for

'consonants') in original.

Page 150. s. 212. Table, first row, Lene Flat: "b": 'v' in original

(compare s. 203).

Page 158. s. 227. "the th is a (so-called) aspirate": 'the f' in original.

Ibid. "the second may be accommodated to the first, tupt": 'tuft' in

original.

Page 160. s. 229. "dh to d": 'th to d' in original.

Page 161. s. 231. "the v in fever": 'the e' in original.

Page 194. s. 255. "the statement ... that ... the c is mute": 'the k' in

original.

Page 202. s. 258. "17. Pe Pi.": '17. Pi Phi.' in original.

Page 265. s. 315. "se scearpeste sweord": 'sword' in original.

Page 286. s. 340. "In Anglo-Saxon the termination -ing": 'terminations' in

original.

Page 300. s. 355. "I ate ... we ate": 'ete' for 'ate' (twice) in original.

Page 301. Ibid. "swungon, we swung": 'swangon' in original (does not fit

criterion for this table).

Page 323. s. 382. "accounting for the -s in must": 'in most' in original.

Page 324. s. 382. "wit, wot, wiss, wist": 'wit, wot, wiss, wsst' in

original.

Page 356. s. 411. "the word rose prefixed": 'the word tree prefixed' in

original (the same as the contrary case).

Page 368. s. 426(II). "form another order": 'from another order' in

original.

Page 398. s. 479. "the words Roman emperor might be wholly ejected": 'the

word' in original.

Page 411. s. 507. "in the indicative and subjunctive moods": 'is the' in

original.

Page 434. s. 545. "the analogy between the words there and it": 'these and

it' in original.

Page 465. s. 581. "will be taken up in p. 475": 's. 475' in original.

Page 482. s. 606. "a pair of propositions connected by the conjunction":

'prepositions' in original.

Page 490. s. 617. "4. Let tupsaimi be considered an aorist subjunctive":

'on aorist' in original.

Page 562. s. 709. "distinguished by their origin only": 'distinguised' in

original.

Footnote 8. "the Anglo-Saxon adjectives in s. 85": 's. 20' in original.

Footnote 63. "deciding its true nature": 'rue nature' in original.

End of Project Gutenberg's The English Language, by Robert Gordon Latham

"Those who imagine language invented by a man or men, originally