_Margarite_ is a basic calcium aluminium silicate, H2CaAl4Si2O12, and is
classed by some authors as a lime-mica. It forms white pearly scales,
and was at first known as pearl-mica and afterwards as margarite, from
[Greek: margarites], a pearl. It is a characteristic associate of
corundum, of which it is frequently an alteration product (facts which
suggested the synonymous names corundellite and emerylite), and is found
in the emery deposits of Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago, and
with corundum at several localities in the United States.
_Seybertite_, _Brandisite_ and _Xanthophyllite_ are closely allied
species consisting of basic magnesium, calcium and aluminium silicate,
and have been regarded as isomorphous mixtures of a silicate
(H2CaMg4Si3O12) and an aluminate (H2CaMgAl6O12). Seybertite (the
original clintonite) occurs as reddish-brown to copper-red, brittle,
foliated masses in metamorphic limestone at Amity, New York; brandisite
as yellowish-green hexagonal prisms in metamorphic limestone in the
Fassathal, Tirol; xanthophyllite as yellow folia and as distinct
crystals (waluewite) in chloritic schists in the Urals.
_Chloritoid_ has the formula H2(Fe,Mg)Al2SiO7. It forms tabular crystals
and scales, with indistinct hexagonal outlines, which are often curved
or bent and aggregated in rosettes. The colour is dark grey or green; a
characteristic feature is the pleochroism, the pleochroic colours
varying from yellowish-green to indigo-blue. Hardness, 6-1/2; specific
gravity, 3.4-3.6. It occurs as isolated scales scattered through
schistose rocks and phyllites of dynamo-metamorphic origin. The
ottrelites of the phyllites and ottrelite-schists of Ottrez and other
localities in the Belgian Ardennes is a manganiferous variety of
chloritoid, but owing to enclosed impurities the analyses differ widely
from those of typical chloritoid. (L. J. S.)
CLISSON, OLIVIER DE (1336-1407), French soldier, was the son of the
Olivier de Clisson who was put to death in 1343 on the suspicion of
having wished to give up Nantes to the English. He was brought up in
England, where his mother, Jeanne de Belleville, had married her second
husband. On his return to Brittany he took arms on the side of de
Montfort, distinguishing himself at the battle of Auray (1364), but in
consequence of differences with Duke John IV. went over to the side of
Blois. In 1370 he joined Bertrand du Guesclin, who had lately become
constable of France, and followed him in all his campaigns against the
English. On the death of du Guesclin Clisson received the constable's
sword (1380). He fought with the citizens of Ghent, defeating them at
Roosebek (1382), later on commanded the army in Poitou and Flanders
(1389), and made an unsuccessful attempt to invade England. On his
return to Paris, in 1392, an attempt was made to assassinate him by
Pierre de Craon, at the instigation of John IV. of Brittany. In order to
punish the latter, Charles VI., accompanied by the constable, marched on
Brittany, but it was on this expedition that the king was seized with
madness. The uncles of Charles VI. took proceedings against Clisson, so
that he had to take refuge in Brittany. He was reconciled with John IV.,
and after the duke's death, in 1399, he became protector of the duchy,
and guardian of the young princes. He had gathered vast wealth before
his death on the 23rd of April 1407.
CLISSON, a town of western France, in the department of
Loire-Inferieure, prettily situated at the confluence of the Sevre
Nantaise and the Moine 17 m. S.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop. (1906) 2244.
The town gave its name to the celebrated family of Clisson, of which the
most famous member was Olivier de Clisson. It has the imposing ruins of
their stronghold, parts of which date from the 13th century. The town
and castle were destroyed in 1792 and 1793 during the Vendean wars. The
sculptor F. F. Lemont afterwards bought the castle, and the town was
rebuilt in the early part of the 19th century according to his plans.
There are picturesque parks on the banks of the rivers. The Moine is
crossed by an old Gothic bridge and by a fine modern viaduct.
CLITHEROE, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 220 m. N.N.W. from London
and 35 m. N. by W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,414. It is finely situated in the valley of the
Ribble, at the foot of Pendle Hill, a steep plateau-like mass rising to
1831 ft. The church of St Mary Magdalene, though occupying an ancient
site, is wholly modernized. There are a grammar school, founded in 1554,
and a technical school. On a rocky elevation commanding the valley
stands the keep and other fragments of a Norman castle, but part of the
site is occupied by a modern mansion. The industrial establishments
comprise cotton-mills, print-works, paper-mills, foundries, and brick
and lime works. The corporation consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 2385 acres.
Stonyhurst College, 5 m. S.W. of Clitheroe, is the principal
establishment in England for Roman Catholic students. The Jesuits of St
Omer, after emigrating to Bruges and Liege, were disorganized by the
revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th century, and a large
body came to England, when Thomas Weld, in 1795, conferred his property
of Stonyhurst upon them. The fine and extensive buildings, of which the
nucleus is a mansion of the 17th century, contain a public school for
boys and a house of studies for Jesuit ecclesiastics, while there is a
preparatory school at a short distance. Every branch of study is
prosecuted, the college including such institutions as an observatory,
laboratories and farm buildings.
The Honour of Clitheroe, the name of which is also written Clyderhow and
Cletherwoode, was first held by Roger de Poictou, who was almost
certainly the builder of the castle, which was dismantled in 1649. He
granted it to Robert de Lacy, in whose family it remained with two short
intervals until it passed by marriage to Thomas, earl of Lancaster, in
1310. It formed part of the duchy of Lancaster till Charles II. at the
Restoration bestowed it on General Monk, from whose family it descended
through the house of Montague to that of Buccleuch. The Clitheroe Estate
Company are the present lords of the Honour. The first charter was
granted about 1283 to the burgesses by Henry de Lacy, second earl of
Lincoln, confirming the liberties granted by the first Henry de Lacy,
who is therefore sometimes said, although probably erroneously, to have
granted a charter about 1147. The 1283 charter was confirmed by Edward
III. in 1346, Henry V. in 1413-1414, Henry VIII. in 1542, and James I.
in 1604. Of the fairs, those on December 7th to 9th and March 24th to
26th are held under a charter of Henry IV. in 1409. A weekly market has
been held on Saturday since the Conqueror's days. In 1558 the borough
was granted two members of parliament, and continued to return them till
1832, when the number was reduced to one. Under the Redistribution Act
of 1885 the borough was disfranchised. The municipal government was
formerly vested in an in-bailiff and an out-bailiff elected annually
from the in and out burgesses. A court-leet and court-baron used to be
held half-yearly, but both are now obsolete. The present corporation
governs under the Municipal Corporation Act (1837). There was a church
or chapel here in early times, and a chaplain is mentioned in Henry
II.'s reign.
CLITOMACHUS, Greek philosopher, was a Carthaginian originally named
Hasdrubal, who came to Athens about the middle of the 2nd century B.C.
at the age of twenty-four. He made himself well acquainted with Stoic
and Peripatetic philosophy; but he studied principally under Carneades,
whose views he adopted, and whom he succeeded as chief of the New
Academy in 129 B.C. He made it his business to spread the knowledge of
the doctrines of Carneades, who left nothing in writing himself.
Clitomachus' works were some four hundred in number; but we possess
scarcely anything but a few titles, among which are _De sustinendis
assensionibus_ ([Greek: Peri epoches], "on suspension of judgment") and
[Greek: Peri aireseon] (an account of various philosophical sects). In
146 he wrote a treatise to console his countrymen after the ruin of
their city, in which he insisted that a wise man ought not to feel
grieved at the destruction of his country. Cicero highly commends his
works and admits his own debt in the _Academics_ to the treatise [Greek:
Peri epoches]. Parts of Cicero's _De Natura_ and _De Divinatione_, and
the treatise _De Fato_ are also in the main based upon Clitomachus.
See E. Wellmann in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; R.
Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros philosophischen Schriften_, i.
(1877); Diog. Laert. iv. 67-92; Cicero, _Acad. Pr._ ii. 31, 32, and
_Tusc._. iii. 22; and article ACADEMY, GREEK.
CLITUMNUS, a river in Umbria, Italy, which rises from a very abundant
spring by the road between the ancient Spoletium and Trebia, 8 m. from
the former, 4 m. from the latter, and after a short course through the
territory of the latter town joins the Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber.
The spring is well described by Pliny (_Epist._ viii. 8): it was visited
by Caligula and by Honorius, and is still picturesque--a clear pool
surrounded by poplars and weeping willows. The stream was personified as
a god, whose ancient temple lay near the spring, and close by other
smaller shrines; the place, therefore, occurs under the name _Sacraria_
(the shrines) as a Roman post station. The building generally known as
the Tempio di Clitunno, close to the spring, is, however, an ancient
tomb, converted into a Christian church in the early middle ages, the
decorative sculptures, which are obviously contemporary with those of S.
Salvatore at Spoleto, belonging to the 4th or 6th century according to
some authorities, to the 12th according to others.
See H. Grisar, _Nuovo bullettino di archeologia cristiana_ (Rome,
1895) i. 127; A. Venturi, _Storia dell' arte italiana_ (Milan, 1904),
iii. 903.
CLIVE, CAROLINE (1801-1873), English authoress, was born in London on
the 24th of June 1801, the daughter of Mr Meysey-Wigley, M.P. for
Worcester. She married, in 1840, the Rev. Archer Clive. She published,
over the signature "V.," eight volumes of poetry, but is best known as
the author of _Paul Ferroll_ (1855), a sensational novel, and _Why Paul
Ferroll killed his Wife_ (1860). She died on the 13th of July 1873, at
Whitfield, Herefordshire.
CLIVE, CATHERINE [KITTY] (1711-1785), British actress, was born,
probably in London, in 1711. Her father, William Raftor, an Irishman of
good family but small means, had held a captain's commission in the
French army under Louis XIV. From her earliest years she showed a talent
for the stage, and about 1728 became a member of the company at Drury
Lane, of which Colley Cibber was then manager. Her first part was that
of the page Ismenes ("with a song") in the tragedy _Mithridates_.
Shortly afterwards she married George Clive, a barrister and a relative
of the 1st Lord Clive, but husband and wife soon separated by mutual
consent. In 1731 she definitely established her reputation as a comic
actress and singer in Charles Coffey's farce-opera adaptation, _The
Devil to Pay_, and from this time she was always a popular favourite.
She acted little outside Drury Lane, where in 1747 she became one of the
original members of Garrick's company. She took part, however, in some
of the oratorios of Handel, whose friend she was. In 1769, having been a
member of Garrick's company for twenty-two years, she quitted the stage,
and lived for sixteen years in retirement at a villa at Twickenham,
which had been given her some time previously by her friend Horace
Walpole. Mrs Clive had small claim to good looks, but as an actress of
broad comedy she was unreservedly praised by Goldsmith, Johnson and
Garrick. She had a quick temper, which on various occasions involved her
in quarrels, and at times sorely tried the patience of Garrick, but her
private life remained above suspicion, and she regularly supported her
father and his family. She died at Twickenham on the 6th of December
1785. Horace Walpole placed in his garden an urn to her memory, bearing
an inscription, of which the last two lines run:
"The comic muse with her retired
And shed a tear when she expired."
See Percy Fitzgerald, _Life of Mrs Catherine Clive_ (1888); W. R.
Chetwood, _General History of the Stage_ (1749); Thomas Davies,
_Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick_ (1784).
CLIVE, ROBERT CLIVE, BARON (1725-1774), the statesman and general who
founded the empire of British India, was born on the 29th of September
1725 at Styche, the family estate, in the parish of Moreton Say, Market
Drayton, Shropshire. We learn from himself, in his second speech in the
House of Commons in 1773, that as the estate yielded only L500 a year,
his father followed the profession of the law also. The Clives, or
Clyves, were one of the oldest families in the county of Shropshire,
having held the manor of that name in the reign of Henry II. One Clive
was Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII.; another was a
member of the Long Parliament; Robert's father for many years
represented Montgomeryshire in parliament. His mother, to whom he was
tenderly attached, and who had a powerful influence on his career, was a
daughter, and with her sister Lady Sempill co-heir, of Nathaniel Gaskell
of Manchester. Robert was their eldest son. With his five sisters, all
of whom were married in due time, he ever maintained the most
affectionate relations. His only brother survived to 1825.
Young Clive was the despair of his teachers. Sent from school to school,
and for only a short time at the Merchant Taylors' school, which then as
now had a high reputation, he neglected his books for perilous
adventures. But he was not so ignorant as his biographers represent. He
could read Horace in after life; and he must have laid in his youth the
foundation of that clear and vigorous English style which marked all his
despatches, and made Lord Chatham declare of one of his speeches in the
House of Commons that it was the most eloquent he had ever heard. From
his earliest years, however, his ambition was to lead his fellows; but
he never sacrificed honour, as the word was then understood, even to the
fear of death. At eighteen he was sent out to Madras as a "factor" or
"writer" in the civil service of the East India Company. The detention
of the ship in Brazil for nine months enabled him to acquire the
Portuguese language, which, at a time when few or none of the Company's
servants learned the vernaculars of India, he often found of use. For
the first two years of his residence he was miserable. He felt keenly
the separation from home; he was always breaking through the restraints
imposed on young "writers"; and he was rarely out of trouble with his
fellows, with one of whom he fought a duel. Thus early, too, the effect
of the climate on his health began to show itself in those fits of
depression during one of which he afterwards prematurely ended his life.
The story is told of him by his companions, though he himself never
spoke of it, that he twice snapped a pistol at his head in vain. His one
solace was found in the governor's library, where he sought to make up
for past carelessness by a systematic course of study. He was just of
age, when in 1746 Madras was forced to capitulate to Labourdonnais
during the War of the Austrian Succession. The breach of that
capitulation by Dupleix, then at the head of the French settlements in
India, led Clive, with others, to escape from the town to the
subordinate Fort St David, some 20 m. to the south. There, disgusted
with the state of affairs and the purely commercial duties of an East
Indian civilian, as they then were, Clive obtained an ensign's
commission.
At this time India was ready to become the prize of the first conqueror
who to the dash of the soldier added the skill of the administrator. For
the forty years since the death of the emperor Aurangzeb, the power of
the Great Mogul had gradually fallen into the hands of his provincial
viceroys or _subadhars_. The three greatest of these were the nawab of
the Deccan, or south and central India, who ruled from Hyderabad, the
nawab of Bengal, whose capital was Murshidabad, and the nawab or wazir
of Oudh. The prize lay between Dupleix, who had the genius of an
administrator, or rather intriguer, but was no soldier, and Clive, the
first of a century's brilliant succession of those "soldier-politicals,"
as they are called in the East, to whom Great Britain owes the conquest
and consolidation of its greatest dependency. Clive successively
established British ascendancy against French influence in the three
great provinces under these nawabs. But his merit lies especially in the
ability and foresight with which he secured for his country, and for the
good of the natives, the richest of the three, Bengal. First, as to
Madras and the Deccan, Clive had hardly been able to commend himself to
Major Stringer Lawrence, the commander of the British troops, by his
courage and skill in several small engagements, when the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) forced him to return to his civil duties for a
short time. An attack of the malady which so severely affected his
spirits led him to visit Bengal, where he was soon to distinguish
himself. On his return he found a contest going on between two sets of
rival claimants for the position of viceroy of the Deccan, and for that
of nawab of the Carnatic, the greatest of the subordinate states under
the Deccan. Dupleix, who took the part of the pretenders to power in
both places, was carrying all before him. The British had been weakened
by the withdrawal of a large force under Admiral Boscawen, and by the
return home, on leave, of Major Lawrence. But that officer had appointed
Clive commissary for the supply of the troops with provisions, with the
rank of captain. More than one disaster had taken place on a small
scale, when Clive drew up a plan for dividing the enemy's forces, and
offered to carry it out himself. The pretender, Chanda Sahib, had been
made nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British
had taken up the cause of the more legitimate successor, Mahommed Ali.
Chanda Sahib had left Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, to reduce
Trichinopoly, then held by a weak English battalion. Clive offered to
attack Arcot in order to force Chanda Sahib to raise the siege of
Trichinopoly. But Madras and Fort St David could supply him with only
200 Europeans and 300 sepoys. Of the eight officers who led them, four
were civilians like Clive himself, and six had never been in action. His
force had but three field-pieces. The circumstances that Clive, at the
head of this handful, had been seen marching during a storm of thunder
and lightning, frightened the enemy into evacuating the fort, which the
British at once began to strengthen against a siege. Clive treated the
great population of the city with so much consideration that they helped
him, not only to fortify his position, but to make successful sallies
against the enemy. As the days passed on, Chanda Sahib sent a large army
under his son and his French supporters, who entered Arcot and closely
besieged Clive in the citadel.