[1] It is suggested (W. M. Lindsay, _The Latin Language_, p. 41) that
he changed his name Claudius into the plebeian form Clodius, in order
to gain the favour of the mob.
CLOGHER, a market village of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, on the Clogher Valley light railway. Pop. (1901)
225. It gives name to dioceses of the Church of Ireland and the Roman
Catholic Church, but the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop is at
Monaghan, with the cathedral. The Protestant cathedral, dedicated to St
Macartin, dates from the 18th and early 19th century, but St Macartin
(c. 500) was a disciple of St Patrick, and it is said that St Patrick
himself founded a bishopric here. The name is derived from the Irish
_cloch_, a pillar stone, such as were worshipped and regarded as oracles
in many parts of pagan Ireland; the stone was preserved as late as the
15th century in the cathedral, and identity is even now claimed for a
stone which lies near the church.
CLOISTER (Lat. _claustrum_; Fr. _cloitre_; Ital. _chiostro_; Span.
_claustro_; Ger. _Kloster_). The word "cloister," though now restricted
to the four-sided enclosure, surrounded with covered ambulatories,
usually attached to coventual and cathedral churches, and sometimes to
colleges, or by a still further limitation to the ambulatories
themselves, originally signified the entire monastery. In this sense it
is of frequent occurrence in earlier English literature (e.g.
Shakespeare, _Meas. for Meas._ i. 3, "This day my sister should the
_cloister_ enter"), and is still employed in poetry. The Latin
_claustrum_, as its derivation implies, primarily denoted no more than
the enclosing wall of a religious house, and then came to be used for
the whole building enclosed within the wall. To this sense the German
"Kloster" is still limited, the covered walks, or cloister in the modern
sense, being called "Klostergang," or "Kreuzgang." In French the word
_cloitre_ retains the double sense.
In the special sense now most common, the word "cloister" denotes the
quadrilateral area in a monastery or college of canons, round which the
principal buildings are ranged, and which is usually provided with a
covered way or ambulatory running all round, and affording a means of
communication between the various centres of the ecclesiastical life,
without exposure to the weather. According to the Benedictine
arrangement, which from its suitability to the requirements of monastic
life was generally adopted in the West, one side of the cloister was
formed by the church, the refectory occupying the side opposite to it,
that the worshippers might have the least annoyance from the noise or
smell of the repasts. On the eastern side the chapter-house was placed,
with other apartments belonging to the common life of the brethren
adjacent to it, and, as a common rule, the dormitory occupied the whole
of the upper story. On the opposite or western side were generally the
cellarer's lodgings, with the cellars and store-houses, in which the
provisions necessary for the sustenance of the confraternity were
housed. In Cistercian monasteries the western side was usually occupied
by the "domus conversorum," or lodgings of the lay-brethren, with their
day-rooms and workshops below, and dormitory above. The cloister, with
its surrounding buildings, generally stood on the south side of the
church, to secure as much sunshine as possible. A very early example of
this disposition is seen in the plan of the monastery of St Gall (see
ABBEY, fig. 3). Local requirements, in some instances, caused the
cloister to be placed to the north of the church. This is the case in
the English cathedrals, formerly Benedictine abbeys, of Canterbury,
Gloucester and Chester, as well as in that of Lincoln. Other examples of
the northward situation are at Tintern, Buildwas and Sherborne. Although
the covered ambulatories are absolutely essential to the completeness
of a monastic cloister, a chief object of which was to enable the
inmates to pass from one part of the monastery to another without
inconvenience from rain, wind, or sun, it appears that they were
sometimes wanting. The cloister at St Albans seems to have been
deficient in ambulatories till the abbacy of Robert of Gorham,
1151-1166, when the eastern walk was erected. This, as was often the
case with the earliest ambulatories, was of wood covered with a sloping
roof or "penthouse." We learn from Osbern's account of the conflagration
of the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, 1067, that a cloister
with covered ways existed at that time, affording communication between
the church, the dormitory and the refectory. We learn from an early
drawing of the monastery of Canterbury that this cloister was formed by
an arcade of Norman arches supported on shafts, and covered by a shed
roof. A fragment of an arcaded cloister of this pattern is still found
on the eastern side of the infirmary-cloister of the same foundation.
This earlier form of cloister has been generally superseded in England
by a range of windows, usually unglazed, but sometimes, as at
Gloucester, provided with glass, lighting a vaulted ambulatory, of which
the cloisters of Westminster Abbey, Salisbury and Norwich are typical
examples. The older design was preserved in the South, where "the
cloister is never a window, or anything in the least approaching to it
in design, but a range of small elegant pillars, sometimes single,
sometimes coupled, and supporting arches of a light and elegant design,
all the features being of a character suited to the place where they are
used, and to that only" (Fergusson, _Hist. of Arch._ i. p. 610). As
examples of this description of cloister, we may refer to the exquisite
cloisters of St John Lateran, and St Paul's without the walls, at Rome,
where the coupled shafts and arches are richly ornamented with ribbons
of mosaic, and those of the convent of St Scholastica at Subiaco, all of
the 13th century, and to the beautiful cloisters at Arles, in southern
France; those of Aix, Fontfroide, Elne, &c., are of the same type; as
also the Romanesque cloisters at Zurich, where the design suffers from
the deep abacus having only a single slender shaft to support it, and at
Laach, where the quadrangle occupies the place of the "atrium" of the
early basilicas at the west end, as at St Clement's at Rome, and St
Ambrose at Milan. Spain also presents some magnificent cloisters of both
types, of which that of the royal convent of Huelgas, near Burgos, of
the arcaded form, is, according to Fergusson, "unrivalled for beauty
both of detail and design, and is perhaps unsurpassed by anything in its
age and style in any part of Europe." Few cloisters are more beautiful
than those of Monreale and Cefalu in Sicily, where the arrangement is
the same, of slender columns in pairs with capitals of elaborate foliage
supporting pointed arches of great elegance of form.
All other cloisters are surpassed in dimensions and in sumptuousness of
decoration by the "Campo Santo" at Pisa. This magnificent cloister
consists of four ambulatories as wide and lofty as the nave of a church,
erected in 1278 by Giovanni Pisano round a cemetery composed of soil
brought from Palestine by Archbishop Lanfranchi in the middle of the
12th century. The window-openings are semicircular, filled with
elaborate tracery in the latter half of the 15th century. The inner
walls are covered with frescoes invaluable in the history of art by
Orcagna, Simone Memmi, Buffalmacco, Benozzo Gozzoli, and other early
painters of the Florentine school. The ambulatories now serve as a
museum of sculpture. The internal dimensions are 415 ft. 6. in. in
length, 137 ft. 10 in. in breadth, while each ambulatory is 34 ft. 6.
in. wide by 46 ft. high.
The cloister of a religious house was the scene of a large part of the
life of the inmates of a monastery. It was the place of education for
the younger members, and of study for the elders. A canon of the Roman
council held under Eugenius II., in 826, enjoins the erection of a
cloister as an essential portion of an ecclesiastical establishment for
the better discipline and instruction of the clerks. Peter of Blois
(_Serm._ 25) describes schools for the novices as being in the west
walk, and moral lectures delivered in that next the church. At
Canterbury the monks' school was in the western ambulatory, and it was
in the same walk that the novices were taught at Durham (Willis,
_Monastic Buildings of Canterbury_, p. 44; _Rites of Durham_, p. 71).
The other alleys, especially that next the church, were devoted to the
studies of the elder monks. The constitutions of Hildemar and Dunstan
enact that between the services of the church the brethren should sit in
the cloister and read theology. For this purpose small studies, known as
"carrols," i.e. a ring or enclosed space, were often found in the
recesses of the windows. Of this arrangement there are examples at
Gloucester, Chester and elsewhere. The use of these studies is thus
described in the _Rites of Durham_:--"In every wyndowe" in the north
alley "were iii pewes or carrells, where every one of the olde monkes
had his carrell severally by himselfe, that when they had dyned they dyd
resorte to that place of cloister, and there studyed upon their books,
every one in his carrell all the afternonne unto evensong tyme. This was
there exercise every daie." On the opposite wall were cupboards full of
books for the use of the students in the carrols. The cloister
arrangements at Canterbury were similar to those just described. New
studies were made by Prior De Estria in 1317, and Prior Selling
(1472-1494) glazed the south alley for the use of the studious brethren,
and constructed "the new framed contrivances, of late styled carrols"
(Willis, _Mon. Buildings_, p. 45). The cloisters were used not for study
only but also for recreation. The constitutions of Archbishop Lanfranc,
sect. 3, permitted the brethren to converse together there at certain
hours of the day. To maintain necessary discipline a special officer was
appointed under the title of _prior claustri_. The cloister was always
furnished with a stone bench running along the side. It was also
provided with a lavatory, usually adjacent to the refectory, but
sometimes standing in the central area, termed the cloister-garth, as at
Durham. The cloister-garth was used as a place of sepulture, as well as
the surrounding alleys. The cloister was in some few instances of two
stories, as at Old St Paul's, and St Stephen's chapel, Westminster, and
occasionally, as at Wells, Chichester and Hereford, had only three
alleys, there being no ambulatory under the church wall.
The larger monastic establishments had more than one cloister; there was
usually a second connected with the infirmary, of which there are
examples at Westminster Abbey and at Canterbury; and sometimes one
giving access to the kitchen and other domestic offices.
The cloister was not an appendage of monastic houses exclusively. It was
also attached to colleges of secular canons, as at the cathedrals of
Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, Hereford and Chichester, and formerly at St
Paul's and Exeter. It is, however, absent at York, Lichfield, Beverley,
Ripon, Southwell and Wimborne. A cloister forms an essential part of the
colleges of Eton and Winchester, and of New College and Magdalen at
Oxford, and was designed by Wolsey at Christ Church. These were used for
religious processions and lectures, for ambulatories for the studious at
all times, and for places of exercise for the inmates generally in wet
weather, as well as in some instances for sepulture.
For the arrangements of the Carthusian cloisters, as well as for some
account of those appended to the monasteries of the East, see ABBEY.
(E. V.)
CLONAKILTY, a seaport and market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the south
parliamentary division, at the head of Clonakilty Bay, 33 m. S.W. of
Cork on a branch of the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 3098. It was brought into prosperity by Richard
Boyle, first earl of Cork, and was granted a charter in 1613; but was
partly demolished on the occasion of a fight between the English and
Irish in 1641. It returned two members to the Irish parliament until the
union. In the 18th century there was an extensive linen industry. The
present trade is centred in brewing, corn-milling, yarn and
farm-produce. The harbour-mouth is obstructed by a bar, and there is a
pier for large vessels at Ring, a mile below the town. The fisheries are
of importance. A ruined church on the island of Inchdorey, and castles
on Galley Head, at Dunnycove, and at Dunowen, together with a stone
circle, are the principal antiquities in the neighbourhood.
CLONES, a market town of Co. Monaghan, Ireland, in the north
parliamentary division, 64-1/2 m. S.W. by W. from Belfast, and 93-1/2 m.
N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway, on which system it is an
important junction, the lines from Dublin, from Belfast, from
Londonderry and Enniskillen, and from Cavan converging here. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 2068. The town has a considerable agricultural
trade, and there are corn mills and manufactures of agricultural
implements. A former lace-making industry is extinct. The market-place,
called the Diamond, occupies the summit of the slight elevation on which
the town is situated. Clones was the seat of an abbey founded in the 6th
century by St Tighernach (Tierney), to whom the Protestant parish church
is dedicated. Remains of the abbey include a nave and tower of the 12th
century, and a curious shrine formed out of a great block of red
sandstone. Other antiquities are a round tower of rude masonry, 75 ft.
high but lacking the cap; a rath, or encampment, and an ancient market
cross in the Diamond.
CLONMACNOISE, one of the most noteworthy of the numerous early religious
settlements in Ireland, on the river Shannon, in King's county, 9 m. S.
of Athlone. An abbey was founded here by St Kieran in 541, which as a
seat of learning gained a European fame, receiving offerings, for
example, from Charles the Great, whose companion Alcuin the scholar
received part of his education from the great teacher Colcu at
Conmacnoise. Several books of annals were compiled here, and the
foundation became the seat of a bishopric, but it was plundered and
wasted by the English in 1552, and in 1568 the diocese was united with
that of Meath. The most remarkable literary monument of Clonmacnoise is
the Book of the Dun Cow, written about 1100, still preserved (but in an
imperfect form) by the Royal Irish Academy, and containing a large
number of romances. It is a copy of a much earlier original, which was
written on the skin of a favourite cow of St Kieran, whence the name of
the work. The full title of the foundation is the "Seven Churches of
Clonmacnoise," and remains of all these are extant. The Great Church,
though rebuilt by a chief named McDermot, in the 14th century, retains
earlier remains in a fine west doorway; the other churches are those of
Fineen, Conor, St Kieran, Kelly, Melaghlin and Dowling. There are two
round towers; O'Rourke's, lacking the roof, but occupying a commanding
situation on rising ground, is dated by Petrie from the early 10th
century, and stands 62 ft. in height; and McCarthy's, attached to
Fineen's church, which is more perfect, but rather shorter, and presents
the unusual feature of a doorway level with the ground, instead of
several feet above it as is customary. There are three crosses, of which
the Great Cross, made of a single stone and 15 ft. in height, is
splendidly carved, with tracery and inscriptions. It faces the door of
the Great Church, and is of the same date. A large number of inscribed
stones dating from the 9th century and after are preserved in the
churches. There are further remains of the Castle and Episcopal palace,
a fortified building of the 14th century, and of a nunnery of the 12th
century. In the neighbourhood are seen striking examples of the glacial
phenomenon of _eskers_, or gravel ridges.
CLONMEL, a municipal borough and the county town of Co. Tipperary,
Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 112 m. S.W. from Dublin on
a branch from Thurles of the Great Southern & Western railway, which
makes a junction here with the Waterford and Limerick line of the same
company. Pop. (1901) 10,167. Clonmel is built on both sides of the Suir,
and also occupies Moore and Long Islands, which are connected with the
mainland by three bridges. The principal buildings are the parish
church, two Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan friary, two convents,
an endowed school dating from 1685, and the various county buildings.
The beauty of the environs, and especially of the river, deserves
mention; and their charm is enhanced by the neighbouring Galtee,
Knockmealdown and other mountains, among which Slievenaman (2364 ft.) is
conspicuous. A woollen manufacture was established in 1667, and was
extensively carried on until the close of the 18th century. The town
contains breweries, flour-mills and tanneries, and has a considerable
export trade in grain, cattle, butter and provisions. It stands at the
head of navigation for barges on the Suir. It was the centre of a
system, established by Charles Bianconi (1786-1875) in 1815 and
subsequently, for the conveyance of travellers on light cars, extending
over a great part of Leinster, Munster and Connaught. It is governed by
a mayor and corporation, which, though retained under the Local
Government (Ireland) Act of 1898, has practically the status of an urban
district council. By the same act a part of the town formerly situated
in county Waterford was added to county Tipperary. It was a
parliamentary borough, returning one member, until 1885; having returned
two members to the Irish parliament until the union.
The name, _Cluain mealla_, signifies the Vale of Honey. In 1269 the
place was chosen as the seat of a Franciscan friary by Otho de
Grandison, the first English possessor of the district; and it
frequently comes into notice in the following centuries. In 1641 it
declared for the Roman Catholic party, and in 1650 it was gallantly
defended by Hugh O'Neill against the English under Cromwell. Compelled
at last to capitulate, it was completely dismantled, and was never again
fortified. Remains of the wall are seen in the churchyard, and the West
Gate still stands in the main street.
CLOOTS, JEAN BAPTISTE DU VAL DE GRACE, BARON VON (1755-1794), better
known as ANACHARSIS CLOOTS, a noteworthy figure in the French
Revolution, was born near Cleves, at the castle of Gnadenthal. He
belonged to a noble Prussian family of Dutch origin. The young Cloots,
heir to a great fortune, was sent at eleven years of age to Paris to
complete his education. There he imbibed the theories of his uncle the
Abbe Cornelius de Pauw (1739-1799), philosopher, geographer and
diplomatist at the court of Frederick the Great. His father placed him
in the military academy at Berlin, but he left it at the age of twenty
and traversed Europe, preaching his revolutionary philosophy as an
apostle, and spending his money as a man of pleasure. On the breaking
out of the Revolution he returned in 1789 to Paris, thinking the
opportunity favourable for establishing his dream of a universal family
of nations. On the 19th of June 1790 he appeared at the bar of the
Assembly at the head of thirty-six foreigners; and, in the name of this
"embassy of the human race," declared that the world adhered to the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. After this he was
known as "the orator of the human race," by which title he called
himself, dropping that of baron, and substituting for his baptismal
names the pseudonym of Anacharsis, from the famous philosophical romance
of the Abbe Jean Jacques Barthelemy. In 1792 he placed 12,000 livres at
the disposal of the Republic--"for the arming of forty or fifty fighters
in the sacred cause of man against tyrants." The 10th of August impelled
him to a still higher flight; he declared himself the personal enemy of
Jesus Christ, and abjured all revealed religions. In the same month he
had the rights of citizenship conferred on him; and, having in September
been elected a member of the Convention, he voted the king's death in
the name of the human race, and was an active partisan of the war of
propaganda. Excluded at the instance of Robespierre from the Jacobin
Club, he was soon afterwards implicated in an accusation levelled
against the Hebertists. His innocence was manifest, but he was
condemned, and guillotined on the 24th of March 1794.
Cloots' main works are: _La Certitude des preuves du mahometisme_
(London, 1780), published under the pseudonym of Ali-Gur-Ber, in answer
to Bergier's _Certitude des preuves du christianisme; L'Orateur du genre
humain, ou Depeches du Prussien Cloots au Prussien Herzberg_ (Paris,
1791), and _La Republique universelle_ (1792).
The biography of Cloots by G. Avenel (2 vols., Paris, 1865) is too
eulogistic. See the three articles by H. Baulig in _La Revolution
francaise_, t. 41 (1901).
CLOQUET, a city of Carlton county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the St Louis
river, 28 m. W. by S. of Duluth. Pop. (1890) 2530; (1900) 3072; (1905,
state census) 6117, of whom 2755 were foreign-born (716 Swedes, 689
Finns, 685 Canadians, 334 Norwegians); (1910) 7031. Cloquet is served by
the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, the Duluth & North-Eastern,
and (for freight only) the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The
river furnishes good water-power, and the city has various manufactures,
including lumber, paper, wood pulp, match blocks and boxes. The first
mill was built in 1878, and the village was named from the French word
_claquet_ (sound of the mill). Cloquet was incorporated as a village in
1883 and was chartered as a city in 1903.
CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903), Irish geologist, was born in Dublin in
1822. He was educated at Weymouth and at Trinity College, Dublin, where
he graduated in 1846; and two years later he entered holy orders. For a
year he was curate of All Saints, Northampton; from 1849 to 1857 he was
rector of Shangton in Leicestershire; and then for four years he was
curate of Waltham-on-the-Wolds. In 1861, on the death of his father, he
returned to Dublin, and while giving his services to various churches in
the city, devoted himself almost wholly to literary and scientific
pursuits, and especially to the glacial geology of Ireland, on which
subject he became an acknowledged authority. His paper, read before the
Geological Society of Ireland in 1866, on the "General Glaciation of
Ireland" is a masterly description of the effects of glaciation, and of
the evidence in favour of the action of land-ice. Later on he discussed
the origin of the elevated shell-bearing gravels near Dublin, and
expressed the view that they were accumulated by floating ice when the
land had undergone submergence. He was for a time treasurer of the Royal
Irish Academy, an active member of the Royal Dublin Society, and
president in 1878 of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Astronomy
and physics, as well as the ancient language and antiquities of Ireland,
attracted his attention. He died in Dublin on the 12th of September
1903.
The obituary by Prof. G.A.J. Cole in _Irish Naturalist_, vol. xii.
(1903) pp. 301-306, contains a list of publications and portrait.
CLOSE (from Lat. _clausum_, shut), a closed place or enclosure. In
English law, the term is applied to a portion of land, enclosed or not,
held as private property, and to any exclusive interest in land
sufficient to maintain an action for trespass _quare clausum fregit_.
The word is also used, particularly in Scotland, of the entry or
passage, including the common staircase, of a block of tenement houses,
and in architecture for the precincts of a cathedral or abbey.
The adjective "close" (i.e. closed) is found in several phrases, such as
"close time" or "close season" (see GAME LAWS); close borough, one of
which the rights and privileges were enjoyed by a limited class (see
BOROUGH); close rolls and writs, royal letters, &c., addressed to
particular persons, under seal, and not open to public inspection (see
RECORD; _Chancery_; LETTERS PATENT). From the sense of "closed up," and
so "confined," comes the common meaning of "near."
CLOSURE (Fr. _cloture_), the parliamentary term for the closing of
debate according to a certain rule, even when certain members are
anxious to continue the debate. (See PARLIAMENT: _Procedure_.)
CLOT, ANTOINE BARTHELEMY (1793-1868), French physician, known as CLOT
BEY, was born at Grenoble on the 7th of November 1793, and graduated in
medicine and surgery at Montpellier. After practising for a time at
Marseilles he was made chief surgeon to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt.
At Abuzabel, near Cairo, he founded a hospital and schools for all
branches of medical instruction, as well as for the study of the French
language; and, notwithstanding the most serious religious difficulties,
instituted the study of anatomy by means of dissection. In 1832 Mehemet
Ali gave him the dignity of bey without requiring him to abjure his
religion; and in 1836 he received the rank of general, and was appointed
head of the medical administration of the country. In 1849 he returned
to Marseilles, though he revisited Egypt in 1856. He died at Marseilles
on the 28th of August 1868. His publications included: _Relation des
epidemies de cholera qui ont regne a l'Heggiaz, a Suez, et en Egypte_
(1832); _De la peste observee en Egypte_ (1840); _Apercu general sur
l'Egypte_ (1840); _Coup d'oeil sur la peste et les quarantaines_ (1851);
_De l'ophthalmie (1864)_.
CLOTAIRE (CHLOTHACHAR), the name of four Frankish kings.
CLOTAIRE I. (d. 561) was one of the four sons of Clovis. On the death of
his father in 511 he received as his share of the kingdom the town of
Soissons, which he made his capital, the cities of Laon, Noyon, Cambrai
and Maastricht, and the lower course of the Meuse. But he was very
ambitious, and sought to extend his domain. He was the chief instigator
of the murder of his brother Clodomer's children in 524, and his share
of the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers. He took
part in the various expeditions against Burgundy, and after the
destruction of that kingdom in 534 obtained Grenoble, Die and some of
the neighbouring cities. When Provence was ceded to the Franks by the
Ostrogoths, he received the cities of Orange, Carpentras and Gap. In 531
he marched against the Thuringi with his brother Theuderich (Thierry)
I., and in 542 with his brother Childebert against the Visigoths of
Spain. On the death of his great-nephew Theodebald in 555, Clotaire
annexed his territories; and on Childebert's death in 558 he became king
of all Gaul. He also ruled over the greater part of Germany, made
expeditions into Saxony, and for some time exacted from the Saxons an
annual tribute of 500 cows. The end of his reign was troubled by
internal dissensions, his son Chram rising against him on several
occasions. Following Chram into Brittany, where the rebel had taken
refuge, Clotaire shut him up with his wife and children in a cottage, to
which he set fire. Overwhelmed with remorse, he went to Tours to implore
forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin, and died shortly afterwards.
CLOTAIRE II. (d. 629) was the son of Chilperic I. On the assassination
of his father in 584 he was still in his cradle. He was, however,
recognized as king, thanks to the devotion of his mother Fredegond and
the protection of his uncle Gontran, king of Burgundy. It was not until
after the death of his cousin Childebert II. in 595 that Clotaire took
any active part in affairs. He then endeavoured to enlarge his estates
at the expense of Childebert's sons, Theodebert, king of Austrasia, and
Theuderich II., king of Burgundy; but after gaining a victory at Laffaux
(597), he was defeated at Dormelles (600), and lost part of his kingdom.
After the war between Theodebert and Theuderich and their subsequent
death, the nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy appealed to Clotaire, who,
after putting Brunhilda to death, became master of the whole of the
Frankish kingdom (613). He was obliged, however, to make great
concessions to the aristocracy, to whom he owed his victory. By the
constitution of the 18th of October 614 he gave legal force to canons
which had been voted some days previously by a council convened at
Paris, but not without attempting to modify them by numerous
restrictions. He extended the competence of the ecclesiastical
tribunals, suppressed unjust taxes and undertook to select the counts
from the districts they had to administer. In 623 he made his son
Dagobert king of the Austrasians, and gradually subdued all the
provinces that had formerly belonged to Childebert II. He also
guaranteed a certain measure of independence to the nobles of Burgundy,
giving them the option of having a special mayor of the palace, or of
dispensing with that officer. These concessions procured him a reign of
comparative tranquillity. He died on the 18th of October 629, and was
buried at Paris in the church of St Vincent, afterwards known as St
Germain des Pres.
CLOTAIRE III. (652-673) was a son of King Clovis II. In 657 he became
the nominal ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms, but was deprived of
Austrasia in 663, retaining Neustria and Burgundy until his death.
CLOTAIRE IV. (d. 719) was king of Austrasia from 717 to 719.
(C. PF.)
CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing, then the
material of which such a covering is made; hence any material woven of
wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre. In commercial usage, the
word is particularly applied to a fabric made of wool. The word is
Teutonic, though it does not appear in all the branches of the language.
It appears in German as _Kleid_, dress (_Kleidung_, clothing), and in
Dutch as _kleed_. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected
with the root _kli-_ meaning to stick, cling to, which appears in
"clay," "cleave" and other words. The original meaning would be either
that which clings to the body, or that which is pressed or "felted"
together. The regular plural of "cloth" was "clothes," which is now
confined in meaning to articles of clothing, garments, in which sense
the singular "cloth" is not now used. For that word, in its modern sense
of material, the plural "cloths" is used. This form dates from the
beginning of the 17th century, but the distinction in meaning between
"cloths" and "clothes" is a 19th-century one.
CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or a dealer who sells either the
cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the word formerly
applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth during the process of
manufacture, but now it is used in the general sense, as above.
CLOTILDA, SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king Chilperic, and
wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death of Gundioc, king of the
Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald, Godegesil and Chilperic divided
his heritage between them; Chilperic apparently reigning at Lyons,
Gundobald at Vienne and Godegesil at Geneva. According to Gregory of
Tours, Chilperic was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his
two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled. This
account, however, seems to have been a later invention. At Lyons an
epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen, who died in 506, and
was most probably the mother of Clotilda. Clotilda was brought up in the
orthodox faith. Her uncle Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage
by the Frankish king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and
the marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic
stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the works of
Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and in the _Liber
historiae Francorum_. Clotilda did not rest until her husband had
abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox Christian faith (496). With
him she built at Paris the church of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known
as Ste Genevieve. After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the
abbey of St Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her
uncle Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following year
she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the children
of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert I. and Clotaire
I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts to prevent the civil
discords between her children. She died in 544, and was buried by her
husband's side in the church of the Holy Apostles.
There is a mediocre _Life_ in _Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. rer. Merov._,
vol. ii. See also G. Kurth, _Sainte Clotilde_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1897).
(C. PF.)
CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as "clod," a word
common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is
first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the
Anglo-Saxon _cl[=u]d_ is only used in the sense of "a mass of rock,"
_wolcen_ being used for "cloud"), a mass of condensed vapour hanging in
the air at some height from the earth.
_Classification of Clouds._--The earliest serious attempt to name the
varieties of cloud was made by J.B. Lamarck in 1801, but he only used
French terms, and those were not always happily chosen. The field was
therefore still clear when in 1803 Luke Howard published, in _Tilloch's
Philosophical Magazine_, an entirely independent scheme in which the
terms were all Latin, and were applied with such excellent judgment that
his system remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He
recognized three primary types of cloud--Cirrus, Cumulus and
Stratus--and four derivative or compound forms,--Cirro-cumulus,
Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus.