poor boys, they sought fee-paying sons of gentlemen. They now
taught arithmetic as well as reading and writing. Translation and
reading of Latin is still important, e.g. Aesop's Fables, Cicero's
Letters, Caesar's Commentaries, Ovid, Livy, Virgil, Horace, Pliny,
Juvenal, and Plautus. The "Eton Grammar" book replaced the "Royal
Grammar" as the standard for Latin and English grammar. The boys
lived in boarding houses superintended by "dames" or older boys.
There were usually two boys to a bed. There was bullying and
initiation ceremonies such as tossing small boys up from a held
blanket or having younger boys run naked in the snow. There were
occasional rebellions by the boys and fights with the townspeople.
Flogging with a birch or caning with a rod until blood was drawn
from the bare buttocks was the usual punishment. There were some
national boys' boarding schools such as Eton, Winchester, and
Westminster. In these schools, boys could mix with sons of rich
and powerful people, thus establishing important connections for
their adult life. But there was more bulling of small boys by
large boys at these schools and the smaller boys became menial
servants of their seniors. Occasionally there were student riots.
However, most grammar schools were not residential. Because the
grammar schools were limited to boys, many boarding schools for
girls were established. Tradesmen's daughters were often sent to
these to learn to act like ladies. Most upper class girls were
taught, at home or at school, English, writing, arithmetic,
drawing, courtly dancing, needlework, music, and French.
Dissenting academies were established for those who did not pass
the religious tests of the grammar schools. Pencils were now in
use.
Sons of gentlemen usually took "The Grand Tour" of the continent
before going to university. These tours lasted for months or
years, and always included Paris and a protestant French
university. The students went in groups with tutors. The chief
purpose was now cultural, instead of practical. On these tours
there was often misbehavior such as drinking and fighting. In
1720, Travelers Checks were developed for those on the Grand Tour.
The universities began to teach science. The new professorships at
Cambridge University were: chemistry, astronomy, experimental
philosophy, anatomy, botany, geology, geometry, and Arabic. Ideas
in geology challenged the Bible's description of the creation of
the world and there was a controversy over the origin and nature
of fossils. In 1715, a large pointed weapon of black flint was
found in contact with the bones of an elephant in a gravel bed in
London. Oral and written examinations began to replace
disputations. Few professors lectured.
Dissenters were excluded from universities as well as from offices
and grammar schools. Oxford and Cambridge Universities were open
only to members of the Church of England, so other universities
were established for dissenters. They taught geography,
mathematics, science, physics, astronomy, mechanics, hydrostatics,
and anatomy. At Oxford and Cambridge and Harvard Universities,
students in science were relegated to different instructors,
buildings, and degree ceremonies than students in literature, who
often looked down on them as socially and intellectually inferior.
The Inns of Court had ceased to provide residence. The period of
education at law school at the Inns of Court was now reduced in
1760 from seven to five years for ordinary students and to three
years for graduates of Oxford or Cambridge Universities. The
textbooks were: "Doctor and Student" by Christopher Saint-German
(1518) and "Institutes of the Laws of England" by Thomas Wood
(1720). Most landed families tried to ensure that at least one
member of the family in each generation was educated at the Inns
of Court after going to Oxford or Cambridge. In 1739, attorneys
formed a "Society of Gentlemen Practitioners in the Courts of Law
and Equity". In order to earn a living, most attorneys had to
attach themselves to some great patron and serve his interests. So
it was hard for an ordinary person to find an impartial attorney
or to find any attorney willing to contest a powerful family.
The first encyclopedia came into existence in 1728. In 1740 was
the first public circulating library in London. Samuel Johnson put
together the first dictionary in 1755. It standardized spelling
and pronunciation. Then came dictionaries for the arts, sciences,
and commerce. There were histories with political biases such as
the Earl of Clarendon's "History of the Great Rebellion".
Alexander Pope wrote witty satire on human faults of the period
such as "Rape of the Lock". Daniel Defoe wrote "Robinson Crusoe",
"Moll Flanders", and "The Poor Man's Plea" protesting disparity of
judicial treatment of rich and poor, for instance for drunkenness.
Henry Fielding wrote one of the first novels: "Tom Jones". Joseph
Addison wrote essays on social behavior. Jonathan Swift wrote the
satire on the times "Gulliver's Travels". Samuel Richardson wrote
some of the first novels, such as "Clarissa"; he wrote on values
such as religious faith, moral virtue, and family closeness.
Catherine Macaulay started writing her weighty and impressive
"History of England". Many schoolmistresses wrote textbooks on a
variety of subjects. Poet and essayist Hester Chapone wrote
"Letters on the Improvement of the Mind". Elizabeth Carter wrote
poetry and translated Greek works; her work was published in "The
Gentleman's Magazine". Hannah More wrote the play "The Inflexible
Captive". The diaries of Caroline Girle Powys Daniel told of her
extensive travels in the nation, and the various life styles of
polite society she visited. Defoe's newspaper was the first great
political journal. He claimed that the people have a right to
control the proceedings of Parliament. Essayists like Richard
Steele, who introduced the periodical essay in his newspaper, and
Joseph Addison, in his newspaper, wrote in a conversational style
about the social life around them and the thoughts and behavior of
common men and women in a light and good-humored way. They
separated humor from the old-style farce and gave it taste and
gentility. And with this came a moderation, reserve, and urbanity
in matters of religion, politics, and society. Religious issues
even became a matter of indifference. Fairies, witches, astrology,
and alchemy were no longer taken seriously by educated men. Tales
of fairies, witches, ghosts, and miracles were deemed appropriate
for children. Childrens' stories were becoming a distinct literary
form. Nursery rhymes included "Hush-a-bye baby on the tree top"
and the five little piggies. "Mother Goose's Melody" was published
in 1765. There were picture books for children such as Cinderella,
Red Riding Hood, and Sleeping Beauty. Craftsmen made small models
of their wares, such as dolls' china, dolls' furniture, silver,
and flat lead soldiers. Babies had rattles and teething rings.
In 1710 copyrights for books was given for 14 years, renewable for
another 14 years. Alexander Pope's translation of the Iliad and
Odyssey made him financially independent. He collected advance
payments from subscribers who would be listed in the book. A new
book industry emerged in London with booksellers as master
manufacturers who employed writers, authors, copyers, and
subwriters. Booksellers sold books of sermons, histories,
political and literary satires, literary criticism, and
dictionaries. There was a growing popularity of novels. Books were
expensive to buy. Regular magazines on the new and strange were
published. There were three daily, six weekly, and ten thrice
yearly newspapers. Newspapers increased in number from 8 founded
in 1700 to a total of 25 in 1727. By 1753, there were over a
million throughout the country. Workmen usually began their day by
reading a newspaper at a coffee house.
Authors of books which have been registered at the Stationers Hall
shall have the sole liberty of printing and reprinting such book
for 14 years. Others who print or sell or publish such shall
forfeit the books and pay one penny for each sheet found in their
custody, 1/2 to the Queen and 1/2 to the suer. The printer shall
give a copy of each book printed to the Company of Stationers, the
Royal Library, the libraries of the Oxford and Cambridge
universities, and certain other libraries.
In 1775, the two universities in England, the four universities in
Scotland, and the several colleges of Eton, Westminster, and
Winchester were given in perpetuity a copyright in books given or
bequeathed to them.
The British Museum was incorporated to hold the collections of
Robert Cotton of manuscripts, books, records, coins, and medals
and of Hans Sloane, which contained rare books, coins, precious
stones, pictures, plants, and mathematical instruments and had
been left to the public.
Italian opera was introduced in 1706 by Georg Handel on his visit
to England. His music became the standard music of Georgian
England. The Academy of Ancient Music was founded in 1710. It set
the standard of selection and performance. In existence were the
violin (including ones made by Stadivari), viola, cello, double
bass, oboe, trumpet, clarinet, bassoon, trombone, horn, flute,
harp, organ, harpsichord, in which the strings were plucked, and
piano, in which the strings are struck by little hammers.
Orchestras had at least thirty members. Many hymns were written.
Painting by artists developed. Gentlemen had portraits painted of
their horses and dogs as well as of family. Joshua Reynolds
painted the wealth and beauty of England. Painters such as
Gainsborough did landscapes and dramatic history paintings too,
but neither of these sold as well as portraits. Scenery was
painted for the theater. Places of business had signs painted
which portrayed animals. Coaches were painted with mythological
creatures and such. Gentlemen collected antique statuary and
painting, such as by Rembrandt and Rubens. In 1711 an academy of
painting was founded, which included women painters. The first
public exhibition of paintings was in 1760. The Society of Artists
was formed in 1761 and incorporated by royal charter in 1765. This
differentiated them from the Painter-Stainers Company of face
painters, coach painters, and house painters. The Royal Academy of
London was founded in 1768 to merge all private academies and
societies into one official body and to recognize the best
artistic work. Joshua Reynolds was its first president. It was at
first financed by the king. Under George I, sculptors became
distinct from masons. They did monuments and portrait busts of the
royal family, nobles, and great men. From Italian influence,
Palladian architecture came into vogue. It was typified externally
by a panoramic look achieved by horizontal lines, balanced
alternatives of plain wall and openings, and portico with a heavy
pediment like the front of a Roman temple. Stucco was often used
to plaster housefronts, flute columns, and ornament pediments.
Architects took students. Designers of engraved, etched, and
historical prints were given the sole right to print them for 14
years. Copiers had to forfeit 5s. per print.
Foreigners were now interested in learning about English life,
philosophy, and opinion. They learned English to read English
literature such as Shakespeare. No longer were France and Italy
the only centers of culture and influence on other nations. By
1713, England was the leading sea power by far.
The Royal Society was still the principal focus of scientific
activity. Issac Newton was its President for several years and
drew in more foreigners. Its members were mathematicians,
chemists, botanists, physicians, engineers, authors, poets, and
theologians. Papers given there generated much discussion at its
meetings. Newton opined that particles attract each other by some
force in a similar way that large bodies attracted each other.
This force in immediate contact was exceedingly strong, at small
distances performed chemical interactions, and at greater
distances had no effect. Also there were local associations and
societies. There were learned journals such as "Philosophical
Transactions". In 1714, the mercury thermometer was invented by
Gabriel Fahrenheit of Germany; this was more accurate than the
alcohol and water thermometer. The hydrometer, which measures air
humidity, was also invented. These made possible weather
forecasting. In 1718 the French chemist Etienne Geoffroy published
a table of affinities among chemical substances. Carolus Linneaus,
a Swedish naturalist and botanist, established the scientific
method of naming plants and animals by genus and species. When he
showed that there was a sexual system in plants, church
authorities were so shocked that they suppressed this knowledge as
they did other scientific knowledge. In 1727, Rev. Stephen Hales
discovered the ways that water that plants lost by evaporation was
restored by the roots up the stems. He found that gas could be
obtained from plants by dry distillation and invented a way to
collect gases by heating certain substances. He made ventilators
for ships, prisons, and granaries, using the method of injecting
air with bellows. This saved many lives in the prisons.
Hans Sloane, the son of a receiver-general of taxes, who became a
physician, had collected hundreds of species of plants in Jamacia
while physician to its governor. He became physician to George II
and was a benefactor to many hospitals and devised a botanic
garden in London for the Society of Apothecaries.
In 1735, George Hadley, a London lawyer and philosopher,
determined that the cause of the trade winds blowing from the west
direction was the rotation of the earth. Benjamin Franklin in 1743
observed that a particularly violent storm was in Boston a day
after a particularly violent was in Philadelphia, and realized
that they were the same storm, even though the storm's surface
winds were from the northeast. He determined that Atlantic coastal
storms traveled from the southwest to the northeast.
In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss university lecturer in physics,
mechanics, medicine, and anatomy, showed that as the velocity of
horizontal fluid flow increases, its pressure decreases. This
followed from his theorem that the total mechanical energy of a
flowing liquid, comprising the energy associated with fluid
pressure, the gravitational potential energy of elevation, and
kinetic energy of fluid motion remains constant; that is it is
conserved. He demonstrated that the impact of molecules on a
surface would explain pressure, and that assuming the constant
random motion of molecules, pressure and motion will increase with
temperature. He explained the behavior of gases with changing
pressure and temperature. In 1754, Scotsman physician Joseph Black
identified carbon dioxide, the first gas recognized as distinct
from everyday breathing air. He did this by using a balance to
weigh alkalis before and after exposure to heat. They lost weight
by losing carbon dioxide. He then ascertained the effects of
carbon dioxide on animals and its production by respiration,
fermentation, and burning of charcoal. At this time, all flammable
materials were thought to contain "phlogiston", which was given
off as they burned and was associated with the transfer of heat.
Plants were thought to remove phlogiston from the air and
therefore burned when they were dry. In 1774, Joseph Priestly, a
nonconformist minister, schoolmaster, and tutor, discovered oxygen
by heating red oxide of mercury. He got interested in the study of
gases by watching the process of fermentation in a brewery next to
his house. His gas collection techniques enabled him to work with
gases soluble in water. He showed that the processes of
combustion, respiration, and putrefaction caused one-fifth of air
exposed over water to disappear, and that plants restored air
vitiated by these processes. When he isolated oxygen, he noted
that it was better than air in supporting respiration and
combustion produced by heating certain metallic nitrates. The
differences between acids, bases, and salts and their relationship
to one another became understood. There was some theoretical as
well as empirical knowledge about metals, e.g. in boiling points,
intermetallic compounds, and changes in properties.
Static electricity was being discerned. It had been noticed that
shaking a mercury barometer produced a strange glow in its
"vacuum". Experiments showed that a glass rubbed in vacuo would
shine brightly and that an exhausted glass globe rapidly whirled
on a spindle and rubbing against the hand produced a brilliant
glow. And further, as Newton wrote: "if at the same time a piece
of white paper or white cloth, or the end of ones finger be held
at the distance of about a quarter of an inch or half an inch from
that part of the glass where it is most in motion, the electric
vapor which is excited by the friction of the glass against the
hand, will by dashing against the white paper, cloth, or finger,
be put into such an agitation as to emit light, and make the white
paper, cloth, or finger, appear lucid like a glowworm". In the
study of electricity, conductors and insulators were recognized.
There were demonstrations of electrical phenomenon such as seeing
brandy ignited by a spark shooting from a man's finger and
transferring an electrical impulse among a circle of people by
their holding hands. Electricity was stored in an early type of
capacitor. Benjamin Franklin "caught" lightning with a sharp
pointed wire attached on top of a kite which led down to a key.
When a thunder cloud electrified the kite, a charge could be seen
coming from the key to an approaching finger. This charge was
stored and then reproduced to create the same feeling of
electrical transference among hand-holders as a rubbed glass
globe, thereby illustrating that it was the same phenomenon as
electricity. This countered the theological belief that thunder
and lightning were signs of divine displeasure or the work of the
devil. He invented the lightening rod, which was then used to
protect houses. About ten years later, the first lightening rod on
an English church was erected. Franklin theorized that there were
electric charges everywhere and designated them as positive or
negative. He observed that opposite charges attracted each other,
but that like charges repelled each other. In 1766, Joseph
Priestly did an experiment suggested by Franklin and showed that
electrical force follows the same law as gravitational force; that
is, that the attraction or repulsion between two electrical
charges varies inversely to the square of the distance between
them.
Joseph-Louis LaGrange from France developed differential
equations. Natural history museums were established. A group split
off from the Royal Society to show collections of curiosities.
In 1754, a self-educated mechanic founded the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. It had sections
on agriculture, manufactures, mechanics, chemistry, liberal arts,
and trade and colonies. It sponsored contests at which prizes were
given, such as that in 1761 for the best invention of a machine
that would spin six threads of wool, flax, cotton, or silk at
onetime with only one person attending it.
Machines still mostly relied on human, animal, and water power.
Abraham Darby was a Quaker and millwright who made large cooking
pots of iron, which cost less than bronze. Around 1713, he
experimented with various substances to take the place of wood
charcoal in iron smelting. Coal was a remote possibility. In
forging or working metals coal had more or less the same qualities
as wood charcoal, but this was not the case in smelting ores,
especially iron ore. Coal contained sulphur compounds which caused
the iron ore to deteriorate. So he controlled the burning of coal
to burn out these impurities, which produced coke. His son took
over after his death and improved the methods of coking,
strengthened the bellows, and added ore limestone and other
reagents to the mixture. By 1756, his large blast furnace using
both pit coal and wood charcoal was very productive. He made iron
goods of such quality as those previously imported.
In 1767, Richard Reynolds replaced the wooden rails connecting a
blast furnace to mines with cast iron rails. He had apprenticed as
a grocer and then became a partner in a large ironworks of Darby,
whose daughter he married. After Darby died and before Darby's
sons became of age, Reynolds was in charge of the ironworks. He
cast cylinders of the early steam engines.
In 1749 John Roebuck, a physician and son of a prosperous
manufacturer of Sheffield goods, found a cheaper way to
manufacture sulphuric acid. He did this by using leaden chambers
instead of glass globes to collect the vapor from burning nitre
and sulphur over water. This reduced the cost of sulfuric acid to
one-fourth of its previous cost, so that sulfuric acid came to be
used to bleach linen instead of sour milk. He also made cast iron
into malleable iron by smelting iron using coke from pit-coal
instead of charcoal. But flooding in his mines and further
ventures resulted in his ruin and bankruptcy.
Thomas Newcomen, a Baptist ironmonger, blacksmith, and locksmith,
supplied iron tools to mine workers. He was aware of the problem
of flooding of mines and the awkward system of pumps which were
used one above the other and were powered by teams of horses. He
made a very valuable contribution to power generation by inventing
the atmospheric pressure steam engine around 1712. He did this by
connecting theory with experiment, through the use of scientific
knowledge, especially the Royal Society's investigation into
atmospheric pressure. First cold water was poured on a cylinder in
which a piston could move up and down. This caused steam inside
the cylinder to cool and condense into water. The vacuum created
inside the cylinder under the piston caused atmospheric pressure
on top of the piston to push the piston down. The piston was
attached by a rod to the end of a beam which end then swung down
from a point on a vertical stand to which it was attached. When
the beam swung, its other end, which was attached to a rod
connected to a pump, rose, thus working the pump. Then steam from
water heated in a boiler under and communicating with the cylinder
was allowed into the cylinder under the piston. This decreased the
atmospheric pressure on the piston from above and allowed the
piston to rise by a counterweight on the rod over and connecting
to the pump. Boys opened and closed the steam valve, which let
steam into the cylinder from below, and the water valve, which let
cold water pour on the cylinder from above. Then the boys were
replaced by the valves being connected to the oscillating beam
which caused them to open and close at perfectly regular
intervals. A story gives the credit for this improvement to an
inventive valve boy who wanted to play with his friends. In 1712,
the mining industry used this steam engine to pump water out of
mine-shafts which had flooded. These engines were also used to
supply water to reservoirs locks at canals, and drinking water
facilities in towns. One such engine developed power equivalent to
fifty horses working at one sixth the cost. It was the first
automatic machine since the clock.