assigned arbitrarily to the specific articles a century before. The
advantage attaching to this system is, that, no fluctuation of price
entering as a factor, the values continue to represent from year to
year the proportion of trade done. Official values are used throughout
this chapter when not otherwise stated. The "real values," deduced from
current prices, were generally much greater than the official. Thus, in
1800, the whole volume of trade, by official value £73,723,000, was by
real value £111,231,000. The figures are taken from Macpherson's Annals
of Commerce.
[287] The French will not suffer a Power which seeks to found its
prosperity upon the misfortunes of other states, to raise its commerce
upon the ruin of that of other states, and which, aspiring to the
dominion of the seas, wishes to introduce everywhere the articles of
its own manufacture and to receive nothing from foreign industry, any
longer to enjoy the fruit of its guilty speculations.—_Message of
Directory to the Council of Five Hundred_, Jan. 4, 1798.
[288] Message of Directory to Council of Five Hundred, Jan. 4, 1798.
[289] The act imposing these duties went into effect Aug. 15, 1789.
Vessels built in the United States, and owned by her citizens, paid
an entrance duty of six cents per ton; all other vessels fifty cents.
A discount of ten per cent on the established duties was also allowed
upon articles imported in vessels built and owned in the country.
(Annals of Congress. First Congress, pp. 2131, 2132.)
[290] Am. State Papers, vol. x. 502.
[291] Ibid., p. 389.
[292] Ibid., p. 528.
[293] Ibid., p. 584.
[294] Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, vol. iv. 535.
[295] Am. State Papers, vol. i. 243.
[296] Annual Register, 1793, p. 346*.
[297] Am. State Papers, i. 240. A complete series of the orders
injuriously affecting United States commerce, issued by Great Britain
and France, from 1791 to 1808, can be found in the Am. State Papers,
vol. iii. p. 262.
[298] Am. State Papers, i. 240, 241. How probable this result was may
be seen from the letters of Gouverneur Morris, Oct. 19, 1793, and March
6, 1794. State Papers, vol. i. pp. 375, 404.
[299] Am. State Papers, vol. i. p. 679.
[300] Wheaton's International Law, p. 753.
[301] Monroe to the British Minister of Foreign Affairs. Am. State
Papers, vol. ii. p. 735.
[302] Reply to "War in Disguise, or Frauds of the Neutral Flag," by
Gouverneur Morris, New York, 1806, p. 22.
[303] Russell's Life of Fox, vol. ii. p. 281.
[304] Letter to Danish Minister, March 17, 1807. Cobbett's Parl.
Debates, vol. x. p. 406.
[305] A letter from an American consul in the West Indies, dated March
7, 1794, gives 220 as the number. This was, however, only a partial
account, the orders having been recently received. (Am. State Papers,
i. p. 429.)
[306] By the ordinance of Aug. 30, 1784. See Annals of Congress, Jan.
13, 1794, p. 192.
[307] The National Convention, immediately after the outbreak of war,
on the 17th of February, 1793, gave a great extension to the existing
permission of trade between the United States and the French colonies;
but this could not affect the essential fact that the trade, under some
conditions, had been allowed in peace.
[308] In fact Monroe, in another part of the same letter, avows:
"The doctrine of Great Britain in every decision is the same....
Every departure from it is claimed as a relaxation of the principle,
gratuitously conceded by Great Britain."
[309] Mr. Jay seems to have been under some misapprehension in this
matter, for upon his return he wrote to the Secretary of State: "The
treaty does prohibit re-exportation from the United States of West
India commodities in neutral vessels; ... but we may carry them direct
from French and other West India islands to Europe." (Am. State Papers,
i. 520.) This the treaty certainly did not admit.
[310] See letter of Thos. Fitzsimmons, Am. State Papers, vol. ii. 347.
[311] The pretexts for these seizures seem usually to have been the
alleged contraband character of the cargoes.
[312] Am. State Papers, vol. ii. 345.
[313] It will be remembered that the closing days of May witnessed the
culmination of the death struggle between the Jacobins and Girondists,
and that the latter finally fell on the second of June.
[314] Am. State Papers, vol. i. pp. 284, 286, 748.
[315] Ibid., p. 372.
[316] One of these complaints was that the United States now prohibited
the sale, in her ports, of prizes taken from the British by French
cruisers. This practice, not accorded by the treaty with France, and
which had made an unfriendly distinction against Great Britain, was
forbidden by Jay's treaty.
[317] Speech of M. Dentzel in the Conseil des Anciens. Moniteur, An 7,
p. 555.
[318] Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 28.
[319] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 163.
[320] Letter to Talleyrand, Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 178.
[321] Ibid., vol. i. pp. 740, 748.
[322] The day after the news of Rivoli was received, Mr. Pinckney, who
had remained in Paris, though unrecognized, was curtly directed to
leave France.
[323] Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 13.
[324] Ibid., p. 14.
[325] American State Papers, vol. ii. p. 14.
[326] Moniteur, An v. pp. 164, 167.
[327] March 1, and October 8, 1793. Ibid.
[328] Speech of Lecouteulx; Moniteur, An v. p. 176.
[329] Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, vol. iv. 463.
[330] Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, vol. iv. 413, note.
[331] Of the imports into Germany, three fifths were foreign
merchandise re-exported from Great Britain.
[332] These figures are all taken from Macpherson's Annals of Commerce,
vol. iv.
[333] See Am. State Papers, vol. x. p. 487.
[334] The importance of the West India region to the commercial system
of Great Britain in the last decade of the 18th century will be seen
from the following table, showing the distribution per cent of British
trade in 1792 and 1800:—
Imports from, Exports to,
1792. 1800. 1792. 1800.
British West Indies 20 28 11 10
United States 5 7 17 15
Russia 9 8 3 2
Germany and Prussia 5 12 9 31
France, Belgium, and Holland 8 4 15 12
Mediterranean 7 2 6 2
Spain and Portugal 9 5 6 3
Ireland 13 7 9 9
Asia (not Levant) 14 16 10 7
Miscellaneous 10 11 14 9
‒‒‒ ‒‒‒ ‒‒‒ ‒‒‒
100 100 100 100
The significance of these figures lies not only in the amounts set
down directly to the West Indies, but also in the great increase of
exports to Germany, and the high rate maintained to France, Belgium,
and Holland, with which war existed. Of these exports 25 per cent in
1792, and 43 per cent in 1800, were foreign merchandise, chiefly West
Indian—_re-exported_.
[335] In 1800 the captured islands sent 9 per cent of the British
imports.
[336] Moniteur, An vii. pp 478, 482.
[337] Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 8.
[338] Moniteur, An vii. p. 502.
[339] Ibid., p. 716; Couzard's speech.
[340] Moniteur, An vii. p. 555; Dentzel's speech.
[341] Ibid.; Lenglet's speech.
[342] Ibid., pp. 582, 583. The figures are chiefly taken from the
speech of M. Arnould. A person of the same name, who was Chef du Bureau
du Commerce, published in 1797 a book called "Système Maritime et
Politique des Européens," containing much detailed information about
French maritime affairs, and displaying bitter hatred of England. If
the deputy himself was not the author, he doubtless had access to the
best official intelligence.
[343] In consequence of the law of Jan. 18, 1798, the British
government appointed a ship-of-the-line and two frigates to convoy a
fleet of American vessels to their own coast.—_Macpherson's Annals of
Commerce_, vol. iv. p. 440.
[344] Moniteur, An vii. p. 564; Cornet's speech.
[345] Annals of Congress, 1798, p. 3733.
[346] Ibid., p. 3754.
[347] Ibid.
[348] Speech of February 2, 1801.
[349] Speech of March 25, 1801.
[350] Annual Register, 1801; State Papers, p. 212.
[351] Ibid., p. 217.
[352] The _principle_ of the Rule of 1756, it will be remembered, was
that the neutral had no right to carry on, for a belligerent, a trade
from which the latter excluded him in peace.
[353] By a report submitted to the National Convention, July 3, 1793,
it appears that in the years 1787-1789 two tenths only of French
commerce was done in French bottoms. In 1792, the last of maritime
peace, three tenths was carried by French ships. (Moniteur, 1793, p.
804.)
[354] Moniteur, An vii. p. 582; Arnould's speech.
[355] Annual Register, 1804. State Papers, p. 286.
[356] The exports of the French West India islands in 1788 amounted to
$52,000,000, of which $40,000,000 were from San Domingo alone. (Traité
d'Économie Politique et de Commerce des Colonies, par P. F. Page.
Paris, An 9 (1800) p. 15.) This being for the time almost wholly lost,
the effect upon prices can be imagined.
[357] An American vessel arrived in Marblehead May 29, landed her
cargo on the 30th and 31st, reloaded, and cleared June 3. (Robinson's
Admiralty Reports, vol. v. p. 396.)
[358] In the case of the brig "Aurora," Mr. Madison, the Secretary of
State, wrote: "The duties were paid or secured, according to law, in
like manner as they are required to be secured on a like cargo meant
for home consumption; when re-shipped, the duties were drawn back with
a deduction of three and a half per cent (on them), as is permitted to
imported articles in all cases." (Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 732.)
In the case of the American ship "William," captured and sent in, on
duties to the amount of $1,239 the drawback was $1,211. (Robinson's
Admiralty Reports, vol. v. p. 396.) In the celebrated case of the
"Essex," with which began the seizures in 1804, on duties amounting to
$5,278, the drawback was $5,080. (Ibid., 405.)
[359] The text of the Berlin decree can be found among the series
beginning in American State Papers, vol. iii. p. 262.
[360] A curious indication of the dependence of the Continent upon
British manufactures is afforded by the fact that the French army,
during this awful winter, was clad and shod with British goods,
imported by the French minister at Hamburg, in face of the Berlin
decree. (Bourrienne's Memoirs, vol. vii. p. 292.)
[361] Am. State Papers, vol. ii. p. 805.
[362] Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. xiii. Appendix, pp. xxxiv-xlv.
[363] Thiers, Consulat et Empire, vol. vii. pp. 666-669.
[364] Letter of Lord Howick to Mr. Monroe, Jan. 10, 1807; Am. State
Papers, vol. iii. p. 5.
[365] President's Message to Congress, Oct. 27, 1807; Am. State Papers,
vol. iii. p. 5.
[366] Correspondance de Napoléon.
[367] British Declaration of September 25, 1807,—a paper which ably and
completely vindicates the action of Great Britain; Annual Register,
1807, p. 735.
[368] Annual Register, 1807. State Papers, p. 771.
[369] Ibid., p. 739.
[370] Lanfrey's Napoleon (French ed.), vol. iv. p. 153.
[371] Corr. de Nap., vol. xv. p. 659.
[372] Annual Register, 1807, p. 777.
[373] See, for example, Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. viii. pp. 636
and 641-644; vol. ix. p. 87, petition of West India planters; p. 100,
speech of Mr. Hibbert, and p. 684, speech of Mr. George Rose.
[374] See _ante_, p. 273.
[375] Am. State Papers, vol. iii. pp. 245-247.
[376] Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. xiii. Appendix, pp. xxxiv-xlv.
[377] Am. State Papers, vol. iii. pp. 23, 24.
[378] Annals of Congress, 1807, p. 2814.
[379] Annals of Congress, 1808-1809, p. 1824.
[380] There were three Orders in Council published on the 11th of
November, all relating to the same general subject. They were followed
by three others, issued November 25, further explaining or modifying
the former three. The author, in his analysis, has omitted reference to
particular ones; and has tried to present simply the essential features
of the whole, suppressing details.
[381] The attention paid to sustaining the commerce of Great Britain
was shown most clearly in the second Order of November 11, which
overrode the Navigation Act by permitting _any_ friendly vessel to
import articles the produce of hostile countries; a permission extended
later (by Act of Parliament, April 14, 1808) to _any_ ship, "belonging
to _any_ country, _whether in amity with his Majesty or not_." Enemy's
merchant ships were thus accepted as carriers for British trade with
restricted ports. See Am. State Papers, vol. iii. pp. 270, 282.
[382] Gibraltar and Malta are especially named, they being natural
depots for the Mediterranean, whence a large contraband trade was
busied in evading Napoleon's measures. The governors of those places
were authorized to license even enemy's vessels, if unarmed and not
over one hundred tons burthen, to carry on British trade, contrary to
the emperor's decrees.
[383] On March 28, 1808, an Act of Parliament was passed, fixing
the duties on exportations from Great Britain in furtherance of the
provisions of the Orders. This Act contained a clause excepting
American ships, ordered into British ports, from the tonnage duties
laid on those which entered voluntarily.
[384] In a debate on the Orders, March 3, 1812, the words of Spencer
Perceval, one among the ministers chiefly responsible for them, are
thus reported: "With respect to the principle upon which the Orders in
Council were founded, he begged to state that he had always considered
them as _strictly retaliatory_; and as far as he could understand
the matter they were most completely justified upon the principle
of retaliation.... _The object of the government was to protect and
force the trade of this country_, which had been assailed in such an
unprecedented manner by the French decrees. If the Orders in Council
had not been issued, France would have had free colonial trade by means
of neutrals, and we should have been shut out from the Continent....
_The object of the Orders in Council was, not to destroy the trade
of the Continent, but to force the Continent to trade with us._"
(Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. xxi. p. 1152.)
As regards the retaliatory effect upon France, Perceval stated that the
revenue from customs in France fell from sixty million francs, in 1807,
to eighteen and a half million in 1808, and eleven and a half in 1809.
(Ibid. p. 1157.)
[385] Correspondance de Napoléon, vol. xvii. p. 19.
[386] Mr. Henry Adams (History of the United States, 1801-1817) gives
134 as the number of American ships seized between April, 1809, and
April, 1810, and estimates the value of the vessels and cargoes at
$10,000,000 (Vol. v. p. 242.) The author takes this opportunity of
acknowledging his great indebtedness to Mr. Adams's able and exhaustive
work, in threading the diplomatic intricacies of this time.
[387] December 26, 1805.
[388] Metternich's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 82.
[389] Metternich to Stadion, Jan. 11, 1809; Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 312.
[390] Letter of Napoleon to Louis, dated Trianon, Dec. 20, 1808;
Mémoires de Bourrienne, vol. viii. p. 134. Garnier's Louis Bonaparte,
p. 351. The date should be 1809. On Dec. 20, 1808, Napoleon was at
Madrid, in 1809 at Trianon; not to speak of the allusion to the
Austrian war of 1809.
[391] Napoleon issued orders to this effect in August, 1807. Cargoes
of goods such as England might furnish were sequestrated; those that
could not possibly be of British origin, as naval stores and French
wines, were admitted. All vessels were to be prevented from leaving the
Weser. No notification of this action was given to foreign agents. See
Cobbett's Political Register, 1807, pp. 857-859.
[392] Thiers, Consulate and Empire (Forbes's translation), vol. xii. p.
21.
[393] Mémoires de Bourrienne, French Minister at Hamburg, vol. viii.
pp. 193-198.
[394] Annual Register, 1809; State Papers, 747.
[395] April 1, 1808; Naval Chronicle, vol. xxi. p. 48. May 7, 1809;
Annual Register, 1809, p. 698.
[396] Napoleon saw, in 1809, that his work at Tilsit was all to be done
over, since the only war Russia could make against the English was
by commerce, which was protected nearly as before. There was sold in
Mayence sugar and coffee which came from Riga.—_Mémoires de Savary, duc
de Rovigo_ (Imperial Chief of Police), vol. iii. p. 135.
[397] D'Ivernois, Effects of the Continental blockade, London, Jan.,
1810. Lord Grenville, one of the leaders of the Opposition, expressed a
similar confidence when speaking in the House of Lords, Feb. 8, 1810.
(Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. xv. p. 347.) So also the King's speech
at the opening of Parliament, Jan. 19, 1809: "The public revenues,
notwithstanding we are shut out from almost all the continent of
Europe and entirely from the United States, has increased to a degree
never expected, even by those persons who were most sanguine." (Naval
Chronicle, vol. xxi. p. 48.)
[398] Monthly Magazine, vol. xxi. p. 195.
[399] Ibid., vol. xxii. p. 514.
[400] Ibid., vol. xxi. p. 539.
[401] Monthly Magazine, vol. xxii. p. 618.
[402] Ibid., vol. xxiv. p. 611.
[403] Ibid., vol. xxvi. p. 11.
[404] Ibid., vol. xxvii. pp. 417, 641.
[405] Ibid., p. 135.
[406] Tooke's History of Prices, vol. i. pp. 300, 301.
[407] Salgues, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de la France, vol.
viii. pp. 350-355. Mémoires de Marmont, due de Raguse, vol. iii. p.
365. Mémoires de Savary, due de Rovigo, vol. v. p. 115.
[408] Quarterly Review, May, 1811, p. 465.
[409] For instance, a license was necessary for a British subject to
ship any articles to an enemy's port, though in a neutral vessel. In
principle, licenses are essential to trade with an enemy. In 1805 and
1807 Orders in Council dispensed with the necessity of a license in
particular instances; but even then merchants preferred to take out a
license, because it cut short any questions raised by British cruisers,
and especially by privateers. See Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. x. p.
924.
[410] Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. x. p. 406.
[411] For an interesting account of the neutralizing trade, see Naval
Chronicle, vol. xxxi. pp. 288-295, and vol. xxxii. p. 119. On the
License System, the Parliamentary Debates (table of contents), and the
Quarterly Review of May, 1811, may be consulted.
[412] Quarterly Review, May, 1811, p. 461. Lindsay's History of
Merchant Shipping, vol. ii. p 316.
[413] Petition of Hull merchants, 1812; Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol.
xxi. p. 979.
[414] Am. State Papers, vol. iii. p. 341.
[415] Cobbett's Parliamentary Debates, vol. xxi. p. 1113.
[416] Ross's Life of Admiral Saumarez, vol. ii. pp. 196, 241.
[417] In the years 1809 and 1810 one hundred and sixty American vessels
alone were seized by Danish privateers. Only a part, however, were
condemned. (Am. State Papers, vol. iii. p. 521.)
[418] Erskine's note to that effect was dated April 19, 1809.
[419] Annual Register, 1809, p. 726.
[420] Moniteur, Feb. 24, 1810.
[421] Mémoires, vol. ix. pp. 21-24.
[422] Cons. et Empire (Forbes's Trans.), xii. 15.
[423] Corr. de Nap., vol. xx. p. 235.
[424] Compare Metternich's Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 188.
[425] Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xxxviii. p. 182.
[426] Corr. de Nap., vol. xxi. p. 70: "Mon principe est, La France
avant tout." (Letter to viceroy of Italy.)
[427] Parl. Debates, vol. xxi. p. 1050; xxiii. p. 540.
[428] Cobbett's Parl. Debates, vol. xxi. pp. 1056, 1117.
[429] The decree was also shrouded in secrecy, and its existence denied
in the Moniteur (Cobbett's Pol. Register, xviii. p. 701). Napoleon
wrote to the viceroy of Italy, Aug. 6, 1810: "You will receive a decree
which I have just issued to regulate duties on colonial produce.... It
is to be executed in Italy; it is secret and to be kept in your hands.
You will therefore give orders in pursuance of this decree only by
ministerial letters." (Corr., vol. xxi. p. 28.)
[430] Thiers, Cons. et Empire, Book xxxviii. pp. 181-189.
[431] Monthly Magazine, Feb. 1811, vol. xxxi. p. 67.
[432] Corr. de Nap., vol. xxi. p. 58.
[433] Corr. de Nap., vol. xxi. p. 224.
[434] Ibid., p. 268.
[435] Ibid., p. 77.
[436] Ibid., pp. 70, 71.
[437] Ibid., pp. 61, 62.
[438] Cobbett's Pol. Register, vol. xviii. pp. 704, 722.
[439] At Bordeaux licensed vessels were known to take on board wines
and brandies for the British army in Portugal. (Mémoires du duc de
Rovigo, vol. v. p. 60.)
[440] Bourrienne, Mémoires, vol. viii. p. 261.
[441] Mémoires du duc de Rovigo, vol. v. p. 66.
[442] Mémoires de Bourrienne, vol. ix. p. 60.
[443] Porter's Progress of the Nation, sect. iii. p. 205. In 1815,
after Napoleon's overthrow, the price fell to £34.
[444] Tooke's Hist. of Prices, vol. i. p. 354.
[445] Souvenirs du duc de Vicence, vol. i. p. 88.
[446] Both Monroe and Pinkney, while ministers in London, informed the
United States government that the extreme measures taken were popular.
(Am. State Papers, vol. iii. pp. 188, 206.)
[447] Letter on the Genius and Disposition of the French Government; by
an American lately returned from Europe, pp. 189-192. Baltimore, 1810.
See also Metternich's Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 476, for the unhappiness of
France.
[448] Mémoires du due de Raguse, vol. iii. p. 423. Marmont adds: "This
was a powerful help to French industry _during that time of suffering
and misery_."
[449] Tooke's History of Prices, vol. i. p. 311.
[450] In like manner, vessels with British licenses frequently slipped
into French ports, especially with naval stores from the Baltic.
[451] "There was not a Dutchman," says M. Thiers, "who had not lost
fifty per cent by foreign loans." (Cons. et Empire (Forbes's trans.),
xii. 47.)
[452] "The emperor does desire war, because he needs more or less
virgin soil to explore, because he has need to occupy his armies and to
entertain them at the expense of others.... M. Romanzow has repeated to
me a long conversation he had had with the emperor. 'He wants money,'
said he,—'he does not hide it; he wishes war against Austria to procure
it.'" (Metternich to Stadion, Feb. 17, 1809; Memoirs, ii. 329.) The
Austrian war of 1809 brought $34,000,000 into Napoleon's military
chest. (Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xxxviii. p. 34.)
[453] Thus to Davout, commanding the Army of Germany: "I shall need
much money, which should make you feel the importance of obtaining for
me as much as you can, and asking of me as little as possible." (Corr.,
March 24, 1811.)
[454] This condition of the debt was partly factitious, Napoleon
maintaining the public funds at eighty, by the secret intervention of
the military chest. (Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xli. p. 18.)
[455] Mémoires du duc de Rovigo, vol. v. p. 116.
[456] Genius and Disposition of French Govt., p. 166. Baltimore, 1810.
[457] Genius and Disposition of French Govt., pp. 181-192.
[458] Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xli. p. 22.
[459] Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xli. p. 11.
[460] Arnold's History of Rome, opening of chap. xliii.
[461] It is interesting to observe in Metternich's letters, while
ambassador at Paris, how he counts upon this exhausting of the capital
of French soldiers as the ultimate solution of the subjection of
Austria. "For some time Napoleon has lived on anticipations. The
reserves are destroyed." (April 11, 1809.) Compare also his exclamation
to the emperor in 1813: "Is not your present army anticipated by
a generation? I have seen your soldiers; they are mere children."
(Memoirs, vol. i. p. 189).
[462] See Metternich's Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 477.
[463] Corr. de Nap., vol. xxi. p. 497 (Feb. 28, 1811).
[464] Ibid., p. 275.
[465] Ibid., p. 296.
[466] These contentions of Napoleon were for the most part perfectly
correct. Some interesting facts, bearing upon the true character of the
so-called neutral trade in the Baltic, may be gathered from Ross's Life
of Saumarez, vol. ii. chaps. ix.-xiii. See also representations made
by a number of American ship-captains, Am. State Papers, vol. iii. pp.
329-333. On the other hand, the scrupulously upright John Quincy Adams,
U. S. minister to Russia, affirmed that he positively knew some of the
American ships to be direct from the United States. The facts, however,
only show the dependence of the world at that time upon the Sea Power
of Great Britain, which made Napoleon's Continental System impossible;
yet, on the other hand, it was his only means of reaching his enemy. If
he advanced, he was ruined; if he receded, he failed.
[467] During one year, 1809, this fleet captured 430 vessels, averaging
sixty tons each, of which 340 were Danes. Among these were between
thirty and forty armed cutters and schooners, of which Denmark had to
employ a great many to supply Norway with grain. The remaining ninety
vessels were Russian. (Naval Chronicle, vol. xxii. p. 517.)
[468] "Once more I must tell you," wrote a Swedish statesman to
Saumarez, "that you were the first cause that Russia dared to make war
against France. Had you fired one shot when we declared war against
England, all had been ended and Europe would have been enslaved."
(Ross's Saumarez, vol. ii. p. 294.)
[469] Thiers, Cons. et Emp., Book xlii. p. 383.
[470] Compare Metternich's argument with the French Minister of Foreign
Affairs, October, 1807. (Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 161.)
[471] Annual Register, 1792; State Papers, p. 355.
[472] Moniteur, Dec. 25, 1792; Proposition of M. Barailon.
[473] Pitt's Speeches, vol. ii. pp. 46, 47.
[474] Lanfrey's Napoleon, vol. iv. p. 112 (Eng. trans., ed. 1886).
[475] Lanfrey's Napoleon, vol. ii. chap. iii. p. 122 (Eng. trans., 2d
ed.).
[476] Jurien de la Gravière, Vie de l'Amiral Baudin, p. 9.
[477] That is, about 8 per cent annually. The increase during the four
years of the elder Pitt in the Seven Years' War, 1757-1761, was 29 per
cent, about 7 per cent annually.
[478] Système Maritime et Politique des Européens dans le 18me
siècle, par Arnould. Paris, 1797.
[479] For Napoleon's own assertion of this fact, see "Note pour le
Ministre des Relations Extérieures," Corr. de Nap., Oct. 7, 1810. See
also _ante_, p. 320.
[480] Martin, Hist. de France depuis 1789, vol. i. p. 396.
[481] Annual Register, 1793, p. 163. For the correspondence on that
occasion see A. R. 1792; State Papers, pp. 326, 327. See also letter of
Le Brun, French Minister of Foreign Affairs, in the Moniteur of Aug.
26, 1792.
[482] The Directory tended to impose upon the smaller states,
neighboring to or allies of France, republican constitutions,
"unitaires" (centralized) in form, analogous to our own, as Bonaparte
had done for the Cisalpine Republic and for Genoa. It had just done so
in Holland, where it had raised against the government of the United
Provinces a kind of 18th of Fructidor (coup d'état). It now (1798)
aimed at revolutionizing Switzerland. Bonaparte urged it on. He had
already provoked a revolution in a republic near to and allied with the
Swiss, that of the Grisons.—MARTIN: _Hist. de France depuis_ 1789, vol.
iii. p. 7.
[483] Napoleon's remark referred to the edicts of the Directory,
confiscating British goods wherever found on land; but it applies
equally to the decree of January, 1798, which extended the edict to
the sea: "Le Directoire ébaucha le système du blocus continental; il
ordonna la saisie de toutes les marchandises Anglaises qui pouvaient
se trouver à Mayence et dans les autres pays cédés à la France."
(Commentaires de Napoléon I., Paris, 1867, vol. iii. p. 413.)
[484] This correspondence, so far as published, is to be found in the
Annual Register for 1797; State Papers, pp. 181-223.
[485] See Stanhope's Life of Pitt, vol. ii. p. 224 (ed. 1879).
[486] For a graphic description of the effects of the Berlin decree on
the Continent, see Fyffe's History of Modern Europe, vol. i. p. 328.
[487] Metternich's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 65.
INDEX.
_Acre_, Siege of, by Bonaparte,
i. 294-302.
_Alexander_, Czar of Russia
ii. succeeds to the throne, 55;
Convention with Great Britain, June, 1801, 57;
coolness toward Bonaparte, 69, and note;
joint action with Bonaparte in German indemnities, 84;
conditions required before guaranteeing status of Malta, 92;
attitude upon the execution of the Duc d'Enghien, 129, 177;
joins Third Coalition, 177;
defeated at Austerlitz, 182;
commercial policy, 200;
campaign of Eylau and Friedland, 273;
Treaty of Tilsit, 274, 310;
meeting at Erfurt, 293;
war with Sweden, 293;
joint letter with Napoleon to king of Great Britain, 294;
attitude toward the Continental System, 303, 324, 329;
peace with Sweden, 316;
uneasiness at extension of French empire, 324;
dissatisfaction at the annexation of Oldenburg, 330;
disagreement with Napoleon concerning the Continental System,
344,401;
understanding reached with Great Britain and Sweden, 347;
peace with Turkey, 350;
attacked by Napoleon, 351.
_Antwerp_, commercial isolation of,
i. in 1780, 9;
naval importance of, 15;
development under Napoleon as a naval arsenal, 377.
_Armed Neutrality_, of 1800,
ii. signature and affirmations of, 36;
dissolution of, 57.
_Austria_,
i. natural ally of Great Britain, 12;
quarrel with Holland about the Scheldt, 17;
war with Turkey, 1788, 19;
successes, 24;
peace with Turkey, 25;
joins in Declaration of Pilnitz, 28;
war with France, 29;
driven from Netherlands, 1792, 31;
jealousy of Prussia, 80;
holds Italian duchies, 84;
successes in 1793, 93;
mistakes, 94;
reverses, 103, 168;
forced to retire across the Rhine in 1794, 169, 171;
strengthens alliance with Great Britain, 172;
successes of 1795, 181-183;
campaign in Italy, 1795, 195-198;
reverses in Italy, 1796, 209-212, 216, 217, 233;
signs preliminaries of Leoben, 234;
Treaty of Campo Formio, Austrian gains and losses, 250;
dissatisfaction at French occupation of Rome, 279;
tumult in Vienna, 280;
alliance with Naples and Russia, 1798, 282;
ii. renewal of war with France, 3;
successes in Switzerland and Italy, 4-8;
defeat at battle of Zurich, 1799, 9;
refusal to treat with Bonaparte, 16;
disastrous campaigns of 1800 in Germany and Italy, 19-24;
negotiations with Great Britain and France, 25;
armistice with France, 25, 35;
renewal of hostilities and defeat of Hohenlinden, 38;
Peace of Lunéville, 39;
loss of power by German indemnities, 84;
joins Third Coalition, 177-179;
disastrous campaign of Austerlitz, 181;
Peace of Presburg, 182;
accedes to the Continental System, 1807, 278;
preparations to renew the war, 297;
war with France in 1809, 314-316;
Peace of Vienna and renewed exclusion of British goods, 316.
_Barham_, Lord, First Lord of Admiralty,
ii, 168;
masterly action of, before Trafalgar, 169, 174.
_Battles_, land,
Aboukir, i. 322;
Arcola, i. 233;
Austerlitz, ii. 182;
Badajos,ii. 349;
Castiglione, i. 233;
Ciudad Rodrigo, ii. 348;
Eckmuhl, ii. 315;
Essling, ii. 316;
Eylau, ii. 273;
Fleurus, i. 168;
Friedland, ii. 274;
Jena, ii. 270;
Jemappes, i. 31;
Lodi, i. 210;
Loano, i. 198;
Marengo, ii. 23;
Pyramids, i. 277;
Rivoli, i. 233, 243;
Talavera, ii. 315;
Valmy, i. 30;
Wagram, ii. 316;
Wattignies, i. 103.
_Battles_, sea,
Algesiras, ii. 63-66;
Camperdown, i. 378;
Copenhagen, ii. 47-51;
First of June, i. 126-155;
Hotham and Martin, i. 190-194;
Île Groix, i. 177;
Nile, i. 261-277;
St. Vincent, i. 221-229;
Trafalgar, ii. 185-195.
_Bettesworth_, captain, British navy,
ii. fortunate meeting with combined fleets in June, 1805,
163, 167.
_Bonaparte_, Napoleon,
i. interest in the East, 14;
influence upon course of events, 183;
appointed to command Army of Italy, 203;
successful campaign of 1796, 207-211;
designs upon Corsica, 213;
opinion of the effect of British Mediterranean fleet upon his
operations, 217;
critical position in Italy, May, 1796-Feb. 1797, 233;
fall of Mantua, 233;
advances into Carinthia, 234;
signs preliminaries of Leoben, 234;
offence at action of the Council of Five Hundred, 244;
sends Augereau to support _coup d'état_, 244;
deep projects for maritime and Oriental expansion, 246-249;
signs Treaty of Campo Formio, 250;
opinion of danger to France from British Sea Power, 251;
return to Paris and command of Army of England, 252;
Egyptian expedition organized, 253;
sails from Toulon, 256;
captures Malta, and sails thence for Egypt, 257;
lands at Alexandria, 260;
orders concerning the disposition of the fleet, 261-263;
criticism of Nelson's conduct, 275;
conquest of Lower Egypt, 277;
objects in Egyptian undertaking, 288;
Syrian expedition, 290;
siege of Acre, 299;
retreat into Egypt, 302;
criticisms upon Sir Sidney Smith, 303;
defeats Turks at Aboukir, 322;
return to France, 324;
criticism upon his Oriental projects, 324-328;
attempts to send relief to Egypt and Malta, 329-331;
views as to condition of French in Egypt, 332;
views as to relative importance of Brest and Antwerp, 377;
ii. policy as first consul, 15, 20;
campaign of Marengo, 22;
negotiations with Austria and Great Britain, 1800, 25, 34,
35, 38-40;
overtures to the Czar, 29, 32, 37;
to Prussia, 28, 31;
efforts to form a coalition against Great Britain, 25-37;
Mediterranean projects, 1800-1801, 59-68;
anxiety for maritime peace, 70;
sends expedition to Haïti, 78;
president of Cisalpine republic, 80;
first consul for life, 83;
aggressions in 1802, 84-90;
insults to Great Britain, 93-96;
projects against Great Britain, 1803, 100;
preparations to invade England, 102, 105, 111-117;
invasion of Hanover and Naples, 109-111;
first combinations to invade England, 124;
becomes emperor, May, 1804, 130. See also Napoleon.
_Boulogne_,
ii. point of concentration for Bonaparte's flotilla for invasion
of England, 113;
preparations at, 114;
strategic value of, 116;
appearance in 1814, 182.
_Brest_,
i. character and surroundings of the port, 304, 305, 342-344;
methods of watching observed by Howe and Bridport, 345, 346,
364-367;
St. Vincent's methods, 368-376;
paralysis as a port of equipment, 376;
Napoleon's preference for Antwerp, 377.
_Bridport_, Lord, British admiral,
i. succeeds Howe in command of Channel fleet, 165;
action of Île Groix, 177;
escape of the French fleet from Brest, 1799, 305;
method of watching Brest, 345, 346;
French expedition against Ireland, 360-367;
anecdote of, 368;
relieved in command by St. Vincent, 368.
_Brueys_, French admiral,
i. commands French division in Adriatic, 252, 255;
designs upon Malta in 1798, 255;
appointed to command fleet in Egyptian expedition, 253;
negligent conduct of, 262, 263;
inadequate preparations for defence, 264-266;
Battle of the Nile, 266-272;
killed, 271.
_Bruix_, French admiral,
i. escape from Brest with twenty-five ships-of-the-line, in 1799,
305;
enters Mediterranean, 307;
action in Mediterranean, 312-315;
re-enters Atlantic accompanied by sixteen Spanish ships, 315;
reaches Brest, 316;
comments on this cruise, 318;
ii. instructions of Bonaparte to, in 1800, 60-63;
connection with invasion flotilla, and death, 130.
_Calder_, British admiral,
ii. ordered to command a detached squadron, 168;
action with combined fleets, 171;
court-martial upon, 174.
_Catharine_, Empress of Russia,
i. influence upon Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, 11;
relations with Austria and France, 1784, 16, 17;
naval undertakings, 1788, 20;
attitude toward French Revolution, 82, 243; ii. 233;
ii. death, 243.
_Chauvelin_, French ambassador to Great Britain,
i. disputes with British ministry, 32-34;
dismissed from Great Britain, 34.
_Collingwood_, British admiral,
i. remarks of, 70, 71, 75, 309 (note);
attention to health of crew, 71;
distinguished share in battle of Cape St. Vincent, 227;
ii. blockade off Rochefort, 118;
ordered to West Indies with eight ships in 1805, 155, 157;
blockade of Cadiz, 157, 159, 167, 175, 180;
surmise as to Napoleon's intentions, 156;
brilliant conduct at Trafalgar, 191;
succeeds to command after Nelson's death, 195.
_Commerce_, warfare against,
ii. chaps. xvii. and xviii.
_Commerce_-destroying,
i. by scattered cruisers, 179, 326-328, 335-338; ii. 199-218,
221-228.
_Cornwallis_, British admiral,
i. action with superior French fleet, 177;
tenacity in maintaining Brest blockade, 373, 376; ii. 98, 118,
119, 123, 128, 148, 153;
orders to detach squadron under Calder to meet Villeneuve,
168;
joined by Calder and Nelson, 174;
mistake in dividing his force, 176.
_Corsica_,
i. acquired by France in 1769, 88;
relations to France and to Great Britain, 88;
revolt against the Convention, 88;
French expelled by British, 187;
union with Great Britain proclaimed, 188;
difficulties of government by Great Britain, 188, 189;
value of the island, 179, 186;
Bonaparte's measures to recover, 213, 216;
evacuated by the British, 216;
contributes a detachment to Egyptian Expedition, 254, 257.
_Davout_, French marshal,
ii. battle of Eckmuhl, 314;
charged with maintenance of Continental System, 317;
command in Prussia and Hanse towns, 319;
injunctions of Napoleon to, 337, note.
_Decrees_, French,
of Fraternity, Nov. 19, 1792, i. 31, ii. 361;
extending French system, Dec. 15, 1792, i. 32, ii. 367;
ii. affecting neutral carriers, 231, 234, 242-246;
confiscating ships carrying goods of British origin, January,
1798, 249, 250, 254-259;
Napoleon's Berlin, 271-273, 281;
Milan, 290;
Bayonne and Rambouillet, 291, 292;
general seizure of goods of British origin, August, 1810, 324;
public burning of British manufactures, Oct. 19, 1810, 327.
_De Galles_, Morard, French admiral,
i. commands Brest fleet in 1793, 61-63;
conduct in the mutiny of that year, 62;
opinions as to the efficiency of the seamen, 61;
commands naval part of Irish Expedition, 1796, 350-360.
_Denmark_,
i. hostility to Sweden, 21;
invades Sweden, 1788, 21;
stopped by Great Britain and Prussia, 22, 25;
seeks the commercial advantages of neutrality in French
Revolution, 83;
loss of West India colonies, 121;
ii. quarrel with Great Britain about rights of convoy, 26;
Bonaparte tries to conciliate, 30;
joins Armed Neutrality of 1800, 36;
British expedition against, 41-47;
battle of Copenhagen, 47-51;
armistice with Great Britain, 51, and convention, 58;
Napoleon's designs against, 276;
second British expedition and bombardment of Copenhagen, 277;
shares in Continental System, 301;
privateering by Danish seamen, 313;
deprived of Norway, 350.
_De Rions_, D'Albert, French commodore,
i. mobbed by the populace of Toulon, 41-44;
commands Brest fleet in mutiny of 1790, 45;
leaves the navy and emigrates, 46;
Suffren's high opinion of, 46.
_Devins_, Austrian general,
i. inefficiency of, in 1795 in Italy,195-198.
_Directory_,
i. established as French executive government, 175, 176;
arrogance toward foreign states, 240, 242;
ii. disasters and incompetency of, 1-14;
overthrown by Bonaparte, 15;
identity of spirit with Napoleon, 258, 354, 396, 398.
_Dumouriez_, French general,
i. wins battles of Valmy and Jemappes, 30, 31, 89;
defeated at Neerwinden and driven from Holland and
Netherlands, 89;
treason of, 89.
_Egypt_,
i. nominal dependence upon Turkey under the Mamelukes, 85;
genesis of Bonaparte's expedition to, 246-249;
conquest of, by the French, 260, 277, 288-290;
Bonaparte's purpose in the enterprise, 288;
loss of, by the French, 330-334;
Kleber's opinion of the value of, 331;
tenure dependent upon control of the sea, 331, 332, ii. 60-63;
ii. restored to Turkey, 72;
condition under Turkish rule, 94, 150;
Nelson's apprehensions for, 124-127;
his search for the French fleet in Alexandria, 1805, 144.
_Elba_, island of,
i. seized by British, though a possession of Tuscany, 213;
evacuated, 220;
ii. transferred to France at Peace of Amiens, 82.
_Elliott_, Sir Gilbert,
i. British Viceroy of Corsica, 187, 188, 213;
quoted, 188, 217, 218;
returns to England, 230.
_Flotilla_,
ii. for invasion of England, numbers and character of, 111-116;
estimate of, as a fighting force by British naval officers and
Napoleon, 120-122;
ultimate fate of, 182.
_Fox_, British statesman,
ii. opinion as to "free ships, free goods," 261;
minister of foreign affairs, 1806, 269;
modification of Rule of 1756 by Order in Council of
May, 1806, 270;
death, 270;
praise of French soldiery, 365;
disparagement of Pitt, 387.
_France_,
i. results of war of 1778 to, 3, 4;
condition of, in 1789, 6;
policy of, as to Sweden, Poland, and Turkey, 13;
interest in the Levant and the Baltic, 14, 22;
interest in Netherlands, 15, and Holland, 16-18;
alliance with Holland, 1785, 18;
increasing internal disorder, 18, 24;
meeting of States General, 25;
outline of events in the Revolution to Feb. 1, 1793, 28-33;
declares war against Austria, 29,
and against Great Britain and Holland, 34;
condition of the navy in 1793, and causes thereof, 35-68;
comparative strength of British and French fleets, 75, 110;
acquisition and status of Corsica, 88;
internal conflicts in 1793, 89-92;
disasters on eastern frontiers, 93;
energy shown by the government, 93-96;
disasters retrieved in 1793, 103;
internal rebellions quelled, 104, 105;
condition and importance of West India Islands, 111, 114, 115;
contest over West India Islands, 115-119;
scarcity of provisions, 1793, 122;
convoy of provisions ordered from America, 122;
internal events, 1794, 166-168;
military successes in 1794, 168-171;
conquest of Belgium and Holland, 170;
peace with Prussia, Holland, and Spain, 172;
reaction of 1795, 173, 174;
internal disorders, 175, 176;
great fleets withdrawn from the sea, and policy of
commerce-destroying adopted, 179, 201;
military weakness in 1795, 180-183;
loses Corsica, 1794, 187;
successes in Italy, 1795-1796, 198, 209-211, 233, 234;
regains Corsica, 216;
brings Austria to peace, 234, 250;
arrogance toward foreign governments, 240-243;
reactionary disorders, 243;
coup d'état of Sept. 3, 1797, 244;
danger from Great Britain, 251;
sends expedition to Egypt, 253;
capture of Malta by, 257;
naval defeat at the Nile, 263-277;
subjugation of Egypt by, 277, 289;
aggressions upon Holland and Switzerland, 278;
offence given to Naples, Austria, and Russia, 280-282;
reverses in the Mediterranean, 1798, 287;
expectations from conquest of Egypt, 288;
reverses in Europe, 1799, 323,
loss of Malta and Egypt, 328-334;
maritime impotence of, 335-338,
expeditions against Ireland, 346-380;
ii. conquest of Naples, 2;
reverses in Europe, 1799, 3-11, 407;
internal disorders, 1799, 11-15; Bonaparte first consul, 15;
successful campaign of 1800, 19-24;
maritime and colonial exhaustion, 1800, 25, 35;
peace of Lunéville with Austria, 39;
fruitless attempts to control Mediterranean, 59-68;
preliminaries of peace with Great Britain, 71-73;
exhaustion of national spirit of aggression, 74;
aggressions of Bonaparte, 1801-1803, 76-97;
cession of Louisiana by Spain, 77;
Peace of Amiens with Great Britain, 81;
renewal of war, 98;
Louisiana ceded to United States, 104;
maritime and financial weakness, 106-108;
occupation of Hanover and heel of Italy, 109-111;
preparations for invasion of England, 111-117;
exactions from Spain, 133;
Trafalgar campaign, 140-181;
its chances of success discussed, 182-184;
necessity of invading England, 184;
campaign of 1805 and battle of Austerlitz, 181;
naval defeat of Trafalgar, 187-195;
far-reaching consequences of this battle, 196;
succeeded by the Continental System, 197-200;
maritime impotence of, 202;
activity of privateers, 207-210;
characteristics of privateering, in Europe, 208,
in Atlantic, 210,
in West Indies, 212,
in East Indies, 215-218;
destruction of French commerce, 218-220, 375;
bitterness against Great Britain and maritime neutrals, 230;
anger against United States, 239;
measures directed against neutral carriers, 242-248, 250-254;
results of these measures, 254-258;
_quasi_ war with the United States, 258;
true commercial policy of, 262-265, 280, 354;
commercial measures of Napoleon, 265;
Berlin Decree, 271;
campaign against Russia, 273;
Peace of Tilsit, 274;
invasion of Portugal, 277;
Milan Decree, 290;
war in Spain, 292;
war with Austria, 1809, 314;
excessive prices in, 322;
internal distress of, 333-337, 340-342, 349;
want of credit, 339, 343;
disputes with Russia, 344;
invasion of Russia, 351;
analysis of commercial measures of Napoleon, 351-357;
temper and aims of leaders in French Revolution, 359-363, 367,
384, also 74;
decrees of November 19, 361,
and December 15, 367;
effect of the maritime war upon French industry, 395;
identity of spirit in the Republic, the Directory, and in
Napoleon, 396-399;
the struggle with Great Britain one of endurance, 406;
similarity of characteristics in the external action of France
from 1793-1812, 407-411;
continued vitality of the movement due to Bonaparte, 407, 408.
_Ganteaume_, French admiral,
i. report of condition of French naval officers and seamen, 1801, 65;
injuries received by squadron under his command, 67;
commerce-destroying cruise in 1795, 202;
brings Bonaparte back from Egypt to France, 323;
escape from Brest in 1801, 376, ii. 61;
failure to relieve Egypt, 62;
maritime prefect at Toulon, 1803, 125;
command of Brest fleet, 1804, and instructions from Napoleon,
131, 147;
modified instructions, 149;
unable to escape from Brest, 153;
awaits Villeneuve outside the Goulet, 154.
_Genoa_, coasting trade with Southern France, i. 195, 200, ii. 7;
i. French intrigues in, 201, 213;
preparations in, for Egyptian Expedition, 254, 257;
organized as Republic of Liguria by Bonaparte, 278, 279;
ii. Admiral Bruix reinforces, 313, 5, 6;
Masséna besieged in, 20-23;
made a military division of France, 69, note, 85;
annexed to France, 177;
effect of this measure upon Austria, 177.
_Gravina_, Spanish admiral,
ii. commands the allied rear at the battle of Trafalgar, 187,
188, 194.
_Great Britain_,
i. importance of her action against France, 1;
results to, of War of 1778, 3, 8;
recovery of prosperity under second Pitt, 5;
importance to, of public confidence in Pitt, 6;
attitude toward Russia, 1770-1790, and interest in the Levant
and Baltic, 10-17, 20-23, 25, 27;
relations to Holland and the Netherlands, 15-17, 19, 21, 32;
relations to Turkey, 12, 22-24;
alliance with Prussia and Holland, 19, 21, 22, 25;
refuses to interfere in French Revolution, 1791, 29;
change of feeling in, 30;
recalls her ambassador from Paris, 32;
dismisses French ambassador, 34;
war declared against, by France, 34;
influence of, 1793-1815, 68;
condition of navy in 1793, 69-75;
policy of, in war of French Revolution, 81;
takes possession of Toulon, 92;
unpreparedness of, in 1793, 96;
military and naval policy, 97-103;
evacuates Toulon, 105;
effect produced by, in Peninsular War, 106 (note);
importance of West Indies to, 109-111;
mistaken action in Haïti, 111-113, 116;
reduces the Lesser Antilles, 115;
reverses and loss of Guadaloupe, 116-119;
sufferings of West India trade, 120;
takes Trinidad, 120;
and other West India colonies, 121;
takes part in Continental War as ally of Holland, 93;
withdraws from Holland, 169, 170;
injury to, from French conquest of Holland, 170;
war with Holland and capture of Dutch colonies, 170;
new treaties with Austria and Russia, 172;
interests and policy in Mediterranean, 185, 186;
political union of Corsica with, 188;
abandons Corsica, 215;
impolicy of evacuating Mediterranean, 217, 218;
depression of, in 1797, 229;
effect of battle of Cape St. Vincent, 231;
security due to sea power, 236;
negotiations for peace, 1796, 240;
in 1797, 245;
naval successes of 1797, 255;
resolve again to dispute control of Mediterranean, 256;
joins Second Coalition, 282;
frustrates Bonaparte's Oriental projects, 324;
dependence upon sea power, 327;
policy of, for protection of commerce, 337, ii. 203-205;
ii. expedition against Holland, 1799, 8-10;
prosperity of, in 1800, 17-19, 227-231;
collision with northern states about neutral rights, 26-37,
260-262;
Baltic Expedition of 1801, 41-57;
conventions with Baltic powers, 57, 58, 261;
influence of sea power, 69, 74;
peace with France, 71-75, 81;
remonstrance with Bonaparte upon his intervention in
Switzerland, 88-90;
strained relations with France, 90-97;
renewal of war, 98;
unanimity of British people, 99;
policy of renewing the war, 105-108;
measures for resisting invasion, 117-122;
quarrel with Spain, 1804, 133-139;
naval dispositions, 1805, 148;
insight of naval authorities, 157-159, 166;
effect upon the fortunes of Napoleon, 184, 196-201;
control of sea by, 218;
losses by capture, 221-227;
dependence upon neutral carrier, 229-231;
restrictions upon neutral trade, 233-239, 240-242;
Jay's treaty with, 237;
prosperity of trade, 249-254;
general policy as to neutral trade, 262, 266-268;
seizures of American ships, 1805, 269;
blockade of coast of Europe, 269;
Order in Council of January, 1807, 275;
expedition against Denmark, 1807, 276;
Orders in Council of November, 1807, 283-290;
landing in Portugal, 292;
supports Spanish revolt, 294;
operations in Peninsula, 296, 315, 318, 343, 348,
also i. 106-108;
seizure of Heligoland, 302;
conditions of trade, 1806-1812, 304-306, 329-333, 340-342, 354,
373, 377-382;
License System, 308-313;
Order in Council of April, 1809, 313;
credit of, 339;
internal condition, 340;
influence in Baltic, 346;
policy and rightfulness of the Orders in Council, 351-357;
influence upon the French Revolution and Empire, chap. xix.
_Haïti_, French colony,
i. early revolutionary disorders in, 47-49, 111;
British operations in, 111-113, 116;
rule of Toussaint L'Ouverture, 113;
base of privateering, 120;
ii. Bonaparte's expedition against, 78;
its reverses, 94;
dependence upon American continent, 103;
loss of, to France, 103.
_Hamburg_,
i. commercial importance of, during French Revolutionary wars,
253, ii. 28, 108-110, 250, 251, 299, 301, 378;
ii. Cuxhaven occupied by Prussian troops, 36;
occupied by Danish troops, 54;
Napoleon's grudge against, 279;
imperial troops quartered on, 319;
confiscations of colonial produce, 324, 325;
annexed to French empire, 330.
_Hanover_,
i. commercial importance to Great Britain, 253, ii. 110, 266;
ii. Prussian designs upon, 35, 110;
occupied by Prussian troops, 54;
evacuated, 68;
occupied by Bonaparte, 109;
offered by Bonaparte to Prussia, 179.
_Hoche_, French general,
i. commanding army of Sambre and Meuse, 240, 377;
anxiety about reactionary movements in France, 244;
pacification of La Vendée, 347;
commands expedition against Ireland, 347-360;
interest in a second expedition, and death, 378.
_Holland_,
i. weakness of, in 1781, 7;
fall of barrier towns and quarrel about the Scheldt, 7, 9,
16-18;
relations to Great Britain and France, 1783-1793, 17-19;
relations to Russia, 16, 20;
occupied by Prussian troops, 1787, 19;
defensive alliance with Great Britain and Prussia, 1788, 21,
ii. 363, 384, 393;
the Scheldt opened, i. 31, ii. 362;
France declares war against, 1793, i. 34;
condition of navy, 78;
course of, in French Revolution, 83;
colonies of, 83;
invasion of, by Dumouriez, 1793, 89;
invasion and conquest by Pichegru, 1795, 169;
fall of stadtholder, and republic proclaimed, 170;
war with Great Britain and loss of colonies, 170, ii. 375, 394
(see also West Indies, pp. 109-121);
treaty of offensive and defensive alliance with France, i. 172;
centralized constitution imposed by France, 278;
contemplated invasion of Ireland from, 378;
naval defeat at Camperdown, 378;
ii. compelled to war against Great Britain by Bonaparte in 1803,
111;
share in Bonaparte's projected invasion of England, 119, 131,
133, 147, 164, 165;
base of commerce-destroying, 207, 216;
demands upon the United States to resist seizure of belligerent
property, 247;
confiscation of goods of British origin ordered by Bonaparte,
1803, 265;
confiscations of American ships by Bonaparte, 292, 320, 321;
Louis Bonaparte crowned king, 299;
withstands Napoleon's Continental System, 300, 305, 318, 320;
continuous blockade by British navy, 313;
Louis abdicates and Holland is annexed to French Empire, 321;
commercial ruin of, 1811, 336.
_Hood_, Lord, British admiral,
i. commands Mediterranean fleet, 96;
receives surrender of Toulon, 92;
forced to evacuate the port, 105;
retires to Hyères Bay, 106;
conquest of Corsica, 187;
merit of, 207;
returns to England, 189;
succeeded by Jervis, 194, 203;
tactical dispositions at St. Kitt's, in 1782, compared to those
of Brueys in Aboukir Bay, 265.
_Hotham_, British admiral,
i. commands in Mediterranean, 1795, 190-194;
sluggishness of, 192, 199-202, 207.
_Howe_, Earl, British admiral,
i. commands Channel fleet, 96;
military character and naval policy of, 101;
naval campaign of 1794 and battle of June 1, 125-160;
admirable tactics of, 135, 149, 160;
strategic error of, 156-159;
retires from active service, 164;
opinion concerning Battle of the Nile, 273;
conduct of Brest blockade and Channel service, 162, 338-346.
_Ionian_ islands (Corfu and others),
i. possessions of Venice in 1793, and subsequent transfers, 86,
235;
Bonaparte's desire for, 247-249 (and note);
transferred to France by treaty of Campo Formio, 250, 251;
indicated by Bonaparte as station for French fleet, 262;
taken from France by Russo-Turkish fleet, 286, ii. 10;
ii. constituted Republic of Seven Islands by peace of 1801, 71;
transferred to France by Treaty of Tilsit, 274.
_Ireland_,
i. French expedition against, 1796, 346-361; in 1798, 378-380;
ii. Bonaparte's designs against, 124, 131;
British anxiety about, 156, 160, 171, 386; also, i. 306.
_Italy_,
i. lack of political unity in, 81, 84, 185;
interest of Great Britain in, 185, 186;
campaign of 1795 in, 195-198;
part of the British fleet in the campaign, 199-201;
Bonaparte's campaign of 1796 in, 208-211, 233-236;
ii. French reverses in 1799, 3-10;
campaign of Marengo, 20-23;
Bonaparte's designs in, in 1800, 59, 80, 85, 86;
occupation of Naples, 1803, 109, 112, 124;
Napoleon crowned king of, 153;
commercial orders of Napoleon, 325, 326.
_Jay_, John,
ii. United States envoy to Great Britain, 237;
Treaty of Commerce and Navigation negotiated by, 237-239;
anger of French government, 239, 240, 244.
_Jervis_, British admiral. See St. Vincent.
_Joseph II._, Emperor of Germany,
i. succeeds Maria Theresa, 1780, 7;
raises the question of the Scheldt, 9, 17, 18;
attempts to exchange the Netherlands for Bavaria, 18;
declares war against Turkey, 19;
dies, 1790, 25.
_Jourdan_, French general,
i. commands army of Sambre and Meuse, 1794, 168;
wins battle of Fleurus, 168;
pursuit of Austrians, 169;
operations of, 1795, 180-182;
disasters in 1796, 213, 216;
ii. command in Germany in 1799, 3;
defeated at Stokach, 3;
resigns command, 4.
_Keith_, British admiral,
i. commands naval division watching Cadiz, 286;
unexpected appearance of French fleet under Bruix, 1799, 307;
recalled to Gibraltar, 310;
sails in pursuit of Bruix, 312;
left in command of fleet by St. Vincent, 312;
further pursuit of French fleet, 312-316;
returns to Torbay, 316;
returns to Mediterranean as commander-in-chief, 316, 329;
conduct of pursuit examined, 320, 321;
letter to Kleber, 333;
ii. operations against French in Egypt, 1801, 60, 62;
commands squadron in the Downs, 1803-1805, 120, 148;
report of captures in Mediterranean, 219.
_Kleber_, French general,
i. left by Bonaparte in command in Egypt, 331;
opinion as to dependence of Egypt upon the navy, 331;
Convention of El Arish, 332;
letter from Admiral Keith, 333;
assassinated, 334.
_Leopold_, Emperor of Germany,
i. succeeds Joseph II., 25;
makes peace with Turkey, 26;
joins Prussia in Declaration of Pilnitz, 28.
_Levant_, the,
i. advance of Russia in, 10-12;
commercial and political importance of, 11;
interest of France in, 12, 14;
interest of Great Britain in, 23;
interest of Bonaparte in, 247-253, ii. 95.
_License System_,
ii. of Great Britain, 307-313;
of Napoleon, 307, 326, 327, 329.
_Linois_, French admiral,
ii. repels British fleet at battle of Algesiras, 63-66;
deceived by a body of East India ships, 214, 215.
_Louis XVI._, King of France,
i. interferes between Austria and Holland, 17, 18;
brought from Versailles to Paris by the mob, 25;
flight from Paris and capture of, 1791, 28;
scenes of June 20 and August 10, 1792, 30;
suspended, 30;
and deposed, 31;
tried and executed, 32;
interest in the navy, 50, 67.
_Louisiana_,
ii. cession by Spain to France, 67, 77;
apprehensions of Great Britain, 77;
anger of the United States people, 103;
sold to the United States by Bonaparte, 104.
_Malta_, Island of,
i. belongs to Knights of St. John in 1793, 87;
its dependence upon the fleet, 87;
importance of, 87, 247;
Bonaparte's designs upon, 255;
seized by Bonaparte, 257;
Nelson's opinion of, 258;
interest of the Czar, Paul I., in, 281, 282, ii. 32-34, 53;
blockaded by British and Portuguese squadron, and summoned to
surrender by Sir James Saumarez, i. 285;
isolation of, 285, 329;
surrendered to British, 330;
ii. stipulations of the preliminaries of peace in 1801, 72;
provisions of the Treaty of Amiens, 81;
disputes between England and France concerning, 91-98;
Orders in Council of 1807, 286, 287;
commercial importance, 1807-1812, 305.
_Mann_, British admiral,
i. joins Mediterranean fleet, 194;
detached to blockade Richery in Cadiz, 202;
ordered to rejoin by Jervis, 213;
mistaken action of, 214, 215.
_Marmont_, French marshal,
i. opinion concerning Sir Sidney Smith, 295 (note);
ii. commands corps in Holland for invasion of England, 117, 120,
131, 165; quoted, i. 259 (note), ii. 102, 335.
_Martin_, French admiral,
i. commands Toulon fleet in actions with British in 1795, 189-194.
_Masséna_, French marshal,
ii. commander-in-chief in Switzerland and Germany, 1799, 3-5;
wins battle of Zurich, 9;
sent by Bonaparte to Italy, 15;
operations in Italy, 1800, 21;
besieged in Genoa, 22;
reverses in Portugal, 342, 348.
_Missiessy_, French admiral,
ii. commands Rochefort division, 132;
escapes to the West Indies, 142, 144;
returns thence to Rochefort, 152, 166;
Napoleon's further purposes for, 165.
_Montagu_, British admiral,
i. commands division under Lord Howe, May and June, 1794, 125,
126, 156-161.
_Moreau_, French general,
i. commands in Holland, 1795, 180;
advance into Germany, 1796, 216;
command in Italy, 1799, 313,
ii. and retreat before Suwarrow, 5-8;
appointed by Bonaparte to command in Germany, 15;
successful campaign of 1800, 21-24;
wins battle of Hohenlinden, 38;
arrest upon charge of royalist conspiracy, 129.
_Naples_, see Two Sicilies.
_Napoleon_ (see also Bonaparte),
ii. Emperor of the French, 130;
plans for invading England modified by the death of Admiral
Latouche Tréville, 130;
second combination, 131;
his dealings with Spain, 1803-1804, 133-139;
failure to realize maritime conditions, 141;
instructions to Admirals Villeneuve and Missiessy, 142;
final combination, 146-150;
surmises as to British movements, 153-158, 162, 166, 170;
crowned King of Italy, 153;
suspicious of Austria, 1805, 176-179;
campaign of Austerlitz, 181;
constant embarrassment from the closure of the sea by the
British navy, 184;
anger against Admiral Villeneuve, 185;
effect of Trafalgar upon policy, 197, 223, 351;
miscalculation in his attempt to crush British commerce, 201;
vigor displayed in the attempt, 202;
measures at outbreak of war, 1803, 265;
Jena campaign, 270;
Berlin Decree, 271-273;
campaign against Russia, 1807, 274;
Treaty of Tilsit, 274;
projects against Portugal and Denmark, 276;
enforcement of his Continental System, 277-279, 310, 396;
additional vigor in Berlin Decree, 281;
character of the commercial warfare, 289;
Milan Decree, 290;
usurpation in Spain, 291;
meeting with the Czar at Erfurt, 293;
joint letter to George III., 294;
campaign in Spain, 1808, 295;
anger with Holland, 299;
war with Austria, 1809, 314-316;
exactions from Sweden, 316, 322;
increased severity of warfare on commerce, 317-328;
Holland annexed to the Empire, 321;
annexation of Oldenburg and the Hanse towns, 330;
license system, 332;
failing resources, 336;
military treasure, 337;
condition of credit, 338-340;
sufferings in France, 1811, 340-343, 349;
altercations with Russia, 344-346;
preparations for war, 347;
invades Russia, 351;
essential error of his Continental System, 351-355, 401, 402;
concentration of purpose, 366;
his services to the Revolution, 388, 400, 407;
Continental System inherited from Directory, 396, 399;
greatness of his power, 408;
effect upon it of the British sea-power, 409;
prolongation of the Revolution due to his genius, 411.
_Navy, British_,
i. condition in 1793, 69-72;
mutinies in, 72, 73, 232, 236-239;
condition of material, 73-75;
force compared with French navy, 1793, 75;
in 1801, ii. 73;
tardy mobilization in 1793, i. 96, 97;
preponderance of, 110, 287, 290, 291, 324, 325, 328-338;
inefficient action in the Atlantic, i. 162, 338, 339;
ii. deficient strength in 1803, 122-124, 128, 148, 184;
effect on the French Revolution, 395, 405, 406;
increase under Pitt, 404,
and under his successors, 405.
_Navy, Dutch_,
i. numbers and importance, i. 78;
inaction of, 171;
defeat at Camperdown, 255, 378.
_Navy, French_,
i. deterioration after 1789, 35-41;
disorders in, 41-50, 60-63;
legislation by National Assemblies, 51-59;
effects of legislation, 59, 60, 122;
condition of officers and seamen, 64-66, 189, 193, 201;
condition of material, 66-68, 163, 179, 253, 338 (note);
force compared with British, 1793, 75;
in 1801, ii. 73;
inferiority in Mediterranean, 1798-1801, i. 287, 290, 291, 324,
325, 328-334; ii. 25, 59-63;
inferiority and operations in Atlantic, i. 335-338;
ii. peace essential to restore, 69, 81, 107, 184.
_Navy, Spanish_,
i. numbers of, 75;
inefficiency of, 76-78, 81, 213, 222, 231;
defeat at Cape St. Vincent, 221-228.
_Nelson_, British Admiral,
i. significance of his services in the Baltic and the Levant,
14, 22;
services in Corsica, 187;
early actions in the Mediterranean, 191-194;
services on Italian coast, 194-201, 208-212;
professional characteristics, 196, 205, 274, ii. 43-45, 52, 55,
139, 156, 162, 163, 172;
takes possession of Elba, i. 213;
brilliant conduct at battle of Cape St. Vincent, 226-228;
wounded in expedition against Teneriffe, and returns to
England, 1797, 249;
rejoins fleet off Cadiz, April, 1798, 256;
sent to watch armaments in Toulon, May, 1798, 256;
pursuit of French fleet to Egypt, 258-261;
battle of the Nile, 266-272;
wounded, 272;
merits of, in this battle, 273-277;
sends word to India, 283;
goes to Naples, 284;
blockades Malta, 285;
distrust of Russia, 286, ii. 126;
relations with Sir Sidney Smith, i. 297;
incident of Bruix's incursion into the Mediterranean, 308-321;
return to England, 1800, 330, ii. 37;
views as to the French in Egypt, i. 331;
reasons for refusing chief command in Baltic to, 373, ii. 42;
ii. responsibility for action of Naples in 1798, 1;
detailed as second in command of the Baltic expedition, 37;
his letter to Parker on the political and military situation,
43-47;
battle of Copenhagen, 48-51;
negotiates an armistice with Denmark, 51;
merit of his conduct, 52;
left in chief command and takes fleet to Revel, 56;
rebuked by the Czar, 57;
appointed to Mediterranean command on renewal of war in
1803, 98;
difficulties and perplexities, 123-129;
opinion as to the dispositions of Spain in 1804, 139;
goes to Egypt in search of French at Villeneuve's first
sailing, 144;
return off Toulon, 150;
Villeneuve's second sailing, 151;
pursues to West Indies, 152, 159-161;
insight of, 156, 162;
return to Europe, 163, 167, 169, 174;
joins Brest fleet, 174, and returns to England, 175;
joins fleet off Cadiz, 181, 186;
battle of Trafalgar, 187;
death, 192.
_Nielly_, French rear-admiral,
i. mentioned, 123, 126, 135, 155, 157.
_Notables_, Assembly of,
i. in France, 1787, 7, 19;
meeting of, in 1788, 24.
_Orders_ in Council, British, June 8, 1793,
ii. arresting vessels carrying provisions to France, 233;
Nov. 6, 1793, seizing vessels laden with produce from enemy's
colonies, 234;
partial revocation of this, Jan. 8, 1794, 237;
further relaxation, January, 1798, 242;
Fox's, of May 16, 1806, establishing constructive blockade of
hostile coasts, 269;
Jan. 7, 1807, forbidding neutral trade between hostile
ports, 275;
Nov. 7, 1807, establishing constructive blockade of all ports
whence British flag was excluded, 283-290;
April 26, 1809, modifying those of Nov., 1807, 313;
final revocation of Orders of 1807 and 1809, 351;
analysis of their policy, 351-355.
_Paoli_, Corsican leader,
i. relations with Great Britain and France, 88;
promotes union of island to Great Britain, 187;
subsequent discontent, 188.
_Parker_, Sir Hyde, British admiral,
i. command of Brest Blockade, 373;
ii. of expedition to Baltic, 42-56;
relieved of command, 56;
Nelson's censure of, 56.
_Paul I._, Czar of Russia,
i. succeeds to the throne, 243;
becomes hostile to French Republic, 281;
interest in Malta, 281, ii. 32;
alliance with Austria, i. 282;
sends squadron to Mediterranean, 286;
ii. Russian army enters Italy, 5;
successes in Italy and reverses in Switzerland, 5-9;
dissatisfaction with his allies, 11, 26;
Bonaparte's advances to, 29-33;
hostile measures toward Great Britain, 33;
formation of Armed Neutrality, 36;
sends ambassador to Bonaparte, 38;
importance to the northern league, 46;
murdered, 51.
_Peace_, Treaties of,
Amiens, 1802, ii. 81
(see also preliminaries, 71),
Basle, 1795, i. 172;
Campo Formio, 1797, i. 250;
Lunéville, 1801, ii. 39, 40;
Presburg, 1805, ii. 182;
Vienna, 1809, ii. 316.
Preliminaries of Leoben, 1797, i. 234;
of London, 1801, ii. 71.
_Pellew_, British admiral,
i. commanding frigate off Brest, 351-354;
action with the "Droits de l'Homme," 357;
commands blockading force off Ferrol, ii. 118;
ii. opinion of the invasion flotilla, 120,
and of the condition of British navy, 123;
able measures for protection of trade in India, 217.
_Perceval_, British statesman,
ii. statement as to the object of the Orders in Council of
November, 1807, 290, note.
_Pilnitz_, declaration of,
i. by Austria and Prussia, 28;
effect upon the French people, 29.
_Pitt_, British statesman,
i. prime minister of Great Britain, 5;
power in the nation, 6;
opposition to Russian advance in the East, 20-24;
attitude toward the French Revolution, 29, 32-34,
ii. 358-367, 382;
treats with France, 1796 and 1797, i. 240, 245;
ii. resigns office, 1801, 70;
supports preliminaries of peace negotiated by Addington
ministry, 72;
statement of object of British government in the war, 74, 75,
383-385;
speech upon renewal of war in 1803, 99;
attack upon St. Vincent's administration of the navy, 123;
returns to office, and forms Third Coalition, 177, 267;
policy in seizing enemy's colonies defended, 217, 252, 386,
393-395;
modifies Rule of 1756 and originates commercial war policy of
Great Britain, 242, 263;
speech on the Armed Neutrality of 1800, 260;
measures to restrain American trade with hostile colonies,
267, 354;
death, 269;
prosperity of Great Britain under his war administration,
380-382, 394, also 17-19;
comparison between himself and his father, 387-391;
general war policy of, 391-405;
growth of navy under, 404;
success practically attained at his death, 405;
his policy adopted by his successors, 405;
accurate forecast of course of French Revolution, 411.
_Portugal_, Navy of,
i. in 1793, 78;
traditional alliance with Great Britain, 84;
co-operation with British navy, 162, 285;
French designs against, 219 (and note);
Bonaparte's designs upon, ii. 59, 67, 276, 296;
treaty with France, 77, 81;
Lisbon occupied by Junot's corps, 277;
flight of the Court to Brazil, 277;
ports closed to British trade, 277;
British land and expel Junot, 292;
Wellesley lands in 1809, 315;
British operations in, 318, 348;
Masséna invades, 326;
but forced to retreat, 342, 348.
_Privateering_,
II. French, number of privateers captured, 1793-1800, 206;
their activity, 207;
privateering in the Channel and North Sea, 207-210;
in the Atlantic, 210-211;
in the West Indies, 211-214;
in the East Indies, 214-218.
_Prussia_,
i. death of Frederic the Great, 1786, 19;
interference in Holland, 1787, 19;
defensive alliance with Great Britain and Holland, 1788, 21, 22,
King joins in Declaration of Pilnitz, 28;
takes arms against France, 30;
jealousy of Austria, 80, 94;
advance into France, 93;
retreat from France, 103;
inaction in 1794, 103, 171;
makes peace with France, 1795, 172;
guarantee of North German Neutrality, 172;
refusal to join Second Coalition, 282;
ii. rigorous neutrality after 1795, 28;
ambitions of, 31;
hostile attitude toward Great Britain in 1800, 34;
joins Armed Neutrality, 36;
opportunism of, 40;
closes the German rivers against British trade, 54;
subsequent coolness toward Bonaparte, 68;
rebuff from Bonaparte, 69, note;
favored by Bonaparte in apportioning German indemnities, 84;
Bonaparte's pressure upon, 95;
annoyance at Bonaparte's occupation of Hanover, 110;
indignation at murder of the Duc d'Enghien, 177;
Hanover offered to, by Bonaparte, upon conditions, 179;
commercial advantages through neutrality, 251;
war with France, and defeat of Jena, 270;
tyranny of Napoleon over, 301, 311, 319, 322, 324, 325;
share in "neutralizing" traffic, 309.
_Richery_, French admiral,
i. commerce-destroying expedition, 202, 214;
shares in expedition against Ireland, 214, 348-353.
_Rule_ of 1756,
ii. conceded by Russia and the Baltic States, 57, 58, 261, 262;
statement of, 234-236;
seizure of American vessels under, 236-239;
modifications of, by British government, 237, 242, 262, 263,
269;
evasion of, by American vessels, 253, 266-269;
extension of, by Orders in Council of January, 1807, 275;
tendency and importance of, 353-355,
arguments for and against, 356, also 235, 236.
_Russia_,
i. relations with Austria, 1780-1790, 9, 11, 16, 17, 19, 24, 25;
advance of, since 1713, 10;
relations to Great Britain in 1770, 11, 12,
and in 1785, 13, 22, 23;
relations with France in 1785, 17;
war with Turkey, 1787, 19;
attempt to send fleet from Baltic to Mediterranean, 20;
war with Sweden, 1788, 21;
successes on Black Sea, 24-27;
peace with Turkey and Sweden, 27;
unfriendly attitude toward French Revolution, 34, 82, ii. 233;
partition of Poland, i. 82;
defensive alliance with Great Britain, 1795, 172;
death of Catharine and accession of Paul I., 243;
difficulties with France, 1798, 281;
joins Second Coalition, 282;
conjointly with Turkey sends fleet against the Ionian
Islands, 286;
ii. Russian army enters Italy, 5;
battles of the Trebia, 6,
and of Novi, 8,
won from the French, 1799;
Russian army marches into Switzerland, 9,
and retires into Bavaria, 11;
reduction of the Ionian Islands, 10;
abandons the Coalition, 11, 19;
dissatisfaction of the Czar, 26;
interest in peace with England, 28, 29, 289, 293, 306, 329;
measures of Paul I. against Great Britain, 32-34;
Armed Neutrality renewed, 36, 260;
admiration of Paul for Bonaparte, 32, 38;
assassination of Paul and accession of Alexander, 51, 56;
convention with Great Britain, 1801, 57, 261;
attitude concerning Malta, 92;
breach with France caused by murder of Duc d'Enghien, 177;
mission to Great Britain and formation of Third Coalition, 177;
effect of Russia upon the struggle between Great Britain and
Napoleon, 200, 401, 409;
war with France, 1807, 273;
conventions of Tilsit between Russia and France, 274, 276, 278,
310, 329, 405;
war declared against Great Britain, 278, 305;
conventions of Erfurt with Napoleon, 293;
war with Sweden, 1808, 293;
joint letter of Czar and Napoleon to George III., 294;
enforcement of the Continental System, 301, 303, 306, 329, 336,
406;
peace with Sweden, 1809, 316;
causes leading to war with France in 1812, 325, 330, 336,
344-346, 397, 401;
alliance with Great Britain and Sweden, 347, 350;
peace with Turkey, 350;
Napoleon's invasion, 351.
_Sardinia_, Island of,
i. gives name to Italian Kingdom, 87;
ii. strategic importance of, 87, 128.
_Sardinia_, Kingdom of,
i. at war with France in 1793, 34;
extent of, 84, 87;
operations of, in 1793, and 1794, 93, 171;
in 1795, 195-198;
defeats by Bonaparte, 1796, 209;
concludes separate peace with France, 209;
cedes islands of Sardinia and San Pietro to France, 246, 248;
ii. Piedmont annexed to France and the Court retires to island of
Sardinia, 2;
interest of the Czars in, 69, note;
British intercession for, 97.
_Saumarez_, British admiral,
i. commands a ship at Battle of Cape St. Vincent, 233;
commands "Orion" at the Battle of the Nile, 265;
criticism of Nelson's plan, 273;
sails for Gibraltar with the prizes, 284;
summons French garrison at Malta, 285;
commands inshore squadron off Brest, 375;
ii. commands fleet at Battle of Algesiras, 63-66;
commendations of by St. Vincent and Nelson, 65, 66;
commands Baltic fleet, 1808-1812, 294, 297, 313;
eminent services of, 346, 347 (note).
_Scheldt_, River,
i. question of the, 9, 16, 18;
importance of, 10, 20;
opened to commerce by the French, 31.
_Schérer_, French general,
i. wins battle of Loano, 198;
relieved by Bonaparte, 203;
ii. inefficiency in 1799, in Italy, 3-5.
_Sébastiani_, French colonel,
ii. mission to the Levant and report, 93;
Bonaparte's object in publishing, 94, 106;
exasperation in Great Britain, 94;
effect upon British policy, 96, 97.
_Smith_, Sir Sidney, British naval captain,
i. reputation and character of, 294, 295;
mission to the Mediterranean, 1799, 296;
annoyance of St. Vincent and Nelson, 297;
supports the besieged garrison at Acre, 298-302;
conduct on this occasion considered, 302-304;
accompanies Turkish Expedition against Egypt, 321;
countenances Convention of El Arish in disregard of his orders,
331-334.
_Spain_,
i. results of war of 1778 to, 3, 4;
defensive alliance with Russia and Austria, 1789, 25;
Nootka Sound trouble with Great Britain, 44, 45;
condition of navy, 1793, 75-78, 82, 229, 231;
France declares war against, 79;
strategic position and inefficient administration of, 80;
fleet enters Toulon with Hood, 92;
war in Pyrenees, 1793, 104;
evacuation of Toulon, 105;
loss of Trinidad, 120;
disasters on French frontier, 1794, 171;
peace of Basle with France, 1795, 172;
changed relations with Great Britain, 213;
defensive and offensive alliance with France, 214;
naval co-operation with France, 214-216, 348;
naval defeat off Cape St. Vincent, 219-229;
share in Admiral Bruix's Expedition, 307-316;
internal weakness of, in 1799, 311;
ii. Bonaparte's use of, to further his continental policy, 59,
62, 67;
naval defeat near Cadiz, 1801, 64;
cession of Louisiana to France, 77;
Peace of Amiens with Great Britain, 81;
renewal of war with Great Britain, 1804, 133;
subserviency to Bonaparte's control, 134-136;
subsidies paid to France, 133, 138;
renewed alliance with France, 140;
share in Trafalgar campaign, 151, 154, 162-180;
naval defeat off Cape Finisterre, 169-171;
naval defeat at Trafalgar, 187-195;
revolt against Napoleon, 195, 292, 401;
weakness of colonial administration, 79, 213;
Napoleon's usurpation, 291;
Great Britain assumes Spanish cause, 294;
Napoleon's campaign in, 1808, 295, 298, 315;
Wellesley in, 315, 348, 349;
drain of Spanish war upon Napoleon, 317, 318, 319, 342, 343,
348, 397, 401, 402.
_St. André_, Jean Bon, French representative and commissioner,
i. opinions on naval efficiency, 37, 58, 66.
_States General_,
i. meeting of the, in France, May, 1789, 24, 25.
_Strategy_, naval,
i. strategic position of Spain, i. 80-82;
of Portugal, 84;
particular importance of Mediterranean islands, 85, 247, 248;
importance of Malta, 87, 258, 319, ii. 92;
Maddalena Bay in Sardinia, 88, ii. 128, 143;
Corsica, i. 88, 186;
general dispositions of British fleet, 1793, 96;
its tardy mobilization, 97, 100;
necessity to Great Britain of forcing French fleets to sea,
97-100;
Lord Howe's strategic dispositions, 101-103, 125, 162-166, 338,
339;
strategic value of Toulon, 105;
analogy between British operations in Peninsula and Napoleon's
intended invasion of England, 106-108;
strategic conditions in West Indies, 109-115;
mistakes of the British in West Indies, 116-120;
criticism of naval campaign of May, 1794, 155-160;
faulty dispositions of the Channel fleet, 1793-1800, 165,
361-366;
policy of an inferior navy deduced from Napoleon's practice,
179, 180, 304, 305;
strategic influence of the British Mediterranean fleet, 185,
195-197, 207, 216-218, 233, 254, 255, 277, 280, 282, 287,
290-292, 324, 325, 328-334, ii. 25, 59-68, 123-125, 129, 159;
Hotham's campaign of 1795 criticised, 198-201;
French commerce-destroying policy, 201-203, 335-337,
ii. 203-210, 221-227;
effects of the Battle of the Nile, 277, 282-284, 287, 291, 325;
strategic importance of Acre, 293, 298, 299, 324;
strategic significance of Bruix's incursion into the
Mediterranean, 304, 318;
St. Vincent's strategic action at this time, 309-312, 314,
318-321;
contrast between his point of view and that of Lord Keith, 313,
320, 321;
coincidence of his views with Nelson's, 319, 321;
Nelson's action, 310;
discussion of Bruix's conduct, 316-318;
of the British admirals', 318-321;
policy of evasion entailed by French naval weakness, 335;
strategic problem before Great Britain in the Revolutionary
wars, 338;
its true solution, 339-342;
strategic interest of Ushant, 344;
the winds as strategic factors, 344;
faulty dispositions of the Channel fleet, 1793-1800, 345;
analysis of the effects upon Irish expedition, 1796, 360-366;
changes made by St. Vincent in 1800, 368-371, 374, 375;
their efficacy, 375, 376, ii. 60-66, 106, 118-121, 126, 153,
166, 183;
Napoleon's estimate of Antwerp, i. 377;
Nelson in the Baltic, ii. 43-47, 51-53;
Napoleon's object in concentrating at Cadiz, 63;
strategic significance of battle of Algesiras, 64-66;
defensive and offensive gain to Great Britain in forcing war,
1803, 106-108;
Napoleon's combinations for invasion of England, 111-117, 124,
131-133, 140-142, 145-150;
British measures for thwarting them, 118-122, 126, 148;
Nelson's strategy, 127, 142-144, 150-152, 156, 159-163, 167,
172, 174, 186, 187;
various surmises and measures of Napoleon during the Trafalgar
campaign, 153-159, 162, 165, 170, 173, 178, 181;
generally accurate strategy of the British authorities,
157-159, 166, 176, 183;
masterly combination of Lord Barham, 168-170, 184;
mistake of Admiral Calder, 171, 174;
mistake of Cornwallis, 176;
analysis of the strategic chances in the Trafalgar campaign,
182-185;
character of Villeneuve's error, 196;
strategic effect of the campaign upon the remainder of the
war, 197;
general naval strategy of the British, 1793-1812, 392-411.
_St. Vincent_, Earl, British admiral (Jervis),
i. expedition to West Indies, 115;
assumes command of Mediterranean fleet, 203;
perfection of fleet under, 206;
professional character, 203-206;
blockade of Toulon, 212;
seizes Elba with a squadron, 213;
ordered to evacuate Corsica, 215;
retires to Gibraltar, 216; firmness of, 217;
ordered to rendezvous at Lisbon, 219;
disasters to fleet, 219;
meeting with Spanish fleet, 221;
battle of Cape St. Vincent, 222-228;
merit of, 228;
created Earl St. Vincent, 229;
establishes blockade of Cadiz, 232;
incident of mutiny, 236 (note);
sends Nelson to Teneriffe, 249;
sends Nelson into the Mediterranean, May, 1798, 256-258;
residence at Gibraltar, 285;
seizes Minorca, 287;
relations with Sir Sidney Smith, 294-297;
conduct during Bruix's incursion into the Mediterranean, 306-321;
health fails, 312;
returns to England, 321;
commands Channel fleet, 368;
methods of watching Brest, 368-375;
becomes First Lord of the Admiralty, 375, ii. 42;
merit of his strategic dispositions, i. 375, 376, ii. 126, 183.
ii. encomium upon Nelson, 53;
upon Saumarez, 65;
his naval dispositions in second war, 119-122, 126;
his inopportune economy, 122, 124, 127, 128, 166;
leaves office, 129;
_Suwarrow_, Russian marshal,
i. storming of Ismail, 26;
commands corps sent to support Austrians in Italy, 282, 284, ii. 5;
ii. commander-in-chief of allied forces, 5;
victorious campaign in Italy, 5-8;
disastrous march into Switzerland, 9;
declines further co-operation with Austrians, 10.
_Sweden_,
i. loss of Baltic provinces to Russia, 10;
hostility to Russia, 17;
troops enter Russia, 1788, 21;
supported by Great Britain and Prussia, 21, 25;
interest of western powers in, 22;
subsidized by Turkey, 24;
peace with Russia, 1790, 27;
even balance of naval strength in Baltic, 27;
unfriendly to French Revolution in 1793, 34;
seeks the commercial advantages of neutrality, 83, ii. 233;
loss of West India islands, 1801, i. 121;
ii. joins Armed Neutrality of 1800, 36;
embargo of merchant ships by Great Britain, 53;
convention with Great Britain, 58, 266;
quarrel with France and joins Third Coalition, 177;
Napoleon's exactions from, 231, 317, 322, 345;
summoned by France and Russia to close ports against Great
Britain, 274;
hostilities with Russia, 1808, 293;
British relations with, 1808-1812, 294, 296, 297, 305, 317;
cedes Finland and makes peace with Russia, 316;
formal war with Great Britain, 346.
_Switzerland_,
i. disturbances in, 1797, 278;
France intervenes by force and changes constitution, 279;
French operations in, 1799, ii. 3-9;
strategic importance in Bonaparte's campaign of 1800, 20, 22;
independence guaranteed at Lunéville, 40;
Bonaparte's intervention in, 1802, 86-88;
action of British ministry thereupon, 88-90;
effect upon course of events, 90-93;
enforcement by Napoleon of his commercial war measures,
324-326.
_Tactics_, Naval,
i. French and British on May 28, 1794, 127-129;
on May 29, 129-134;
June 1, 136-147;
merits of Howe's, 135, 150, 160;
analysis of the results of the battle of June 1, with
deductions, 149-155;
Sir John Jervis at battle of Cape St. Vincent, 224, 225;
Nelson's tactical move on that occasion, 226-228;
dispositions of the French admiral in Aboukir Bay, 263, 264;
contrasted with Hood's at St. Kitts in 1782, 265;
Nelson's tactics at the Nile, concentration on enemy's
van, 266;
arrival of the British reserve, and concentration on
centre, 270;
analysis of Nelson's claim to credit, 273-277;
tactical dispositions before Brest of Bridport, 351, 366,
and of St. Vincent, 371;
ii. tactical anecdotes of Nelson, 39, 45;
tactical surroundings at Copenhagen, 1801, 44;
Nelson's dispositions in consequence, 47, 48;
his tactics at Trafalgar, 188;
analysis of them, 189;
the result, 192-194.
_Trafalgar_, battle of,
ii. decisive effect upon the course of the war, 196-198.
_Treaty_, Holland and France, 1795,
offensive and defensive alliance, i. 172, ii. 133;
Jay's, of commerce and navigation, between Great Britain and
United States, 1794, ii. 237-239;
San Ildefouso, offensive and defensive between France and Spain,
1796, i. 213, ii. 133,
and renewed in 1805, ii. 140;
Tilsit, between France and Russia, 1807, ii. 274;
conventions, of El Arish between Turkey and French
commander-in-chief in Egypt, 1799, i. 332-334;
of Great Britain and Russia concerning neutral navigation, 1801,
ii. 57, 261.
See also "Peace" and "Armed Neutrality."
_Troubridge_, British captain,
i. Nelson's praise of, 75;
leads the fleet at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, 224, 227;
misfortune at the Battle of the Nile, 269;
bombardment of Alexandria, 297;
services at Naples, 308.
_Turkey_, Empire of,
i. encroachments of Russia upon, 10;
natural ally of France, 12, 22;
treaty of Kainardji, 1774, 13;
declares war against Russia, 1787, 19;
war with Austria, 19;
relations to Great Britain in 1790, 23;
military reverses, 24, 26;
peace with Austria and Russia, 25, 27;
disorganized condition in 1793, 85;
territorial limits, 85;
Bonaparte's estimate of strength of, 248;
effect of battle of the Nile upon, 277;
war declared against France, 278;
Russo-Turkish fleet enters Mediterranean, 286;
troops sent to Acre, 301;
unfortunate landing in Aboukir Bay, 322;
convention for the evacuation of Egypt, 332;
ii. capture of the Ionian Islands, 10;
peace with France, 77;
misrule in Egypt, 150;
hostilities with Great Britain, 278.
_Two Sicilies_, The,
i. navy of, in 1793, 78;
attitude toward French Revolution, 84;
effect of Bonaparte's victories upon, 1796, 211;
abandons the Coalition, 211;
strategic importance of, 218;
dissatisfaction at French advance in Italy, 279;
defensive alliance with Austria, 282;
Nelson's arrival in Naples, 285;
ii. premature hostilities with France, 1;
the Court flies to Palermo, 2;
Naples occupied by French troops, 2;
French forced to evacuate the Kingdom, 6;
French division occupies the heel of Italy after Marengo, 59;
evacuates after Peace of Amiens 71;
reoccupation after renewal of war in 1803, 109;
part played in Napoleon's combinations, 110, 124, 185;
Joseph Bonaparte, King of, 278.
_United States_,
difficulties with France, 1793-1797, i. 241, ii 242-248;
ii. cession of Louisiana by Spain to France, 78;
jealousy of political interference on the American continent by
European nations, 103;
uneasiness at cession of Louisiana, 104;
buys Louisiana of France, 105;
sufferings from privateers in the West Indies, 1805, 213;
importance of American carrying trade, 231;
growth of merchant shipping, 232;
injuries under Rule of 1756, 233-237;
Treaty of Commerce and Navigation with Great Britain, 1794,
237-239;
difficulties with France arising thence, 239;
relations with Great Britain, 1794-1804, 241;
French aggressions upon American shipping, 242-246;
demands of Spain and Holland, 247;
course of trade with Europe, 1793-1804, 253, 254, 354;
hostilities with France, 1798-1800, 258;
trade with belligerent colonies, 266-268, 353;
British seizures of American ships, 1804, 269;
commercial treaty of 1806 with Great Britain rejected by
Senate, 275;
effect upon American trade of British Order of January,
1807, 276;
Embargo Act of December, 1807, 282,
succeeded by Non-Intercourse Act, 1809, 283;
importance of American market to Great Britain, 291;
losses by Napoleon's decrees of Bayonne and Rambouillet, 292;
American ships in Dutch ports confiscated by Napoleon, 320,
321;
expiration of Non-Intercourse Act, and proviso succeeding it,
331;
American trade in Baltic, 1809-1812, 345, and note;
declaration of war against Great Britain, 351.
_Van Stabel_, French rear-admiral,
i. escape of, from Lord Howe, 66;
protects large convoy from America, 123;
brings it safely to Brest, 161.
"_Vengeur_," French ship-of-the-line,
i. desperate action with the British ship "Brunswick," 140-143;
sinks, 144.
_Venice_, Republic of,
i. deprived of possessions on Italian mainland, also Istria and
Dalmatia, 235;
insurrection against French, 246;
conduct of Bonaparte toward, 247-249;
annihilation of, 250.
_Villaret-Joyeuse_, French admiral,
i. letters of, 56;
position before Revolution, 57;
sails in command of Brest fleet, 124;
meeting with British fleet, 126;
manœuvres of, May 28 and 29, 1794, 126-134;
conduct in battle of June 1, 136-139, 144-147;
strategy of, 159, 160;
anecdote, 160 (note);
winter cruise of, January, 1795, 163, 164;
action with Lord Bridport, 177-178;
appointed to command fleet in Irish Expedition, 1796, 349;
views as to the expedition, 349;
detached from it at Hoche's request, 350.
_Villeneuve_, French admiral,
i. sent with a division from Toulon to Brest, 220;
commands the rear division at battle of the Nile, 271;
conduct of, 272;
ii. appointed to command the Toulon squadron in 1804, 130;
Napoleon's instructions to, 142, 149, 164;
first sortie from Toulon, 143;
return to port, 144;
second sailing and arrival in West Indies, 151;
inaction there, 161,
and return to Europe, 162;
meeting with Calder's fleet, 169, 171;
anchors in Vigo Bay and thence goes to Ferrol, 173;
sails from Ferrol for Brest, 179,
but bears up for Cadiz, 180;
Napoleon's charges against, 185;
battle of Trafalgar, 187-195;
criticism of, 196.
_Wellesley_, British general,
ii. landing in Portugal, 1808, and victory of Vimiero, 292;
landing in Lisbon, 1809, beginning of Peninsular command, and
operations in Portugal, 315;
lines of Torres Vedras, 318;
capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, 348, 349.
_West Indies_, commercial importance of,
in the French Revolution, i. 109, 110;
character of military control required, 110-112, ii. 252;
military importance of Lesser Antilles, i. 114, 117, 119;
military and naval operations in, 115-121;
ii. French Expedition to, 1801, ii. 78, 94, 103;
Nelson's estimate of, 160;
American trade with, 232, 236-238, 245, 253, 266-269;
importance to British commercial system, 252, and note, 393.
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| Transcriber's Note: |
| |
| Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. |
| |
| Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, _like |
| this_. |
| |
| Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant |
| form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. |
| |
| Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. |
| |
| Word combinations that appeared with and without hyphens were |
| changed to the predominant form if it could be determined. |
| |
| Footnotes were moved to the end of the book and numbered in one |
| continuous sequence. |
| |
| In the index the numbers i. and ii. refer to volumes i. and ii. |
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