PERSIAN RUGS
IN the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow
the present political divisions of territory, since great and frequent
changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding
changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with
the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants,
it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Afghanistan
on the east. The woven products of all this territory have
characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate
them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly
floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to
naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover,
their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in
perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia,
Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or
highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in
bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of
colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian.
The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures,
or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some
Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the
patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more
realistically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse.
[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IV—BERGAMO RUG_
_The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor
traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and border,
yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by
departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic
designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the
background of the central field, on which are three upright panels
containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and
forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs,
knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and
lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive
of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright
stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now
rarely seen._
_Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political
influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time
when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the
splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under
one and the same dominant power, which at different times was held by
Saracens, Seljukian Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the
end of the Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger influence
is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and Turks have blended
with the early people of the whole territory, until not only do all
resemble one another, but their craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore,
with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still
cling to the early Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their
frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to a much less
degree.
A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical features of the
entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people. To
be sure the Euphrates and Tigris, that wind sluggishly through the great
Mesopotamian valley, and the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that
extend from Mt. Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have
no counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is
little vegetation, high table-lands where during rainless summer months
the earth is parched, and little valleys of fertile soil that are
watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges. Throughout this
territory, wherever physical conditions are similar, the people follow
similar pursuits. In the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the
higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys are
several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment of the
East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple articles of metal,
and weave artistic rugs.
A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life pervades
the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of a past
associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana, Babylon and
Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more immediate influence of
the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago, rugs are still produced
that in delicacy of weave, beauty of design, and harmony of colours
surpass those of any other part of the world. In the weave of the best
examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the
Royal Bokharas. In the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of
harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the best products of
India alone compare, is united the touch of both artist and artisan. The
fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of
buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils, and frequently
encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious
whole. The fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour,
with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful
lines. Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged
with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by some nomadic
design. Surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes, some of
which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes
co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern. It is,
however, principally in the colours, which are delicate yet rich,
subdued yet lustrous, that these rugs surpass all others. Their most
distinctive tones are blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that
the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and wine
colour in field, each being subordinated to other superimposed colours
representing floral detail.
[ILLUSTRATION: MAP OF PERSIA]
The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal precision
throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is of uncertain
antiquity and origin. It consists of a central figure that generally
represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or rosette, about which are
grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves. Probably
both the central and encircling figures are of Persian origin, though
the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish
and attributed to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally
drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of
these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
and a central rosette, as in Plate O, Fig. 4 (Page 291). This Herati or
Fish Pattern, as it is frequently called, appears in many of the old
Persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces, particularly the
Feraghans and Herats. A less frequently seen floral pattern, which has
been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern
rugs, is the Guli Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate O, Fig. 3). Of this
plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the “chief of this world
and the next.”
It occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in several
other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered
informally over the field. Another floral pattern frequently seen is the
Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate O, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina
Khan, a former Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of
Persian Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a
network of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their
different designs and colours; and between them often appear other
flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured Hinnai, so as to
destroy too great stiffness of design. As the flowers are relatively
large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field, this
is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns. A
still more formal pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of
the Persian rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah
Abbas. It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal motive
is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character.
Between the large and formal palmettes, that are arranged with
mathematical precision, are grouped with similar regularity smaller
palmettes, connected by angular vines and leafy branches.
Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns, such as the
Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas. Others have the
repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the pear, on a field of rich
colour. The remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls,
vines, or tendrils, drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves,
flowers, and buds in beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human
beings, demons, and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with
the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in the
remote past, have been transplanted from one country to another, and
conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is interesting to
observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as
possible the influences to which they are due.
HERATS.—On great lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia,
the city of Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
commercially a most important position, so that its people long since
became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries.
During the XV Century it reached its greatest prosperity, and exerted an
important influence on the art and culture of Western Asia. Before the
art decadence that followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in
1731, and the removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques,
scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among this tracery were
palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony, which were often most
realistically drawn.[17] These rugs are of further interest, as they
contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed, appears
in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati pattern.
The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the antique pieces
and show a close relationship to those of Persia. Nor is this
surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short of the high
standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia, are still mindful
of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the rugs are made across the
border in Khorassan, and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of
that province; but their tones of colour, consisting principally of red
or blue in the field, and light green, yellow, and ivory in the border,
as well as most of the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields
are covered with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in
the same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the Feraghans,
because their fields are covered with the Herati or Fish pattern; but
the borders of the Feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern,
while the borders of these adhere to the traditional Herati design. It
is also not unusual to see a large central medallion, in which blue or
red predominates, separated by a field of lighter colour from the
triangular patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.
[Illustration: PLATE 24. BIJAR RUG]
One of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders,
that generally have three stripes, of which the central consists of a
continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely
bent, thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes
are narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical border,
the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their large, almost
square shapes and rather coarse weave, are important aids in
distinguishing this class from all others. Some of the rugs recently
made are coarse; but the older rugs have excellent dyes, lustrous nap,
and matured tones of well-blended colours.
_Type Characteristics._[18] _Colours_, principally red and blue with
minor quantities of green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes, rarely
Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as long,
measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.[19] The rows of knots
are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_,
of cotton, rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only depressed.
_Weft_, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse diameter. For a short space
a thread of weft crosses twice, that is across and back once, between
every two rows of knots, then three times, and so alternates every
several rows. _Pile_, wool of medium length, soft, and silky. _Border_,
three to five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
_Sides_, a double overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
fringe. _Texture_, stout and firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
_Usual length_, eight to twenty feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to
three quarters length.
KHORASSANS.—Among Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of
the Sun. In its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds
and flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times the
Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome, then
retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and
inhospitable wastes.
Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness
have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots
where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an Omar Khayyam
and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed. Even before the Mongolian
invasion several hundred looms, each employing four or five women, were
busy in the town of Toon in Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east
is the district of Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs
of Herati pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand, in the
southeastern part of the province, where formerly were woven pieces of
superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred
knots to the square inch. Their colours were of delicate shades; and it
was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground,
with which was contrasted the darker tones of the Herati or pear
patterns. Over a century ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving
rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present
products fall far below the early standards.
Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago
and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule, they are of large
size and have closely woven texture. They can be distinguished from most
others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap, which is often due
to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as
because it is cut long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use
of some shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently
it is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other Persian
rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their colours are
generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times brilliant, as when
a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion.
The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to copying designs
of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit
Meshed, and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of
weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all Persia. One pattern,
however, based upon the treatment of the pear design, which is employed
in many of these pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other
districts. It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a
field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
the same direction, and of two or three much smaller pears partly
resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges. Unlike the
pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval, these are elongated
like those of Indian rugs; and within them, as well as in the field, are
often small floral figures. This distinctive pattern is rendered more
effective by the colour scheme; since frequently pears of red or
magenta, defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled
flowers, rest upon a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also
frequently employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to see a
central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of
bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two medallions. When the
centre contains a medallion, the triangular-shaped corners are set off
by lines that are much simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.
Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are they very
wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as several guard stripes,
is some characteristic pattern. Occasionally it contains the Herati
design, but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with
incipient flower forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
bird’s head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine. This stripe,
illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2, (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met
with in Khorassans as to be characteristic of them. The narrow guard
stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose, blue, and ivory,
with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Many are
“left-hand.” Knots to inch horizontally, eight to thirteen;
perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of warp hang
loose at the back of some pieces. _Weft_, almost always cotton,
occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, excepting at intervals of
every six or eight rows of knots, where it crosses three or more times.
_Pile_, wool of medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. _Border_,
three to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Both ends_, a
narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at
back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet.
_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
MESHEDS.—In few parts of the East have the weavers received greater
inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed.
To Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
within a mosque resplendent with façade of blue and white tiles, and
with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the remains of Ali Riza,
the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb that is viewed yearly by
nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It was for a short time the
capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified its mosques; and here Nadir Shah,
whose remains lie in the mausoleum, held his court after the capture of
Delhi. Within its walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not
far away, among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva, Bokhara,
Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of commercial
importance.
It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were made in
the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian traveller[20]
who visited it during the XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the
floor of its mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which
has never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the most
magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a century the
textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now seen are generally
of recent manufacture.
As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the same silky
appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more evenly clipped. The
pattern, however, is generally different, as seldom is the field
completely covered with the pear design, but whenever used, it is of
elaborate drawing and frequently very large. Nor is the characteristic
Khorassan border stripe, illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of
blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral vines, in which
appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the rugs that now exist
were made within the last fifty years, and are of large size and
almost square shape. The colour scheme inclines to light and often
brilliant tones, which at times are strongly contrasted with small
masses of much darker shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and
weft are rarely coarse.
[Illustration: PLATE 25. KERMANSHAH RUG]
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose or pink, blue and
white, with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally
Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to fifteen;
perpendicularly, twelve to seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed
down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two
threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool or
cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses
twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of fine quality and
medium length. _Border_, usually from three to six stripes, occasionally
as many as eight, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Lower end_, a
narrow web and warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
_Usual length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven
eighths length.
ISPAHANS.—Still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour,
surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a
broad, well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by Tamerlane,
who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose to such importance
that in the XVII Century it contained within its walls several palaces,
one hundred and sixty mosques, over two score of colleges, nearly two
thousand caravansaries, and about three quarters of a million people.
Now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few
stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets,
abandoned bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence
of the former capital.
Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for the
purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most experienced
artisans, to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of
many of the early carpets. Here, in the days of its greatest prosperity,
were founded many industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven
some of the best of old Persian carpets. Though Herat is now regarded
by some authorities as the centre where the so-called Ispahan rugs were
made, it is improbable, as previously pointed out, that all of them came
from there. But after the death of Shah Abbas the rug industry began to
decline; and with the removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan
ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt
whether such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on Oriental
Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon at Ispahan, were
made there or were imported from other cities; but the weaving of rugs
has never entirely ceased; and so great is the fame of the former glory
of the city that even now Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the
term “Ispahan” as an epithet of superiority.
The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little
resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves show little
similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati designs are not
uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with
what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and in others the field
contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small
foliate and floral forms placed between them. Small figures of animals
are also occasionally represented. The border is generally narrow and
lacking in impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red or blue
is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are green, yellow,
and white. The weave has variations rarely found in other rugs; for the
warp, which is usually cotton, may also be wool, or wool and cotton
twisted together; and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton, and may
cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs,
or even once or twice in the same rug.
_Type Characteristics._[21] _Colours_, principally red and blue, with
minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows
of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally
wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together. Each thread
of warp is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread
of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots. If it is wool,
it generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread. _Pile_,
wool, of short or medium length. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or
three chords. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and fringe.
Occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_
at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, six to fourteen feet.
_Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
KIRMANS.—On account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it
is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain ridges that
separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the west, in a measure
protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political
and industrial conditions of Northern Persia, it has continuously for
over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of
rugs. Moreover, during all this period it has been noted for the
excellence of their quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its
fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs’ palaces.
When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful shawls
and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted French traveller
Chardin, who lived in that country during part of the XVII Century, also
spoke most favourably of them. Even after Nadir Shah removed many of the
most skilled weavers to the northern part of Persia subsequent to
ascending the throne in 1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city
and massacred many of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry
continued to prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of
modern pieces.
To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and
dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious
influences of market demands and aniline colours. And to it must be
attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile art appears nowhere
else in greater purity; for of all the rugs on the market to-day these
conform more nearly in texture, colour, and design to the masterpieces
of earlier times, and show none of the foreign influences appearing in
pieces woven in the north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as
well as religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in secret
their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.
For long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about
Kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills, so
that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes
used in the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of
such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep and
partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and
yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.
It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman for
roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict them so
profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as filling vases
set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon
the field. They also weave them in the borders among green leaves, as
placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as
are seen in other Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the
flowers of most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they are red
contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in the field, and of
golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border. Sometimes, instead of a
profusion of roses, there are other flowers, such as the sunflower,
suggesting the old Zoroastrian faith, the cypress, or the sacred
“cocos.” Again, the general design may be modified from one strictly
floral, and amid the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human
beings; but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has five
stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any other, and
surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red;
though now and then, according to the general colour scheme, a very
pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green.
[Illustration: PLATE 26. KURDISTAN RUG WITH MINA KHANI PATTERN]
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally grey or ivory, with minor
quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The
rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the
weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads
encircled by knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally wool of
fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A thread
of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool,
short, soft, and silky. _Border_, usually of five stripes and an outer
edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
_Sides_, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging. _Both ends_,
a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at
back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet.
_Usual width_, three fifths to two thirds length.
YEZD.—In the centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan,
is the city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still follow
the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great desert of
Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an oasis, where the
drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants
the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls
within. At the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they
are rarely seen in Western markets; yet on account of the historic
interest in its people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products
made in other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
also for its felt “namads,” which are generally too heavy to be
transported, since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a
superficial area of ten thousand square feet.
SHIRAZ.—Near the centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by
mountains is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim
Khan, from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then it
has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former
glory has departed. And yet there still remain associations to kindle
the imagination, for without the gates are the gardens that Persian
poets have extolled in verse; the tombs of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far
away are the spots where Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined
palaces that Alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.
As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced large numbers
of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were woven before the XV
Century. As is the case with modern pieces, all of them were
distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool, which is to be
attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and
valleys. One of the oldest existing rugs of this district which
displays the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in
the following words:[22] “As soon as I had touched it, I was certain
that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at
Shiraz, or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft one
that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are older than the
eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes such rich and deep
colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are
equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool,
which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes
one think of translucent enamel. As a piece of colour this carpet is
certainly one of the finest, and there are very few carpets that have
greater charm, which even the best reproduction could not give. In its
colours there is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window,
where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and
dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as the
wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz.”
On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is
referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the two following
centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high standard of excellence
prevalent in the principal cities of Persia; but most of those pieces
are now extremely rare, as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or
for exchange with foreign rulers. This city experienced the art
decadence that began with the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of
Kerim Khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there.
Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are
certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the excellent
qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven are still poorer.
On a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly Persian; but
they generally depart widely from the early traditions, and floral forms
are very much conventionalised. In a large number of this class the
field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines
and angles. Sometimes they are as small as in the Sarabends, occupying
the whole field as the principal motive; or they may be placed less
prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be
as large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another very
common pattern, known as the “pole-medallion,” consists of a narrow
perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on
which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs.
In other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian
rug, and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric
figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals
scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no other Persian rug in
which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The borders usually consist of a
number of narrow stripes, or a wide one with narrow guard stripes. One
of them, at least, almost invariably contains some form of vine and
leaves, and not infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear
in Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans on
account of the resemblance in geometric designs.
Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are not
difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about the dark
blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow. They
are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them have a trait of lying
unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven
between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends, from
which hang a loose fringe. The sides are overcast with heavy strands of
wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the
case with any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
coloured tassels.
There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are superior
to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the patterns are
geometric; but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and
a slightly different colour scheme.
Not infrequently the term “Mecca” is applied to Shiraz rugs, and the
impression is conveyed that they were made there. Nor is the statement
always entirely devoid of truth; for each year caravans aggregating some
two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to
Allah, to walk around the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving
behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred
earth or a strip of the temple’s covering. Each of these pilgrims bears
offerings for propitiation, of which a large proportion are rugs; and
whatever their size, they are invariably the choicest the devotee can
offer. Since the Mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their
religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles
not directly available for their use, they sell large quantities of such
rugs, that find their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople.
Furthermore, the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged
along the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from
these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz rugs that they and
similar pieces which had never left Persia were called Mecca rugs. This
deception is still encouraged by some dealers, because for many buyers a
special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been
carried on this pilgrimage as an offering.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with
minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots is
generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The other half
knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not drawn tight against
the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that their alignment is
slightly irregular, and the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, almost
always wool; in a few modern rugs goats’ hair is used. Each of the
threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
occasionally one to each knot is depressed. _Weft_, wool of medium
diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft crosses twice
between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short to medium, and
silky. _Border_, three to five stripes. Beyond the borders, at each end,
is frequently a narrow band of pile. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting
in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which
generally consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green,
and blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at
regular intervals of one or more feet. _Lower end_, a broad web of
coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and
warp loops. _Upper end_, a broad web of coloured stripes, through which
may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to
nine feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
[Illustration: PLATE 27. GOREVAN RUG]
NIRIS.—A resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles to the
westward; for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool,
obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges, and
the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old
capital. This resemblance exists mostly in the soft, floccy appearance
of the nap, and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the
sides. The webs of each end are broad and have long fringes; but
generally those of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or
more parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a rule,
flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also an
occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern of the
Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand, they are more
firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in the character of their
weave, since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
depressed below the other, and the weft is of wool coloured red, whereas
in the Shiraz it is frequently of cotton.
The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in Sarabends, extend
over the field in orderly array; but they are much larger and consist of
an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another, yet grouped
gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown
jewels sometimes ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue,
and the pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is covered
with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The typical border
has a broad central stripe of vine and flower, with narrow guards of
simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil. Barber-pole stripes are also
characteristic of the borders.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eleven;
perpendicularly, seven to fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely
pressed down, so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft
conspicuous. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the
other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of
weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes, sometimes as many
as seven. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or
in short lengths of different colours, such as red, blue, green,
yellow, and black. _Both_ ends, a broad web of coloured stripes, one row
of knots, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to seven feet. _Usual
width_, three quarters to four fifths length.
FERAGHANS.—Stretching eastward from the base of Mt. Elwund is the plain
of Feraghan. Its length does not exceed forty-five miles, nor its
breadth ten or fifteen, yet here are clustered several hundred villages.
On account of its altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered
with snow in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls.
But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and the sheep are
grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a plain of fertility and
industry. For generations it has been productive of large numbers of
fine rugs, and it is still possible among its villages to find some of
those old pieces that have been regarded by the Persians themselves as
the best examples of the textile art.
When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been carefully
observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is surprising to note the
many distinctions observable in a large collection. These patterns may
conveniently be divided into two groups, namely: one in which the field
is entirely covered with diaper designs, and the other in which the
field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour.
Probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is covered
with the Herati design; those in which the field is covered with the
Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field is covered with some
other small diaper design.
The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is found in the
very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the crumpled leaf does not
exceed a length of four or five inches, and the rosettes are
proportionally small, so that the ground colour is almost entirely
concealed, and at a short distance is not distinguishable; but there are
other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length, and the figures
less closely clustered, so that the ground enters prominently into the
colour scheme. The prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is
generally rose red, which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug;
though the small designs have shades of green, yellow, white, and light
blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but occasionally red or
even ivory is used. In very few other rugs are the corners separated
from the field, unless there is a central medallion; but in almost all
Feraghans small triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with
those of the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
serrated edges.
Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes.
The main stripe is about three times as wide as any other, and may have
a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white; but in many of the best
pieces it is moss green, with blue, yellow, or red appearing in the
overlying pattern. Of different but corresponding shades is the colour
of the ground and designs of other stripes. Probably three fourths of
the Feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main
stripe; but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate
E, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine with rosette or
palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very narrow, is invariably
represented some reciprocal figure, as the trefoil or sawtooth; and on
the other stripes are undulating vines, with floral or quasi-floral
figures.
The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs instead of
the Herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring, though the
general effect is much the same. In place of crumpled leaves and
rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the Hinnai plants
that brighten the mountains surrounding the Feraghan plain with their
large yellow or ivory coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is
slightly more prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich,
is less red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though specimens are
not frequently seen. In these the small figures of conventionalised
flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or
perpendicular rows. Moreover, they generally lack the rich colouring of
the preceding sub-groups.
The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old
Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape, with serrated
edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati figures cover its
surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small
conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of
uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule, pieces of this group are of a
more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire
field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that
blend and produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of the old
pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short, many of those
that remain are still serviceable.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and dark blue, with
minor quantities of yellow, light blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Sehna,
rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
perpendicularly, seven to eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
so that the warp is usually concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of
the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
_Weft_, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of weft of fine
or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots, or
occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only
once, so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect. _Pile_,
wool, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse
grain. _Usual length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
to two thirds length.
HAMADANS.—A little to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that
overlooks a small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain
is the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of Ecbatana,
capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb, which tradition
declares is the burial place of Esther and Mordecai. Within the
encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and mosques; yet the present city
of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has
little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which
for a short period was mistress of the world.
[Illustration: PLATE 28. BERGAMO PRAYER RUG]
Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it once
produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk carpets, though no
longer are any woven there. But its looms have been busy for the last
few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels’ hair, which have such
marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp
of identification. The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces,
which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
some are simply mats, others sedjadehs, and an unusually large number
are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs
consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion, surrounded by a field of
contrasting colour, from which are set off the triangular-shaped
corners. In the large sedjadehs and in the runners, which are sometimes
twenty feet or more in length, are often three or more pole medallions,
though the pole device may be omitted. These medallions and corners are
covered with small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more
frequently with floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a
rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or
comb-like teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is broken
only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently it is marked
with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint, like a delicate
tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a broad edging, which is at
least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured
stripes combined, surrounds them. As it is usually of camels’ hair and
without pattern, it is a very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe
has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard
stripes have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
trefoils.
To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the
figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the
corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large
conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel
or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the
old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] “An
irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while
the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it
with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners,
within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to
be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a
golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it
evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._”
Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern
products with pile of wool or goat’s hair often dyed in garish colours.
There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering
tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported
from there they were often classed as products of that city.
Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel’s hair than any other class
of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and
outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with
the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of
the field and border. This lavish use of camel’s hair, the broad
encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft
passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
rugs.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel’s
hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally,
six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are
firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled
by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton,
frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once
without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots
of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel’s hair and some wool; in recent rugs,
mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four
stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel’s hair. _Sides_, overcast,
generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to
twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
IRANS.—Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are
woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the
province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or
colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few
well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a
noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so
loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent
backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the
foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show
distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled
by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally
they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as
Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on
account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A
half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the
direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_,
cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out
distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a
rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely
crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front
when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that
is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow
web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
SAROUKS.—Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an
altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of
Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked
until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open
doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply
openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open
fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the
atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours
that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls,
sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow
lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these
depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived
weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most
beautiful rugs made in all the East.
Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with
mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or
surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a
hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven
there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities,
though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of
old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful
pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three
decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of
life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern
consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more
concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the
four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are
lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one
another.
Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of
field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate
stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and
flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The
borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which
appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented
with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern,
which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the
harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers
exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for
occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the
reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field,
or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion
wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the
sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is
hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such
short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective
by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and
excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground
colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
“Ispahans;” while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with
consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and
foliage motives.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with
minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots
to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely
linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always
doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_,
cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter
crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and
velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as
seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a
tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both
ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
KASHANS.—Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient
and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of
Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of
the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of
Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with
scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is
due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into
Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for
which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand
people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest
artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom
Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still
exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and
artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile
masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it
would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned
his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came
from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take
the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is
woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces,
though the demand for them is small.
On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market,
though it is only within recent years that they have been generally
known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on
account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs;
yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is
a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great
number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in
these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short
comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the
field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the
most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those
unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is
dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly
balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the
very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of
bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of
floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks,
so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense
of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite
colour make them exceedingly handsome.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_,
Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly,
sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_,
generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a
knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small
diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice
between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double
overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
SABABENDS.—Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the
boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in
Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as
prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this
distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is
Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on
the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan,
Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less
important centres of weaving.
Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern
flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs
which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for
generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there
any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in
respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists
of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller
ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are
long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear
figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from
this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati
design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or
the date when the piece was woven.
The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it
is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the
prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light
red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue;
and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old
pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft
rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing
effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to
the other colours of the pears.
With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes,
of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground
colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears
have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is
usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field
and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an
outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be
balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual
to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
with three.
The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which
signifies the “city of Mir,” and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal
Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted
that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter
each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which
the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely
woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with
vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor
quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The
rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at
back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled
by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is
equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or
blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes,
and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower
end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short
warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine
grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
thirds length.
[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V—GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high
type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine
technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is
the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of
the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border,
and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding
part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable
that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman
the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no
other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as
products of the XVI Century._
_Property of the Author_]
BURUJIRDS.—About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the
south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the
population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are
stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of
Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the
Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but
on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be
mistaken for Iran rugs.
SULTANABADS.—Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of
Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of
a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher
prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for
Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent
efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are
supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid
regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are
constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that
lie within a day’s journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But
while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only
are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a
difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called
Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others
are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely
woven.
MUSKABADS.—In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the
northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they
have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red,
yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft,
the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely
woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures
such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In
some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral
form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of
different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive
of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the
turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral
pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant
finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of
medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on
account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave
they are very serviceable.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to
twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton;
one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at
back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of
medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to
five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short
warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very
coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to
seven eighths length.
JOSHAGHANS.—Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of
Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best
carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir
Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the
northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse,
and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last
century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine
Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all
sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout
the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high
esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other
pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work
pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is
occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which
combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening
spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the
Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and
beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The
ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and
the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of
the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so
that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven;
and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than
that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser
quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to
thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that
the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool;
one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or
reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft
generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two
rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually
three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or
black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
thirds length.