corresponding retrogression in the morals of university students. Painter
tells us that “the state of morals at the universities of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries was very low. Idleness, drunkenness, disorder,
and licentiousness prevailed in an unparalleled degree. The practice
of _hazing_ was universal, and new students were subjected to shocking
indignities.” Duke Albrecht, of the university of Jena, wrote in 1624:
“‘Customs before unheard of, inexcusable, unreasonable, and wholly
barbarian, have come into existence.’” Then he speaks of the insulting
names, the expensive suppers, and the carousing of the students, until
“‘parents in distant places either determine not to send their children
to this university, ... or to take them away again.’”[139]
PROTESTANTISM LOST MUCH BECAUSE SHE CEASED TO EDUCATE HER CHILDREN. Had
Protestantism remained true to her first principles of education, her
overthrow would have been impossible. She paved the way for her own fall
by departing gradually from the gospel, and by leaning more and more
toward the classics and scholasticism.
[Sidenote: Ignatius Loyola solves the problem]
It was this decline on her own part, caused by the insidious workings
of the Jesuits, which made possible the great victories of this order
in later years. It was when Rome saw her youth slipping from her hands
into the Protestant schools, and as a result, a few years later, found
whole nations refusing obedience, and building for themselves new forms
of government, that, in her distress, she grasped the offer made by
_Loyola_. And while the power he represented in its organization, placed
itself above the pope, becoming, as it were, _a papacy of the papacy_,
still she accepted his offer, and the _counter educational move_ began.
THE JESUITS ORGANIZED TO COMBAT REFORMATION IN EDUCATIONAL LINES. In
speaking of the Jesuits, Painter says: “This order, established by
Ignatius Loyola [in 1534], found its special mission in combating the
Reformation. As the most effective means of arresting the progress of
Protestantism, it aimed at controlling education, particularly among
the wealthy and the noble. In rivalry with the schools of Protestant
countries, it developed an immense educational activity, and earned for
its schools a great reputation.” Again, the same writer says: “More than
any other agency it stayed the progress of the Reformation, and it even
succeeded in winning back territory already conquered by Protestantism.
Although employing the pulpit and the confessional, it _worked chiefly
through its schools, of which it established and controlled large
numbers_. Education in all Catholic countries gradually passed into its
hands.”
[Sidenote: Jesuit schools]
In order to understand the reason for the success of the Jesuits as
teachers it is necessary to glance at the plan of studies prepared in
1588 from a draft made by Loyola himself. “Every member of the order,”
says Painter, “became a _competent and practical teacher_. He received a
thorough course in the ancient classics, philosophy, and theology. During
the progress of his later studies he was required to teach.” Jesuit
schools contained two courses, the lower corresponding very closely to
the work of Sturm. Rosenkranz gives an excellent description of the
educational system of the Jesuits. He says:—
[Sidenote: Course of instruction]
“In instruction they developed so exact a mechanism that they gained the
reputation of having model school regulations, and even Protestants sent
their children to them. From the close of the sixteenth century to the
present time they have based their teaching upon the _Ratio et institutio
studiorum Societatis Jesu_ of Claudius of Aquaviva. Following that, they
distinguished two courses of teaching, a higher and a lower. The lower
included nothing but an external knowledge of the Latin language, and
some fortuitous knowledge of history, of antiquities, and of mythology.
_The memory was cultivated as a means of keeping down free activity
of thought and clearness of judgment._ The higher course comprehended
dialectics, rhetoric, physics, and morals. Dialectics was expounded
as the art of sophistry. In rhetoric, they favored the polemical and
emphatic style of the African Fathers of the church and their gorgeous
phraseology; in physics, they followed Aristotle closely, and especially
encouraged reading of the books ‘De Generatione et Corruptione’ and ‘De
Coelo,’ on which they commented after their fashion; finally, in morals,
casuistic skepticism was their central point. They made much of rhetoric,
on account of their sermons, giving to it careful attention. They
laid stress on declamation, and introduced it into their showy public
examinations through the performance of Latin school comedies, and thus
amused the public, disposed them to approval, and at the same time quite
innocently practiced the pupil in the art of assuming a feigned character.
“Diplomatic conduct was made necessary to the pupils of the Jesuits, as
well by their strict military discipline as by their system of mutual
distrust, espionage, and informing. Implicit obedience relieved the
pupils from all responsibility as to the moral justification of their
deeds. This exact following out of all commands and refraining from any
criticism as to principles, created a moral indifference; and, from the
necessity of having consideration for the peculiarities and caprices
of the superior on whom all others were dependent, arose eye service.
The coolness of mutual distrust sprang from the necessity which each
felt of being on his guard against every other as a talebearer. The
most deliberate hypocrisy and pleasure in intrigue merely for the sake
of intrigue—this subtilest poison of moral corruption—were the result.
Jesuitism had not only an interest in the material profit, which, when
it had corrupted souls, fell to its share, but it also had an interest
in the educative process of corruption. With absolute indifference as to
the idea of morality ... or the moral quality of the means used to attain
its end, it rejoiced in the efficacy of secrecy, and the accomplished and
calculating understanding, and in deceiving the credulous by means of its
graceful, seemingly scrupulous, moral language.”[140]
[Sidenote: Spread of Catholicism by schools]
Here is a picture of _this papacy of the papacy_. Again I say, had
Protestantism remained true to principle, even this system could not have
accomplished its overthrow; but since truth was neglected by Protestant
schools, this system of the Jesuits easily carried every country into
which it was introduced. “The Jesuit system of education ... was
intended to meet the active influence of Protestantism in education. It
was remarkably successful, and for a century [following 1584] nearly
all the foremost men of Christendom came from Jesuit schools. In 1710
they had six hundred and twelve colleges, one hundred and fifty-seven
normal schools, twenty-four universities, and an immense number of lower
schools. These schools laid very great stress on _emulation_. Their
experiments in this principle are so extensive and long-continued that
they furnish a most valuable phase in the history of pedagogy in this
respect alone. In the matter of supervision they are also worthy of
study. They had a fivefold system, each subordinate being obedient to his
superior. Besides this, there was a complete system of espionage on the
part of the teachers and pupil monitors.”[141]
[Sidenote: Methods of Jesuitical schools]
On the subject of emulation, as made use of in the schools of the
Jesuits, Painter gives us these thoughts: “The Jesuits made much of
emulation, and in their eager desire to promote it they adopted means
that could not fail to excite jealousy and envy. Says the Plan of
Studies: ‘He who knows how to excite emulation has found the most
powerful auxiliary in his teaching. Let the teacher, then, highly
appreciate this valuable aid, and let him study to make the wisest
use of it. Emulation awakens and develops all the powers of man. In
order to maintain emulation, it will be necessary that each pupil have
a rival to control his conduct and criticise him; also magistrates,
questors, censors, and decurians should be appointed among the students.
Nothing will be held more honorable than to outstrip a fellow student,
and nothing more dishonorable than to be outstripped. Prizes will be
distributed to the best pupils with the greatest possible solemnity.
Out of school the place of honor will everywhere be given to the most
distinguished pupils.’”[142]
As the Colossus of Rhodes stood astride the Greek waters, so the Jesuit
schools spanned the gulf of education. One foot stood in Greece amidst
its classics (for “Aristotle furnished the leading text-books”), the
other on Christian soil, having the _form_ of godliness; but like the
demigods of Greece, it was neither human nor divine. The results of the
educational system of the Jesuits are well summed up in another paragraph
from Painter:—
“The Jesuit system of education, based not upon a study of man, but upon
the interests of the order, was necessarily narrow. It sought showy
results with which to dazzle the world. A well-rounded development
was nothing. The principle of authority, suppressing all freedom and
independence of thought, prevailed from beginning to end. Religious
pride and intolerance were fostered. While our baser feelings were
highly stimulated, the nobler side of our nature was wholly neglected.
Love of country, fidelity to friends, nobleness of character, enthusiasm
for beautiful ideals, were insidiously suppressed. For the rest, we
adopt the language of Quick: ‘The Jesuits did not aim at developing
_all_ the faculties of their pupils, but merely the receptive and
reproductive faculties. When the young man had acquired a thorough
mastery of the Latin language for all purposes; when he was well versed
in the theological and philosophical opinions of his preceptors; when
he was skillful in dispute, and could make a brilliant display from the
resources of a well-stored memory, he had reached the highest points
to which the Jesuits sought to lead him. Originality and independence
of mind, love of truth for its own sake, the power of reflecting and
of forming correct judgments, were not merely neglected, they were
suppressed in the Jesuits’ system. But in what they attempted they were
eminently successful, and their success went a long way toward securing
their popularity.’”[143]
[Sidenote: Wherein Jesuit schools worthy of imitation]
One can not condemn without reserve the Jesuitical system of education;
for all false systems contain some points of truth, and the strength of
all these systems lies in their close counterfeit of the true. Hence
we can agree with these words: “Whatever its defects as a system of
general education, it was admirably suited to Jesuit purposes, and in
some particulars it embodied valuable principles.” As the progress of
the papacy through the Jesuitical schools is followed into one country
and then another, one admires the constancy and self-sacrifice of those
who have committed their lives to the order. Had Protestants been one
half as diligent in advocating the principles of Christian education
as the Jesuit teachers have been in counteracting the influence of the
Reformation, far different results would to-day be seen in the world.
[Sidenote: Spread of Jesuit schools]
In tracing the growth of the schools of the Jesuits we begin with
Germany, the heart of the reform movement, and follow quite carefully the
history as given by Ranke: “Bishop Urban became acquainted with Le Jay
and heard from him, for the first time, of the _colleges_ the _Jesuits
had founded in several universities_.
[Sidenote: Jesuit college in Vienna]
“Upon this the bishop advised his imperial master [Ferdinand I] to found
a _similar college in Vienna_, seeing how great was the decay of Catholic
theology in Germany. Ferdinand warmly embraced the suggestion; in a
letter he wrote to Loyola on the subject, he declares his conviction
that the only _means to uphold the declining cause of Catholicism in
Germany, was to give the rising generation learned and pious Catholics
for teachers_.” We can understand the grounds for this decision when
we recall the statement that about 1563 it was said that “twenty years
had elapsed in Vienna since a single student of the university had taken
priest’s orders.” “The preliminaries,” says Ranke, “were easily arranged.
In the year 1551 thirteen Jesuits, among them Le Jay himself, arrived
in Vienna, and were in the first instance, granted a dwelling, chapel,
and pension, by Ferdinand, until shortly after he incorporated them with
the university, and even assigned to them the visitation of it.” “Soon
after this they arose to consideration in _Cologne_,” but for a time had
little success. In 1556 the endowed school referred to before governed
by a Protestant regent, “gave them an opportunity of gaining a firmer
footing. For since there was a party in the city bent above all things on
maintaining the Catholic character of the university, the advice given by
the patrons of the Jesuits to hand over the establishment to that order,
met with attention.” “At the same period they also gained a firm footing
in _Ingoldstadt_.” “From these three metropolitan centers the Jesuits
now spread out in every direction.” These schools were, some of them
at least, training schools for Catholic teachers; for Ranke tells of a
certain man in Hungary, Olahus by name, and dedicated in infancy to the
church, who, “contemplating the general decay of Catholicism in Hungary,
saw that the last hope left for it was that of maintaining its hold on
the common people, who had not yet wholly lapsed from its rule. To this
end, however, there lacked teachers of Catholic principles, and to form
whom, he founded a college of Jesuits at Tyrnau in the year 1561.” “Two
privy councilors of the elector Daniel, of Mainz, ... conceived likewise
that the _admission of the Jesuits was the only means that promised a
recovery of the University of Mainz_. In spite of the opposition made by
the canons and feudal proprietors, they founded a college of the order in
Mainz, and a preparatory school in Aschaffenburg.”
[Sidenote: School at Heidelberg]
The Jesuits advanced up the Rhine. “They particularly coveted a
settlement at Spires, both because ... there were so many distinguished
men [assembled there] over whom it would be of extraordinary moment to
possess influence; and also in order to be placed near the Heidelberg
University, which at that day enjoyed the highest repute for its
Protestant professors. They gradually carried their point.” It is
interesting to note how they shadowed the Protestant schools, as if,
like a parasite, to suck from them their life. “In order to bring back
his University of Dillingen to its original purpose, Cardinal Truchess
resolved to dismiss all the professors who still taught there, and to
commit the establishment entirely to the Jesuits.”
[Sidenote: Rapid growth of Jesuit schools]
To show the rapidity with which the Jesuits worked, Ranke says: “In the
year 1551 they had not yet any fixed position in Germany;” “in 1556 they
had extended over Bavaria and the Tyrol, Franconia, and Swabia, a great
part of Rhineland, and Austria, and they had penetrated into Hungary,
Bohemia, and Moravia.” True to the purpose of the order, “their labors
were above all devoted to the universities. They were ambitious of
rivaling the fame of those of the Protestants.”
[Sidenote: Jesuits’ preparatory schools]
“The Jesuits displayed no less assiduity in the conduct of their Latin
schools. It was one of the leading maxims of Lainez that the lower
grammatical classes should be supplied with good teachers, since first
impressions exercise the greatest influence over the whole future life
of the individual.” The Jesuits were willing to devote a lifetime
to one phase of education. “It was found that young persons learned
more under them in half a year than with others in two years; even
Protestants called back their children from distant schools, and put
them under the care of the Jesuits.” From this last sentence two things
are to be observed. Protestants had lost sight of the importance of
education, and their schools had greatly deteriorated, else they would
not have intrusted their children to the Jesuits. While the Jesuits
began by working into the universities, “schools for the poor, modes of
instruction adapted for children, and catechizing followed.”
[Sidenote: Reputation of Jesuit schools]
“The instruction of the Jesuits was conveyed wholly in the spirit of
that enthusiastic devotion which had from the first so peculiarly
characterized their order.” This had its effect; for earnest,
whole-hearted work on the part of the teacher, even though the methods
may be wrong and material false, will surely react in the lives of the
pupils. Viewing the work of Jesuit teachers, one feels to exclaim,
“Since thou art so noble, I would thou wert on our side!” And so “erelong
the children, who frequented the schools of the Jesuits in Vienna, were
distinguished for their resolute refusal to partake on fast days of
forbidden meats which their parents ate.”
[Sidenote: Jesuits conquered Germany by their schools]
Teachers had more weight with the children than the parents themselves,
and became leaders of the older members of the family, so that “the
feelings thus engendered in the schools were propagated throughout the
mass of the population by preaching and confession.”
The final results in Germany, Ranke gives thus: “They occupied the
professors’ chairs, and found pupils who attached themselves to their
doctrines.... _They conquered the Germans on their own soil, in their
very home, and wrested from them a part of their native land._”[144] So
much for Germany and its Jesuit schools.
[Sidenote: Jesuit schools in France]
Concerning the capture of France by the Jesuits it is not necessary to
say much. Ranke gives a few strong paragraphs, showing the work of the
order as teachers. The Protestants of France made a great mistake,
and brought their cause into disrepute, especially in Paris, by taking
up arms in a time of commotion, and Ranke says: “Backed by this state
of public feeling, the Jesuits established themselves in France. They
began there on a somewhat small scale, being constrained to content
themselves with colleges thrown open to them by a few ecclesiastics....
They encountered at first the most obstinate resistance in the great
cities, especially in Paris, ... but they at last forced their way
through all impediments, and were admitted in the year 1564 to the
privilege of teaching. Lyons had already received them. Whether it was
the result of good fortune or of merit, they were enabled at once to
produce some men of brilliant talents from amongst them.... In Lyons,
especially, the Huguenots were completely routed, their preachers exiled,
their churches demolished, and their books burned; whilst, on the other
hand, a splendid college was erected for the Jesuits in 1567. They had
also a distinguished professor, whose exposition of the Bible attracted
_crowds of charmed and attentive youth_. From these chief towns they now
spread over the kingdom in every direction.”[145] Through the influence
gained as educators, 3,800 copies of Angier’s Catechism were sold in the
space of eight years in Paris alone. France no longer _leaned_ toward
Protestantism. She had been regained by the Jesuit schools.
[Sidenote: Jesuitical schools in England]
Concerning the work in England, more is said, and our own connection with
that kingdom adds weight in our eyes to the history of her education.
Thompson says: “During the reign of Elizabeth the papal authorities
renewed their exertions to put a stop to Protestantism in England, and
sent more Jesuits there for that purpose.”[146] What they could not
accomplish through intrigue and civil policy they were more sure to gain
through the schools; hence Thompson says: “They accomplished one thing,
which was to carry away with them several young English noblemen, to
be educated by the Jesuits in Flanders, so as to fit them for treason
against their own country,—repeating in this the experiment Loyola had
made in Germany.... The Jesuits endeavored to become the educators of
English youths as they had those of Germany.... The pope therefore
established an English college at _Rome_, to educate young Englishmen.”
[Sidenote: English college at Rome]
Of this college, Ranke tells us further: “William Allen first conceived
the idea of uniting the young English Catholics who resided on the
continent for the prosecution of their studies, and, chiefly through the
support of Pope Gregory, he established a college for them at Douay.
This, however, did not seem to the pope to be adequate for the purpose
in view. He wished to provide for those fugitives under his own eyes
a more tranquil and less dangerous retreat than could be found in the
disturbed Netherlands; accordingly he founded an English college in
Rome, and consigned it to the care of the Jesuits. No one was admitted
into the college who did not pledge himself, on the completion of his
studies, to return to England, and to preach there the faith of the Roman
Church.”[147]
[Sidenote: Jesuits as teachers in America]
America was settled when the Jesuit power was at its height. Those
teachers who penetrated Germany without fear, and secretly stole
into England when it was unsafe for them to be identified, followed
closely the paths of discovery and settlement. “In the beginning of the
seventeenth century we find,” says Ranke, “the stately fabric of the
Catholic Church in South America fully reared.... The Jesuits taught
grammar and the liberal arts, and a theological seminary was connected
with their college of San Ildefonso. All branches of theological study
were taught in the universities of Mexico and Lima.”[148]
[Sidenote: Jesuits in the United States]
In North America their vigilance was no less marked. “In 1611 Jesuit
missionaries came over and labored with remarkable zeal and success in
converting the Indians.”[149] In Maryland, a Catholic colony from the
first, they held unbounded sway. Speaking of the time of Lord Baltimore,
Thompson says: “At that time, in England, the papists were chiefly under
the influence of the Jesuits, whose vigilance was too sleepless to permit
the opportunity of planting their society in the New World to escape
them.”[150] Their work has been quietly done from the very first, and
some think that because of the papal decree of 1773, suppressing the
order, they have ceased their work. This, however, is a mistake; for
“Gregory XVI, whose pontificate commenced in 1831, was the first pope who
seemed encouraged by the idea that the papacy would ultimately establish
itself in the United States. His chief reliance, as the means of
realizing this hope, was upon the _Jesuits_, upon whose entire devotion
to the principles of absolutism he could confidently rely.”[151] But the
Jesuits always accomplish their work largely by means of education, hence
we may look for them to use the same tactics in our country that had
proved so eminently successful to their cause in England and Germany.
[Sidenote: Object of Jesuit schools in America]