Articles in This Slice:
CLERVAUX CLOVELLY
CLETUS CLOVER
CLEVEDON CLOVES
CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILLIERS CLOVIO, GIORGIO GIULIO
CLEVELAND, JOHN CLOVIS
CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER CLOWN
CLEVELAND CLOYNE
CLEVER CLUB
CLEVES CLUB-FOOT
CLEYNAERTS CLUE
CLICHTOVE, JOSSE VAN CLUENTIUS HABITUS, AULUS
CLICHY CLUMP
CLIFF-DWELLINGS CLUNES
CLIFFORD (English family) CLUNY
CLIFFORD, JOHN CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL
CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON CLUSIUM
CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEIGH CLUWER
CLIFTON CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL
CLIM CLYDE (river of Scotland)
CLIMACTERIC CLYDEBANK
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY. CNIDUS
CLIMAX, JOHN CNOSSUS
CLIMBING COACH
CLINCHANT, JUSTIN COAHUILA
CLINIC; CLINICAL COAL
CLINKER COALBROOKDALE
CLINOCLASITE COAL-FISH
CLINTON, DE WITT COALING STATIONS
CLINTON, GEORGE COALITION
CLINTON, SIR HENRY COAL-TAR
CLINTON, HENRY FYNES COALVILLE
CLINTON (city of Iowa) COAST
CLINTON (township of Massachusetts) COAST DEFENCE
CLINTON (city of Missouri) COASTGUARD
CLINTON (village of New York) COASTING
CLINTONITE COATBRIDGE
CLISSON, OLIVIER DE COATESVILLE
CLISSON (town of France) COATI
CLITHEROE COB
CLITOMACHUS COBALT
CLITUMNUS COBALTITE
CLIVE, CAROLINE COBAN
CLIVE, CATHERINE COBAR
CLIVE, ROBERT CLIVE COBB, HOWELL
CLOACA COBBETT, WILLIAM
CLOCK COBBOLD, THOMAS SPENCER
CLODIA, VIA COBDEN, RICHARD
CLODIUS COBET, CAREL GABRIEL
CLOGHER COBHAM
CLOISTER COBIJA
CLONAKILTY COBLE
CLONES COBLENZ
CLONMACNOISE COBOURG
CLONMEL COBRA
CLOOTS, DE GRACE COBURG
CLOQUET COCA
CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY COCAINE
CLOSE COCANADA
CLOSURE COCCEIUS
CLOT, ANTOINE BARTHELEMY COCCIDIA
CLOTAIRE COCCULUS INDICUS
CLOTH COCHABAMBA (department of Bolivia)
CLOTHIER COCHABAMBA (city of Bolivia)
CLOTILDA, SAINT COCHEM
CLOUD COCHERY, LOUIS ADOLPHE
CLOUDBERRY COCHIN, DENYS MARIE AUGUSTIN
CLOUD-BURST COCHIN (state of India)
CLOUDED LEOPARD COCHIN (town of India)
CLOUET, FRANCOIS COCHIN-CHINA
CLOUET, JEAN COCHINEAL
CLOUGH, ANNE JEMIMA COCHLAEUS, JOHANN
CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH COCK, EDWARD
CLOUTING COCKADE
CLERVAUX (_clara vallis_), a town in the northern province of Oesling,
grand-duchy of Luxemburg, on the Clerf, a tributary of the Sure. Pop.
(1905) 866. In old days it was the fief of the de Lannoy family, and the
present proprietor is the bearer of a name not less well known in
Belgian history, the count de Berlaymont. The old castle of the de
Lannoys exists, and might easily be restored, but its condition is now
neglected and dilapidated. In 1798 the people of Clervaux specially
distinguished themselves against the French in an attempt to resist the
institution of the conscription. The survivors of what was called the
Kloppel-krieg (the "cudgel war") were shot, and a fine monument
commemorates the heroism of the men of Clervaux.
CLETUS, formerly regarded as the name of one of the early successors of
St Peter in the see of Rome, or, according to Epiphanius and Rufinus, as
sharing the direction of the Roman Church with Linus during Peter's
lifetime. He has been identified beyond doubt with Anencletus (q.v.).
See Pere Colombier, in _Rev. des questions hist._ Ap. 1st, 1876, p. 413.
CLEVEDON, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary division of
Somersetshire, England, on the Bristol Channel, 15-1/2 m. W. of Bristol on
a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
5900. The cruciform church of St Andrew has Norman and later portions;
it is the burial-place of Henry Hallam the historian, and members of his
family, including his sons Arthur and Henry. Clevedon Court is a
remarkable medieval mansion, dating originally from the early part of
the 14th century, though much altered in the Elizabethan and other
periods. The house is considered to be the original of "Castlewood" in
Thackeray's _Esmond_; the novelist was acquainted with the place through
his friendship with the Rev. William Brookfield and his wife, the
daughter of Sir Charles Elton of Clevedon Court.
CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILLIERS, DUCHESS OF (1641-1709), mistress of the
English king Charles II., was the daughter of William Villiers, 2nd
Viscount Grandison (d. 1643), by his wife Mary (d. 1684), daughter of
Paul, 1st Viscount Bayning. In April 1659 Barbara married Roger Palmer,
who was created earl of Castlemaine two years later, and soon after this
marriage her intimacy with Charles II. began. The king was probably the
father of her first child, Anne, born in February 1661, although the
paternity was also attributed to one of her earliest lovers, Philip
Stanhope, 2nd earl of Chesterfield (1633-1713). Mistress Palmer, as
Barbara was called before her husband was made an earl, was naturally
much disliked by Charles's queen, Catherine of Braganza, but owing to
the insistence of the king she was made a lady of the bedchamber to
Catherine, and began to mix in the political intrigues of the time,
showing an especial hatred towards Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, who
reciprocated this feeling and forbad his wife to visit her. Her house
became a rendezvous for the enemies of the minister, and according to
Pepys she exhibited a wild paroxysm of delight when she heard of
Clarendon's fall from power in 1667. Whilst enjoying the royal favour
Lady Castlemaine formed _liaisons_ with various gentlemen, which were
satirized in public prints, and a sharp quarrel which occurred between
her and the king in 1667 was partly due to this cause. But peace was
soon made, and her influence, which had been gradually rising, became
supreme at court in 1667 owing to the marriage of Frances Stuart (la
belle Stuart) (1648-1702) with Charles Stuart, 3rd duke of Richmond
(1640-1672). Accordingly Louis XIV. instructed his ambassador to pay
special attention to Lady Castlemaine, who had become a Roman Catholic
in 1663.
In August 1670 she was created countess of Southampton and duchess of
Cleveland, with remainder to her first and third sons, Charles and
George Palmer, the king at this time not admitting the paternity of her
second son Henry; and she also received many valuable gifts from
Charles. An annual income of L4700 from the post office was settled upon
her, and also other sums chargeable upon the revenue from the customs
and the excise, whilst she obtained a large amount of money from seekers
after office, and in other ways. Nevertheless her extravagance and her
losses at gaming were so enormous that she was unable to keep up her
London residence, Cleveland House, St James's, and was obliged to sell
the contents of her residence at Cheam. About 1670 her influence over
Charles began to decline. She consoled herself meanwhile with lovers of
a less exalted station in life, among them John Churchill, afterwards
duke of Marlborough, and William Wycherley; by 1674 she had been
entirely supplanted at court by Louise de Keroualle, duchess of
Portsmouth. Soon afterwards the duchess of Cleveland went to reside in
Paris, where she formed an intrigue with the English ambassador, Ralph
Montagu, afterwards duke of Montagu (d. 1709), who lost his position
through some revelations which she made to the king. She returned to
England just before Charles's death in 1685. In July 1705 her husband,
the earl of Castlemaine, whom she had left in 1662, died; and in the
same year the duchess was married to Robert (Beau) Feilding (d. 1712), a
union which was declared void in 1707, as Feilding had a wife living.
She died at Chiswick on the 5th of October 1709.
Bishop Burnet describes her as "a woman of great beauty, but most
enormously vicious and ravenous, foolish but imperious, ever uneasy to
the king, and always carrying on intrigues with other men, while yet she
pretended she was jealous of him." Dryden addressed Lady Castlemaine in
his fourth poetical _Epistle_ in terms of great adulation, and Wycherley
dedicated to her his first play, _Love in a Wood_. Her portrait was
frequently painted by Sir Peter Lely and others, and many of these
portraits are now found in various public and private collections. By
Charles II. she had three sons and either one or two daughters. She had
also in 1686 a son by the actor Cardonnell Goodman (d. 1699), and one or
two other daughters.
Her eldest son, Charles Fitzroy (1662-1730), was created in 1675 earl of
Chichester and duke of Southampton, and became duke of Cleveland and
earl of Southampton on his mother's death. Her second son, Henry
(1663-1690), was created earl of Euston in 1672 and duke of Grafton in
1675; by his wife Isabella, daughter of Henry Bennet, earl of Arlington,
he was the direct ancestor of the later dukes of Grafton; he was the
most popular and the most able of the sons of Charles II., saw a
considerable amount of military service, and met his death through a
wound received at the storming of Cork. Her third son, George
(1665-1716), was created duke of Northumberland in 1683, and died
without issue, after having served in the army. Her daughters were Anne
(1661-1722), married in 1674 to Thomas Lennard, Lord Dacre (d. 1715),
who was created earl of Sussex in 1684; Charlotte (1664-1718), married
in 1677 to Edward Henry Lee, earl of Lichfield (d. 1716); and Barbara
(1672-1737), the reputed daughter of John Churchill, who entered a
nunnery in France, and became by James Douglas, afterwards 4th duke of
Hamilton (1658-1712), the mother of an illegitimate son, Charles
Hamilton (1691-1754).
The first husband of the duchess, Roger Palmer, earl of Castlemaine
(1634-1705), diplomatist and author, was an ardent Roman Catholic, who
defended his co-religionists in several publications. Having served in
the war against Holland in 1665-67, he wrote in French an account of
this struggle, which was translated into English and published by T.
Price in London in 1671. Having been denounced by Titus Oates as a
Jesuit, he was tried and acquitted, afterwards serving James II. as
ambassador to Pope Innocent XI., a mission which led to a brief
imprisonment after the king's flight from England. Subsequently his
Jacobite sympathies caused him to be suspected by the government, and
his time was mainly spent either in prison or in exile. The earl died at
Oswestry on the 21st of July 1705.
The title of duke of Cleveland, which had descended in 1709 to Charles
Fitzroy, together with that of duke of Southampton, became extinct when
Charles's son William, the 2nd duke, died without issue in 1774. One of
the first duke's daughters, Grace, was married in 1725 to Henry Vane,
3rd Baron Barnard, afterwards earl of Darlington (d. 1758), and their
grandson William Henry Vane (1766-1842) was created duke of Cleveland in
1833. The duke was succeeded in the title in turn by three of his sons,
who all died without male issue; and consequently when Harry George, the
4th duke, died in 1891 the title again became extinct.
Previous to the creation of the dukedom of Cleveland there was an
earldom of Cleveland which was created in 1626 in favour of Thomas, 4th
Baron Wentworth (1591-1667), and which became extinct on his death.
See the article CHARLES II. and the bibliography thereto; G.S.
Steinmann, _Memoir of Barbara, duchess of Cleveland_ (London, 1871),
and _Addenda_ (London, 1874); and the articles ("Villiers, Barbara"
and "Palmer, Roger") in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, vols.
xliii. and lviii. (London, 1895-1899).
CLEVELAND (or CLEIVELAND), JOHN (1613-1658), English poet and satirist,
was born at Loughborough, where he was baptized on the 20th of June
1613. His father was assistant to the rector and afterwards vicar of
Hinckley. John Cleveland was educated at Hinckley school under Richard
Vines, who is described by Fuller as a champion of the Puritan party. In
his fifteenth year he was entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, and in
1634 was elected to a fellowship at St John's. He took his M.A. degree
in 1635, and was appointed college tutor and reader in rhetoric. His
Latinity and oratorical powers were warmly praised by Fuller, who also
commends the "lofty fancy" of his verse. He eagerly opposed the
candidature of Oliver Cromwell as M.P. for Cambridge, and when the
Puritan party triumphed there Cleveland, like many other Cambridge
students, found his way (1643) to Oxford. His gifts as a satirist were
already known, and he was warmly received by the king, whom he followed
(1645) to Newark. In that year he was formally deprived of his
Cambridge fellowship as a "malignant." He was judge-advocate in the
garrison at Newark, and under the governor defended the town until in
1646 Charles I. ordered the surrender of the place to Leslie; when there
is a curious story that the Scottish general contemptuously dismissed
him as a mere ballad-monger. He saw Charles's error in giving himself
into the hands of the Scots, and his indignation when they surrendered
the king to the Parliament is expressed in the vigorous verses of "The
Rebel Scot," the sting of which survives even now. Cleveland wandered
over the country depending on the alms of the Royalists for bread. He at
length found a refuge at Norwich in the house of Edward Cooke, but in
1655 he was arrested as being of no particular occupation, and moreover
a man whose great abilities "rendered him able to do the greater
disservice." He spent three months in prison at Yarmouth, but was
released by order of Cromwell, to whom he addressed a manly appeal, in
which he declared his fidelity to the royal house, pointing out at the
same time that his poverty and inoffensiveness were sufficient assurance
that his freedom was no menace to Cromwell's government. He was released
early in 1656, and seems to have renewed his wanderings, finding his way
eventually to Gray's Inn, where Aubrey says he and Samuel Butler had a
"club" every night. There he died on the 29th of April 1658.
Cleveland's poems were more highly esteemed than Milton's by his
contemporaries, and his popularity is attested by the very numerous
editions of his works. His poems are therefore of great value as an
index to the taste of the 17th century. His verse is frequently obscure
and full of the far-fetched conceits of the "metaphysical" poets, none
of whom surpassed the ingenuity of "Fuscara, or the Bee Errant." His
satires are vigorous personal attacks, the interest of which is, from
the nature of the subject, often ephemeral; but the energy of his
invective leaves no room for obscurity in such pieces as "Smectymnuus,
or the Club Divines," "Rupertismus" and "The Rebel Scot."
Cleveland's works are: "Character of a London Diurnal," a broadside;
_Monumentum regale ..._ (1649), chiefly by Cleveland, containing three
of his elegies on the king; "The King's Disguise" (1646); "On the Memory
of Mr Edward King," in the collection of verse which also included
Milton's "Lycidas," and many detached poems.
For a bibliographical account of Cleveland's peoms see J.M. Berdan,
_The Poems of John Cleveland_ (New York, 1903), in which there is a
table of the contents of twenty-three editions, of which the chief
are: _The Character of a London Diurnal, with Several Select Poems_
(1647); _Poems. By John Cleavland. With additions, never before
printed_ (1659); _J. Cleaveland Revived ..._ (1659), in which the
editor, E. Williamson, says he inserted poems by other authors,
trusting to the critical faculty of the readers to distinguish
Cleveland's work from the rest; _Clievelandi Vindiciae ..._ (1677),
edited by two of Cleveland's former pupils, Bishop Lake and S. Drake,
who profess to take out the spurious pieces; and a careless
compilation, _The Works of John Cleveland ..._ (1687), containing
poems taken from all these sources. A prefatory note by Williamson
makes it clear that only a small proportion of Cleveland's political
poems have survived, many of them having been dispersed in MS. among
his friends and so lost, and that he refused to authenticate an
edition of his works, although most of the earlier collections were
genuine.
CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER (1837-1908), president of the United States
from 1885 to 1889, and again from 1893 to 1897, was born, the fifth in a
family of nine children, in the village of Caldwell, Essex county, New
Jersey, on the 18th of March 1837. His father, Richard F. Cleveland, a
clergyman of the Presbyterian Church, was of good colonial stock, a
descendant of Moses Cleveland, who emigrated from Ipswich, England, to
Massachusetts in 1635. The family removed to Fayetteville, N.Y., and
afterwards to Clinton, N.Y. It was intended that young Grover should be
educated at Hamilton College, but this was prevented by his father's
death in 1852. A few years later he drifted westward with twenty-five
dollars in his pocket, and the autumn of 1855 found him in a law office
in the city of Buffalo. At the end of four years (1859), he was admitted
to the bar.
In 1863 he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie county, of
which Buffalo is the chief city. This was his first public office, and
it came to him, like all later preferments, without any solicitation of
his own. Two years later (1865) he was the Democratic candidate for
district attorney, but was defeated. In 1869 Cleveland was nominated by
the Democratic party for the office of sheriff, and, despite the fact
that Erie county was normally Republican by a decisive majority, was
elected. The years immediately succeeding his retirement from the office
of sheriff in 1873 he devoted exclusively to the practice of law, coming
to be generally recognized as one of the leaders of the western New York
bar. In the autumn of 1881 he was nominated by the Democrats for mayor
of Buffalo. The city government had been characterized by extravagance
and maladministration, and a revolt of the independent voters at the
polls overcame the usual Republican majority and Cleveland was elected.
As mayor he attracted wide attention by his independence and
business-like methods, and under his direction the various departments
of the city government were thoroughly reorganized. His ability received
further recognition when in 1882 he was nominated by his party as its
candidate for governor. The Republican party in the state was at that
time weakened by the quarrels between the "Stalwart" and "Halfbreed"
factions within its ranks; and the Democrats were thus given an initial
advantage which was greatly increased by the Republicans' nomination for
governor of Charles J. Folger (1818-1884), then secretary of the
treasury. Secretary Folger was a man of high character and ability, who
had been chief justice of the New York supreme court when placed in
control of the treasury department by President Arthur in 1881. But the
cry of Federal interference was raised as a result of the methods
employed in securing his nomination, and this, together with the party
division and the popularity of Cleveland, brought about Cleveland's
election by the unprecedented plurality of 192,854. As governor
Cleveland's course was marked by the sterling qualities that he had
displayed in his other public positions. His appointees were chosen for
their business qualifications. The demands of party leaders were made
subordinate to public interests. He promoted the passage of a good civil
service law. All bills passed by the legislature were subjected to the
governor's laborious personal scrutiny, and the veto power was used
without fear or favour.
In 1884 the Democratic party had been out of power in national affairs
for twenty-three years. In this year, however, the generally
disorganized state of the Republican party seemed to give the Democrats
an unusual opportunity. Upon a platform which called for radical reforms
in the administrative departments, the civil service, and the national
finances, Cleveland was nominated for president, despite the opposition
of the strong Tammany delegation from his own state. The nominee of the
Republican party, James G. Blaine (q.v.) of Maine, had received the
nomination only after a contest in which violent personal animosities
were aroused. The campaign that followed was one of the bitterest
political contests in American history. The Republican party was still
further weakened by the defection of a large body of independents, known
as "Mugwumps." The result was close, but Cleveland carried New York, and
was elected, obtaining a majority in the electoral college of 219 to
182.
Cleveland's first term was uneventful, but was marked by firmness,
justice and steady adherence on his part to the principles which he
deemed salutary to the nation. He was especially concerned in promoting
a non-partisan civil service. Congress in 1883 had passed the "Pendleton
Bill" (introduced by Senator George H. Pendleton) to classify the
subordinate places in the service, and to make entrance to it, and
promotion therein, depend upon competitive examination of applicants,
instead of mere political influence. The first test of the efficiency
and permanence of this law came with the shifting of political power at
Washington. The new president stood firmly by the new law. It applied
only to places of the rank of clerkships, but the president was
authorized to add others to the classified service from time to time. He
added 11,757 during his first term.
President Cleveland made large use of the veto power upon bills passed
by Congress, vetoing or "pocketing" during his first term 413 bills,
more than two-thirds of which were private pension bills. The most
important bill vetoed was the Dependent Pension Bill, a measure of
extreme profligacy, opening the door, by the vagueness of its terms, to
enormous frauds upon the treasury. In 1887 there was a large and growing
surplus in the treasury. As this money was drawn from the channels of
business and locked up in the public vaults, the president looked upon
the condition as fraught with danger to the commercial community and he
addressed himself to the task of reducing taxation. About two-thirds of
the public revenue was derived from duties on imports, in the adjustment
of which the doctrine of protection to native industry had a large
place. Cleveland attacked the system with great vigour in his annual
message of 1887. He did not propose the adoption of free trade, but the
administration tariff measure, known as the Mills Bill, from its
introducer Congressman Roger Q. Mills (b. 1832) of Texas, passed the
House, and although withdrawn owing to amendments in the Republican
Senate, it alarmed and exasperated the protected classes, among whom
were many Democrats, and spurred them to extraordinary efforts to
prevent his re-election.
In the following year (1888), however, the Democrats renominated
Cleveland, and the Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana.
The campaign turned on the tariff issue, and Harrison was elected,
receiving 233 electoral votes to 168 for Cleveland, who however received
a popular plurality of more than 100,000. Cleveland retired to private
life and resumed the practice of the law in New York. He had married on
the 2nd of June 1886 Miss Frances Folsom, a daughter of a former law
partner in Buffalo.
Congress had passed a law in 1878 requiring the treasury department to
purchase a certain amount of silver bullion each month and coin it into
silver dollars to be full legal tender. As no time had been fixed for
this operation to cease, it amounted to an unlimited increase of a kind
of currency that circulated at a nominal value much above its real
value. Both political parties were committed to this policy, and strong
passions were aroused whenever it was called in question. Cleveland had
written a letter for publication before he became president, saying that
a financial crisis of great severity must result if this coinage were
continued, and expressing the hope that Congress would speedily put an
end to it. In 1890 Congress, now controlled by the Republican party,
passed the McKinley Bill, by which the revenues of the government were
reduced by more than $60,000,000 annually, chiefly through a repeal of
the sugar duties. At the same time expenditures were largely increased
by liberal pension legislation, and the government's purchase of silver
bullion almost doubled by the provisions of the new Sherman Silver
Purchase Act of 1890.
In 1892 Cleveland was nominated for president a third time in
succession. President Harrison was nominated by the Republicans.
Cleveland received 277 electoral votes and Harrison 145, and 22 were
cast for James B. Weaver (b. 1833) of Iowa, the candidate of the
"People's" party. Cleveland's second term embraced some notable events.
The most important was the repeal of the silver legislation, which had
been a growing menace for fifteen years. Nearly $600,000,000 of "fiat
money" had been thrust into the channels of commerce in addition to
$346,000,000 of legal tender notes that had been issued during the Civil
War. A reserve of $100,000,000 of gold had been accumulated for the
redemption of these notes. In April 1893 the reserve fell below this
sum. President Cleveland called an extra session of Congress to repeal
the Silver Law. The House promptly passed the repealing act. In the
Senate there was a protracted struggle. The Democrats now had a majority
of that body and they were more decidedly pro-silver than the
Republicans. The president had undertaken to coerce his own party to do
something against its will, and it was only by the aid of the Republican
minority that the passage of the repealing bill was at last made
possible (October 30th). The mischief, however, was not ended. The
deficit in the treasury made it inevitable that the gold reserve should
be used to meet current expenses. Holders of the government's legal
tender notes anticipating this fact presented them for redemption.
Borrowing was resorted to by the government. Bonds were issued and sold
to the amount of $162,000,000. The business world was in a state of
constant agitation. Bank failures were numerous and commercial distress
widespread. Among the consequences of the panic was a reduction of wages
in many employments, accompanied by labour troubles more or less
serious. The centre of disturbance was the Pullman strike at Chicago
(q.v.), whence the disorder extended to the Pacific coast, causing riot
and bloodshed in many places. President Cleveland waited a reasonable
time, as he conceived, for Governor Altgeld of Illinois to put an end to
the disorder in that state. On the 6th of July 1894, despite Governor
Altgeld's protest, he directed the military forces of the United States
to clear the way for trains carrying the mails. The rioters in and
around Chicago were dispersed in a single day, and within a week the
strike was broken.
Another important event was the action of the government as regards the
question of arbitration between Great Britain and Venezuela (q.v.), in
which Richard Olney, the secretary of state, played a somewhat
aggressive part. On the 17th of December 1895 President Cleveland sent
to Congress a special message calling attention to Great Britain's
action in regard to the disputed boundary line between British Guiana
and Venezuela, and declaring the necessity of action by the United
States to prevent an infringement of the Monroe Doctrine. Congress at
once appropriated funds for an American commission to investigate the
matter. The diplomatic situation became for the moment very acute, but
after a short period of bellicose talk the common-sense of both
countries prevailed. Negotiations with Great Britain ensued, and before
the American special commission finished its work, Great Britain had
agreed, November 1896, to arbitrate on terms which safeguarded the
national dignity on both sides.
Cleveland's independence was nowhere more strikingly shown during his
second term than in his action in regard to the tariff legislation of
his party in Congress. A tariff bill introduced in the House by William
Lyne Wilson (1843-1900), of West Virginia, chairman of the Committee of
Ways and Means, was so amended in the Senate, through the
instrumentality of Senator Arthur Pue Gorman and a coterie of
anti-administration democratic senators, that when the bill eventually
came before him, although unwilling to veto it, the president signified
his dissatisfaction with its too high rates by allowing it to become a
law without his signature. Cleveland's second administration began by
vigorous action in regard to Hawaii; he at once withdrew from the Senate
the annexation treaty which President Harrison had negotiated.
During his second term Cleveland added 44,004 places in the civil
service to the classified list, bringing them within the rules of the
merit system. This was a greater number than all that had been placed in
the list before, and brought the whole number up to 86,932. Toward the
end of his second term the president became very much out of accord with
his party on the free-silver question, in consequence of which the
endorsement of the administration was withheld by the Democratic
national convention at Chicago in 1896. In the ensuing campaign the
president and his cabinet, with the exception of Hoke Smith (b. 1855),
secretary of the interior, who resigned, gave their support to Palmer
and Buckner, the National, or "Sound Money" Democratic nominees.
Cleveland's second term expired on the 4th of March 1897, and he then
retired into private life, universally respected and constantly
consulted, in the university town of Princeton, New Jersey, where he
died on the 24th of June 1908. He was a trustee of Princeton University
and Stafford Little lecturer on public affairs. Chosen in 1905 as a
member of a committee of three to act as trustees of the majority of the
stock of the Equitable Life Assurance Company, he promoted the
reorganization and the mutualization of that company, and acted as
rebate referee for it and for the Mutual and New York Life insurance
companies. He published _Presidential Problems_ (New York, 1904), made
up in part of lectures at Princeton University, and _Fishing and Hunting
Sketches_ (1906).
A large amount of magazine literature has been devoted to President
Cleveland's career. W.O. Stoddard's _Grover Cleveland_ (1888; "Lives
of the Presidents" series) and J. Lowry Whittle's _Grover Cleveland_
(1896; "Public Men of To-day" series) are judicious volumes; and
"Campaign Biographies" (1884) were written by W. Dorsheimer, F.E.
Goodrich, P. King and D. Welch. See articles by Woodrow Wilson
(_Atlantic Monthly_, vol. 79; "Cleveland as President"); Carl Schurz
(_McClure's Magazine_, vol. ix.; "Second Administration of Grover
Cleveland"); William Allen White (_McClure's_, vol. 18, "Character
Sketch of Cleveland"), and Henry L. Nelson (_North American Review_,
vol. 188). Also Jesse L. Williams, _Mr Cleveland: A Personal
Impression_ (1909), and G.W. Parker, _Recollections of Grover
Cleveland_ (1909). (H. WH.)
CLEVELAND, a city and port of entry in the state of Ohio, U.S.A., and
the county-seat of Cuyahoga county, the sixth largest city in the United
States. It is on Lake Erie at the mouth of Cuyahoga river, about 260 m.
N.E. of Cincinnati, 357 m. E. of Chicago, and 623 m. W. by N. of New
York. Pop. (1890) 261,353; (1900) 381,768, of whom 124,631 were
foreign-born, 288,591 were of foreign parentage (i.e. having one or both
parents foreign-born), and 5988 were negroes; (1910) 560,663. Of the
124,631, who in 1900 were foreign-born, Germans were greatly predominant
(40,648, or 32.6%), with the Bohemians (13,599, or 10.9%) and Irish
(13,120, or 10.6%) next in importance, the Bohemians being later comers
than the Irish.
The city commands pleasant views from its position on a plateau, which,
at places on bluffs along the shore, has elevations of about 75 ft.
above the water below, and rises gradually toward the S.E. to 115 ft.
and on the extreme E. border to more than 200 ft. above the lake, or
about 800 ft. above sea-level; the surface has, however, been cut deeply
by the Cuyahoga, which here pursues a meandering course through a valley
about 1/2 m. wide, and is also broken by several smaller streams. The
city's shore-line is more than 12 m. long. The city varies considerably
in width, and occupies a total area of about 41 sq. m., much the greater
part of which is E. of the river. The streets are of unusual width
(varying from 60 ft. to 132 ft.); are paved chiefly with Medina dressed
stone, brick and asphalt; and, like the parks, are so well shaded by
maples, elms and other trees, that Cleveland has become known as the
"Forest City." The municipality maintains an efficient forestry
department. About 1/2 m. from the lake and the same distance E. of the
river is the Public Square, or Monumental Park, in the business centre
of the city. Thence the principal thoroughfares radiate. The river is
spanned with bridges, and its valley by two viaducts, the larger of
which (completed in 1878 at a cost of more than $2,000,000), 3211 ft.
long, 64 ft. wide, and 68 ft. above water, connects Superior Avenue on
the E. with Detroit Avenue on the W. The Central Viaduct, finished in
1888, extends from Central Avenue to W. 14th Street, and there connects
with a smaller viaduct across Walworth Run, the combined length of the
two being about 4000 ft. Another viaduct (about 830 ft. long) crosses
Kingsbury Run a short distance above its mouth. Lower Euclid Avenue (the
old country road to Euclid, O., and Erie, Pa.) is given up to commercial
uses; the eastern part of the avenue has handsome houses with spacious
and beautifully ornamented grounds, and is famous as one of the finest
residence streets in the country. Sections of Prospect Avenue, E. 40th,
E. 93rd, E. 75th, E. 55th, W. 44th and E. 79th streets also have many
fine residences. The principal business thoroughfares are Superior
Avenue (132 ft. wide), the W. part of Euclid Avenue, and Ontario St. The
manufacturing quarters are chiefly in the valley of the Cuyahoga, and
along the railway tracks entering the city, chiefly on the E. side. In
1902 the city arranged for grouping its public buildings--in the
so-called "Group Plan"--at a cost of $25,000,000. The court-house and
city hall are on the bluff overlooking Lake Erie; 1000 ft. south are the
Federal post-office and the public library. The Mall connecting the
court-house and city hall with the post-office and library is 600 ft.
wide; on one side of it is the grand music-hall, on the other a fine art
gallery. The six granite buildings forming this quadrangle were built
under the supervision of Arnold Brunner, a government architect, and of
John M. Carrere and D. H. Burnham, who planned the buildings at the
Pan-American Exposition and the Chicago World's Fair respectively. The
city has, besides, numerous fine office buildings, including that of the
Society for Savings (an institution in which each depositor is virtually
a stockholder), the Citizens', Rose, Williamson, Rockefeller, New
England and Garfield buildings; and several beautiful churches, notably
the Roman Catholic and Trinity cathedrals, the First Presbyterian ("Old
Stone"), the Second Presbyterian, the First Methodist and Plymouth
(Congregational) churches. The Arcade, between Euclid and Superior
avenues, and the Colonial Arcade, between Euclid and Prospect avenues,
are office and retail store buildings worthy of mention. The former,
finished in 1889, is 400 ft. long, 180 ft. wide, and 140 ft. high, with
a large interior court, overlooked by five balconies. The Colonial
Arcade contains a hotel as well; it was finished in 1898. In the Public
Square is a soldiers' and sailors' monument consisting of a granite
shaft rising from a memorial room to a height of 125 ft., and surmounted
with a figure of Liberty; in the same park, also, is a bronze statue of
Moses Cleaveland, the founder of the city. On a commanding site in Lake
View Cemetery is the Garfield Memorial (finished in 1890) in the form of
a tower (165 ft. high), designed by George Keller and built mostly of
Ohio sandstone; in the base is a chapel containing a statue of Garfield
and several panels on which are portrayed various scenes in his life;
his remains are in the crypt below the statue. A marble statue of
Commodore Oliver H. Perry, erected in commemoration of his victory on
Lake Erie in 1813, is in Wade Park, where there is also a statue of
Harvey Rice (1800-1891), who reformed the Ohio public school system and
wrote _Pioneers of the Western Reserve_ (1882) and _Sketches of Western
Life_ (1888).
The parks contain altogether more than 1500 acres. A chain of parks
connected by driveways follows the picturesque valley of Doan Brook on
the E. border of the city. At the mouth of the brook and on the lake
front is the beautiful Gordon Park of 122 acres, formerly the private
estate of William J. Gordon but given by him to the city in 1893; from
this extends up the Doan Valley the large Rockefeller Park, which was
given to the city in 1896 by John D. Rockefeller and others, and which
extends to and adjoins Wade Park (85 acres; given by J. H. Wade) in
which are a zoological garden and a lake. Lake View Park along the lake
shore contains only 10-1/2 acres, but is a much frequented resting-place
near the business centre of the city, and affords pleasant views of the
lake and its commerce. Monumental Park is divided into four sections
(containing about 1 acre each) by Superior Avenue and Ontario Street. Of
the several cemeteries, Lake View (about 300 acres), on an elevated site
on the E. border, is by far the largest and most beautiful, its natural
beauty having been enhanced by the landscape gardener. Besides Garfield,
John Hay and Marcus A. Hanna are buried here.
_Education._--Cleveland has an excellent public school system. A general
state law enacted in 1904 placed the management of school affairs in the
hands of an elective council of seven members, five chosen at large and
two by districts. This board has power to appoint a school director and
a superintendent of instruction. The superintendent appoints the
teaching force, the director all other employes; appointments are
subject to confirmation by the board, and all employes are subject to
removal by the executive officials alone. The "Cleveland plan," in force
in the public schools, minimizes school routine, red tape and frequent
examinations, puts great stress on domestic and manual training courses,
and makes promotion in the grammar schools depend on the general
knowledge and development of the pupil, as estimated by a teacher who is
supposed to make a careful study of the individual. In 1909 there were 8
high schools and 90 grammar schools in the city; more than $2,500,000 is
annually expended by Cleveland on its public schools. Besides the public
school system there are many parochial schools; the University school,
with an eight years' course; the Western Reserve University, with its
medical school (opened in 1843), the Franklin T. Backus Law School
(1892), the dental department (1892), Adelbert College (until 1882 the
Western Reserve College, founded in 1826, at Hudson, Ohio), the College
for Women (1888), and the Library school (1904); St Ignatius College
(Roman Catholic, conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus;
incorporated 1890), which has an excellent meteorological observatory;
St Mary's theological seminary (Roman Catholic); the Case School of
Applied Science, founded in 1880 by Leonard Case (1820-1880), and opened
in 1881; the Cleveland College of Physicians and Surgeons (founded in
1863; from 1869 until 1896 the medical department of the University of
Wooster; since 1896 a part of Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio),
the Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College, the Cleveland School of
Pharmacy, the Cleveland Art School, and a school for the deaf, dumb and
blind. In 1907-1908 Western Reserve University had 193 instructors and
914 students (277 in Adelbert College; 269 in College for Women; 20 in
graduate department; and 102 in medical, 133 in law, 75 in dental and 51
in Library school); and the Case School of Applied Science 40
instructors and 440 students. The public library contained 330,000
volumes in 1908, the Case library (subscription) 65,000 volumes, the
Hatch library of Adelbert College about 56,000 volumes, the library of
the Western Reserve Historical Society 22,500 volumes, and the Cleveland
law library, in the court house, 20,000 volumes.
The city has a highly developed system of charitable and corrective
institutions. A farm of more than 1600 acres, the Cleveland Farm Colony,
11 m. from the city, takes the place of workhouses, and has many
cottages in which live those of the city's poor who were formerly
classed as paupers and were sent to poorhouses, and who now apply their
labour to the farm and are relieved from the stigma that generally
attaches to inmates of poorhouses. On the "farm" the city maintains an
"infirmary village," a tuberculosis sanatorium, a detention hospital, a
convalescent hospital and houses of correction. On a farm 22 m. from the
city is the Boyville Home (maintained in connexion with the juvenile
court) for "incorrigible" boys. The "cottage" plan has been adopted;
each cottage is presided over by a man and wife whom the boys call
father and mother. The boys have a government of their own, elect their
officials from among themselves, and inflict such punishment on any of
their number as the boys deem merited. Besides the city, there are the
Northern Ohio (for the insane, founded in 1855), the Cleveland general.
Lake Side (endowed), St Alexis and the Charity hospitals (the last
managed by Sisters of Charity). The Goodrich House (1897), the Hiram
House and the Alta House are among the best equipped and most efficient
social settlements in the country. Cleveland has also its orphan
asylums, homes for the aged, homes for incurables, and day nurseries,
besides a home for sailors, homes for young working women, and retreats
for unfortunate girls. The various charity and benevolent institutions
are closely bound together on a co-operative basis by the agency of the
associated charities.
The principal newspapers of the city are the _Plain Dealer_ (1841,
independent), the _Press_ (1878, independent), the _Leader_ (1847,
Republican), and the _News_ (1889, Republican). Bohemian, Hungarian and
German dailies are published.
_Municipal Enterprise._--Municipal ownership has been a greater issue in
Cleveland than in any other large city in the United States, chiefly
because of the advocacy of Tom Loftin Johnson (born 1854), a
street-railway owner, iron manufacturer, an ardent single-taxer, who was
elected mayor of the city in 1901, 1903, 1905 and 1907. The municipality
owns the water-works, a small electric-light plant, the garbage plant
and bath houses. The city water is pumped to reservoirs, through a
tunnel 9 ft. in diameter 60 ft. below the bottom of the lake, from an
intake situated a distance of 26,500 ft. from the shore. The system has
a delivery capacity of 80,000,000 gallons daily. The department serves
about 70,000 consumers. All water is metered and sells for 40 cents per
thousand cub. ft., or 5 barrels for 1 cent. The municipal
electric-lighting plant does not seriously compete with the private
lighting company. The municipal garbage plant (destructor) collects and
reduces to fertilizer 100 tons of garbage per day. The sale of the
fertilizer more than pays for the cost of reduction, and the only
expense the city has is in collecting it. In the city's six bath houses
the average number of baths per day, per house, in 1906, was 1165. The
municipal street cleaning department cleans all streets by the wet
process. To do this the city maintained (1906) 24 flushing wagons
working 2 shifts of 8 hours each per day. A new street car company began
operations on the 1st of November 1906, charging a 3 cent fare. The
grants of this company were owned by the Forest City Railway Company and
the property was leased to the Municipal Traction Company (on behalf of
the public--the city itself not being empowered to own and operate
street railways). In 1908 the Cleveland Electric Street Railway
Corporation (capital $23,000,000), which owned most of the electric
lines in the city, was forced to lease its property to the
municipality's holding company, receiving a "security franchise,"
providing that under certain circumstances (_e.g._ if the holding
company should default in its payment of interest) the property was to
revert to the corporation, which was then to charge not more than
twenty-five cents for six tickets. In October 1908, at a special
election, the security franchise was invalidated, and the entire railway
system was put in the hands of receivers. In 1909 Johnson was defeated.
In 1910 a 25-year franchise was granted to the Cleveland Railway
Company, under which a 3-cent fare is required if the company can earn
6% on that basis, and 4 cents (7 tickets for 25 cents) is the maximum
fare, with a cent transfer charge, returned when the transfer is used.
_Commerce._--To meet the demands of the rapidly increasing commerce the
harbour has been steadily improved. In 1908 it consisted of two distinct
parts, the outer harbour being the work of the federal government, and
the inner harbour being under the control of the city. The outer harbour
was formed by two breakwaters enclosing an area of 2 m. long and 1700
ft. wide; the main entrance, 500 ft. wide, lying opposite the mouth of
the Cuyahoga river, 1350 ft. distant. The depth of the harbour ranges
from 21 to 26 ft.; and by improving this entrance, so as to make it 700
ft. wide, and 1000 ft. farther from the shore, and extending the east
breakwater 3 m., the capacity of the outer harbour has been doubled. The
inner harbour comprises the Cuyahoga, the old river bed, and connecting
slips. The channel at the mouth of the river (325 ft. wide) is lined on
the W. side by a concrete jetty 1054 ft. long, and on the E. side by
commercial docks. The river and old river bed furnish about 13 m. of
safe dock frontage, the channel having been dredged for 6 m. to a depth
of 21 ft. The commerce of the harbour of Cleveland in 1907 was
12,872,448 tons.
Cleveland's rapid growth both as a commercial and as a manufacturing
city is due largely to its situation between the iron regions of Lake
Superior and the coal and oil regions of Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Cleveland is a great railway centre and is one of the most important
ports on the Great Lakes. The city is served by the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern; the New York, Chicago & St Louis; the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis; the Pennsylvania; the Erie; the
Baltimore & Ohio; and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways; by steamboat
lines to the principal ports on the Great Lakes; and by an extensive
system of inter-urban electric lines. Cleveland is the largest ore
market in the world, and its huge ore docks are among its most
interesting features; the annual receipts and shipments of coal and iron
ore are enormous. It is also the largest market for fresh-water fish in
America, and handles large quantities of lumber and grain. The most
important manufactures are iron and steel, carriage hardware, electrical
supplies, bridges, boilers, engines, car wheels, sewing machines,
printing presses, agricultural implements, and various other commodities
made wholly or chiefly from iron and steel. Other important manufactures
are automobiles (value, 1905, $4,256,979) and telescopes. More steel
wire, wire nails, and bolts and nuts are made here than in any other
city in the world (the total value for iron and steel products as
classified by the census was, in 1905, $42,930,995, and the value of
foundry and machine-shop products in the same year was $18,832,487), and
more merchant vessels than in any other American city. Cleveland is the
headquarters of the largest shoddy mills in the country (value of
product, 1905, $1,084,594), makes much clothing (1905, $10,426,535),
manufactures a large portion of the chewing gum made in the United
States, and is the site of one of the largest refineries of the Standard
Oil Company. The product of Cleveland breweries in 1905 was valued at
$3,986,059, and of slaughtering and meat-packing houses in the same year
at $10,426,535. The total value of factory products in 1905 was
$172,115,101, an increase of 36.4% since 1900; and between 1900 and 1905
Cleveland became the first manufacturing city in the state.
_Government._--Since Cleveland became a city in 1836 it has undergone
several important changes in government. The charter of that year placed
the balance of power in a council composed of three members chosen from
each ward and as many aldermen as there were wards, elected on a general
ticket. From 1852 to 1891 the city was governed under general laws of
the state which entrusted the more important powers to several
administrative boards. Then, from 1891 to 1903, by what was practically
a new charter, that which is known as the "federal plan" of government
was tried; this centred power in the mayor by making him almost the only
elective officer, by giving to him the appointment of his cabinet of
directors--one for the head of each of the six municipal
departments--and to each director the appointment of his subordinates.
The federal plan was abandoned in 1903, when a new municipal code went
into effect, which was in operation until 1909, when the Paine Law
established a board of control, under a government resembling the old
federal plan. (For laws of 1903 and 1909 see OHIO.) Few if any cities in
the Union have, in recent years, been better governed than Cleveland,
and this seems to be due largely to the keen interest in municipal
affairs which has been shown by her citizens. Especially has this been
manifested by the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and by the Municipal
Association, an organization of influential professional and business
men, which, by issuing bulletins concerning candidates at the primaries
and at election time, has done much for the betterment of local
politics. The Cleveland Chamber of Commerce, an organization of 1600
leading business men, is a power for varied good in the city; besides
its constant and aggressive work in promoting the commercial interests
of the city, it was largely influential in the federal reform of the
consular service; it studied the question of overcrowded tenements and
secured the passage of a new tenement law with important sanitary
provisions and a set minimum of air space; it urges and promotes
home-gardening, public baths and play-grounds, and lunch-rooms, &c., for
employes in factories; and it was largely instrumental in devising and
carrying out the so-called "Group Plan" described above.
_History._--A trading post was established at the mouth of the Cuyahoga
river as early as 1786, but the place was not permanently settled until
1796, when it was laid out as a town by Moses Cleaveland (1754-1806),
who was then acting as the agent of the Connecticut Land Company, which
in the year before had purchased from the state of Connecticut a large
portion of the Western Reserve. In 1800 the entire Western Reserve was
erected into the county of Trumbull and a township government was given
to Cleveland; ten years later Cleveland was made the seat of government
of the new county of Cuyahoga, and in 1814 it was incorporated as a
village. Cleveland's growth was, however, very slow until the opening of
the Ohio canal as far as Akron in 1827; about the same time the
improvement of the harbour was begun, and by 1832 the canal was opened
to the Ohio river. Cleveland thus was connected with the interior of the
state, for whose mineral and agricultural products it became the lake
outlet. The discovery of iron ore in the Lake Superior region made
Cleveland the natural meeting-point of the iron ore and the coal from
the Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia mines; and it is from this that
the city's great commercial importance dates. The building of railways
during the decade 1850-1860 greatly increased this importance, and the
city grew with great rapidity. The growth during the Civil War was
partly due to the rapid development of the manufacturing interests of
the city, which supplied large quantities of iron products and of
clothing to the Federal government. The population of 1076 in 1830
increased to 6071 in 1840, to 17,034 in 1850, to 43,417 in i860, to
92,829 in 1870 and to 160,146 in 1880. Until 1853 the city was confined
to the E. side of the river, but in that year Ohio City, which was
founded in 1807, later incorporated as the village of Brooklyn, and in
1836 chartered as a city (under the name Ohio City), was annexed. Other
annexations followed: East Cleveland in 1872, Newburg in 1873, West
Cleveland and Brooklyn in 1893, and Glenville and South Brooklyn in
1905. In recent history the most notable events not mentioned elsewhere
in this article were the elaborate celebration of the centennial of the
city in 1896 and the street railway strike of 1899, in which the workers
attempted to force a redress of grievances and a recognition of their
union. Mobs attacked the cars, and cars were blown up by dynamite. The
strikers were beaten, but certain abuses were corrected. There was a
less violent street car strike in 1908, after the assumption of control
by the Municipal Traction Company, which refused to raise wages
according to promises made (so the employees said) by the former owner
of the railway; the strikers were unsuccessful.
AUTHORITIES.--_Manual of the City Council_ (1879); _Annuals_ of the
Cleveland Chamber of Commerce (1894- ); E. M. Avery, _Cleveland in a
Nutshell: An Historical and Descriptive Ready-reference Book_
(Cleveland, 1893); James H. Kennedy, _A History of the City of
Cleveland_ (Cleveland, 1896); C. A. Urann, _Centennial History of
Cleveland_ (Cleveland, 1896); C. Whittlesey, _The Early History of
Cleveland_ (Cleveland, 1867); C. E. Bolton, _A Few Civic Problems of
Greater Cleveland_ (Cleveland, 1897); "Plan of School Administration,"
by S. P. Orth, in vol. xix. _Political Science Quarterly_ (New York,
1904); Charles Snavely, _A History of the City Government of
Cleveland_ (Baltimore, 1902); C. C. Williamson, _The Finances of
Cleveland_ (New York, 1907); "The Government of Cleveland, Ohio," by
Lincoln Steffens, in McClure's Magazine, vol. xxv. (New York, 1905);
and C. F. Thwing, "Cleveland, the Pleasant City," in Powell's
_Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York, 1901).
CLEVER, an adjective implying dexterous activity of mind or body, and
ability to meet emergencies with readiness and adroitness. The etymology
and the early history of the word are obscure. The earliest instance
quoted by the _New English Dictionary_ is in the _Bestiary_ of _c._ 1200
(An Old English Miscellany, ed. R. Morris, 1872, E.E.T.S. 49)--"On the
clothed the neddre (adder) is cof (quick) and the devel cliver on
sinnes," _i.e._ quick to seize hold of; this would connect the word with
a M. Eng. "cliver" or "clivre," a talon or claw (so H. Wedgwood, _Dict.
of Eng. Etym._). The ultimate original would be the root appearing in
"claw," "cleave," "cling," "clip," &c., meaning to "stick to." This
original sense probably survives in the frequent use of the word for
nimble, dexterous, quick and skilful in the use of the hands, and so it
is often applied to a horse, "clever at his fences." The word has also
been connected with O. Eng. _gleaw_, wise, which became in M. Eng.
_gleu_, and is cognate with Scottish _gleg_, quick of eye. As to the use
of the word, Sir Thomas Browne mentions it among "words of no general
reception in English but of common use in Norfolk or peculiar to the
East Angle countries" (_Tract._ viii. in Wilkins's ed. of _Works_, iv.
205). The earlier uses of the word seem to be confined to that of bodily
dexterity. In this sense it took the place of a use of "deliver" as an
adjective, meaning nimble, literally "free in action," a use taken from
Fr. _delivre_ (Late Lat. _deliberare_, to set free), cf. Chaucer,
_Prologue to Cant. Tales_, 84, "wonderly deliver and grete of strength,"
and _Romaunt of the Rose_, 831, "Deliver, smert and of gret might." It
has been suggested that "clever" is a corruption of "deliver" in this
sense, but this is not now accepted. The earliest use of the word for
mental quickness and ability in the _New English Dictionary_ is from
Addison in No. 22 of _The Freeholder_ (1716).
CLEVES (Ger. _Cleve_ or _Kleve_), a town of Germany in the kingdom of
Prussia, formerly the capital of the duchy of its own name, 46 m. N.W.
of Dusseldorf, 12 m. E. of Nijmwegen, on the main Cologne-Amsterdam
railway. Pop. (1900) 14,678. The town is neatly built in the Dutch
style, lying on three small hills in a fertile district near the
frontier of Holland, about 2 m. from the Rhine, with which it is
connected by a canal (the Spoykanal). The old castle of Schwanenburg
(formerly the residence of the dukes of Cleves), has a massive tower
(Schwanenturm) 180 ft. high. With it is associated the legend of the
"Knights of the Swan," immortalized in Wagner's _Lohengrin_. The
building has been restored in modern times to serve as a court of
justice and a prison. The collegiate church (Stiftskirche) dates from
about 1340, and contains a number of fine ducal monuments. Another
church is the Annexkirche, formerly a convent of the Minorites; this
dates from the middle of the 15th century. The chief manufactures are
boots and shoes, tobacco and machinery; there is also some trade in
cattle. To the south and west of the city a large district is laid out
as a park, where there is a statue to the memory of John Maurice of
Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679), who governed Cleves from 1650 to 1679, and in
the western part there are mineral wells with a pump room and bathing
establishment. Owing to the beautiful woods which surround it and its
medicinal waters Cleves has become a favourite summer resort.
The town was the seat of the counts of Cleves as early as the 11th
century, but it did not receive municipal rights until 1242. The duchy
of Cleves, which lay on both banks of the Rhine and had an area of about
850 sq. m., belonged before the year 1000 to a certain Rutger, whose
family became extinct in 1368. It then passed to the counts of La Marck
and was made a duchy in 1417, being united with the neighbouring duchies
of Julich and Berg in 1521. The Reformation was introduced here in 1533,
but it was not accepted by all the inhabitants. The death without direct
heirs of Duke John William in 1609 led to serious complications in which
almost all the states of Europe were concerned; however, by the treaty
of Xanten in 1614, Cleves passed to the elector of Brandenburg, being
afterwards incorporated with the electorate by the great elector,
Frederick William. The French held Cleves from 1757 to 1762 and in 1795
the part of the duchy on the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France;
the remaining portion suffered a similar fate in 1805. After the
conclusion of peace in 1815 it was restored to Prussia, except some
small portions which were given to the kingdom of Holland.
See Char, _Geschichte des Herzogtums Kleve_ (Cleves, 1845); Velsen,
_Die Stadt Kleve_ (Cleves, 1846); R. Scholten, _Die Stadt Kleve_
(Cleves, 1879-1881). For ANNE OF CLEVES see that article.
CLEYNAERTS (CLENARDUS or CLENARD), NICOLAS (1495-1542), Belgian
grammarian and traveller, was born at Diest, in Brabant, on the 5th of
December 1495. Educated at the university of Louvain, he became a
professor of Latin, which he taught by a conversational method. He
applied himself to the preparation of manuals of Greek and Hebrew
grammar, in order to simplify the difficulties of learners. His _Tabulae
in grammaticen hebraeam_ (1529), _Institutiones in linguam graecam_
(1530), and Meditationes graecanicae (1531) appeared at Louvain. The
_Institutiones_ and _Meditationes_ passed through a number of editions,
and had many commentators. He maintained a principle revived in modern
teaching, that the learner should not be puzzled by elaborate rules
until he has obtained a working acquaintance with the language. A desire
to read the Koran led him to try to establish a connexion between Hebrew
and Arabic. These studies resulted in a scheme for proselytism among the
Arabs, based on study of the language, which should enable Europeans to
combat the errors of Islam by peaceful methods. In prosecution of this
object he travelled in 1532 to Spain, and after teaching Greek at
Salamanca was summoned to the court of Portugal as tutor to Don Henry,
brother of John III. He found another patron in Louis Mendoza, marquis
of Mondexas, governor-general of Granada. There with the help of a
Moorish slave he gained a knowledge of Arabic. He tried in vain to gain
access to the Arabic MSS. in the possession of the Inquisition, and
finally, in 1540, set out for Africa to seek information for himself. He
reached Fez, then a flourishing seat of Arab learning, but after fifteen
months of privation and suffering was obliged to return to Granada, and
died in the autumn of 1542. He was buried in the Alhambra palace.
See his Latin letters to his friends in Belgium, _Nicolai Clenardi,
Peregrinationum ac de rebus machometicis epistolae elegantissimae_
(Louvain, 1550), and a more complete edition, _Nic. Clenardi
Epistolarum libri duo_ (Antwerp, 1561), from the house of Plantin;
also Victor Chauvin and Alphonse Roersch, "Etude sur la vie et les
travaux de Nicolas Clenard" in _Memoires couronnes_ (vol. lx.,
1900-1901) of the Royal Academy of Belgium, which contains a vast
amount of information on Cleynaerts and an extensive bibliography of
his works, and of notices of him by earlier commentators.
CLICHTOVE, JOSSE VAN (d. 1543), Belgian theologian, received his
education at Louvain and at Paris under Jacques Lefebvre d'Etaples. He
became librarian of the Sorbonne and tutor to the nephews of Jacques
d'Amboise, bishop of Clermont and abbot of Cluny. In 1519 he was elected
bishop of Tournai, and in 1521 was translated to the see of Chartres. He
is best known as a distinguished antagonist of Martin Luther, against
whom he wrote a good deal. When Cardinal Duprat convened his Synod of
Paris in 1528 to discuss the new religion, Clichtove was summoned and
was entrusted with the task of collecting and summarizing the objections
to the Lutheran doctrine. This he did in his _Compendium veritatum ...
contra erroneas Lutheranorum assertiones_ (Paris, 1529). He died at
Chartres on the 22nd of September 1543.
CLICHY, or CLICHY-LA-GARENNE, a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, immediately north
of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a manufacturing suburb.
Pop. (1906) 41,516. Its church was built in the 17th century under the
direction of St Vincent de Paul, who had previously been cure of Clichy.
Its industries include the manufacture of starch, rubber, oil and
grease, glass, chemicals, soap, &c. Clichy, under the name of
_Clippiacum_, was a residence of the Merovingian kings.
CLIFF-DWELLINGS, the general archaeological term for the habitations of
primitive peoples, formed by utilizing niches or caves in high cliffs,
with more or less excavation or with additions in the way of masonry.
Two special sorts of cliff-dwelling are distinguished by archaeologists,
(1) the cliff-house, which is actually built on levels in the cliff, and
(2) the cavate house, which is dug out, by using natural recesses or
openings. A great deal of attention has been given to the North American
cliff-dwellings, particularly among the canyons of the south-west, in
Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado, some of which are still used by
Indians. There has been considerable discussion as to their antiquity,
but modern research finds no definite justification for assigning them
to a distinct primitive race, or farther back than the ancestors of the
modern Pueblo Indians. The area in which they occur coincides with that
in which other traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches
which were utilized are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs
of a thousand feet high, and approached by rock steps or log-ladders.
See the article, with illustrations and bibliography, in the _Handbook
of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
CLIFFORD, the name of a famous English family and barony, taken from the
village of Clifford in Herefordshire, although the family were mainly
associated with the north of England.
Robert de Clifford (c. 1275-1314), a son of Roger de Clifford (d. 1282),
inherited the estates of his grandfather, Roger de Clifford, in 1286;
then he obtained through his mother part of the extensive land of the
Viponts, and thus became one of the most powerful barons of his age. A
prominent soldier during the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II.,
Clifford was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1299, won great renown
at the siege of Carlaverock Castle in 1300, and after taking part in the
movement against Edward II.'s favourite, Piers Gaveston, was killed at
Bannockburn. His son Roger, the 2nd baron (1299-1322), shared in the
rebellion of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and was probably executed at
York on the 23rd of March 1322. Robert's grandson Roger, the 5th baron
(1333-1389), and the latter's son Thomas, the 6th baron (c. 1363-c.
1391), served the English kings on the Scottish borders and elsewhere.
The same is true of Thomas, the 8th baron (1414-1455), who was killed at
the first battle of St Albans in May 1455.
Thomas's son John, the 9th baron (c. 1435-1461), was more famous. During
the Wars of the Roses he fought for Henry VI., earning by his cruelties
the name of the "butcher"; after the battle of Wakefield in 1460 he
murdered Edmund, earl of Rutland, son of Richard, duke of York,
exclaiming, according to the chronicler Edward Hall, "By God's blood thy
father slew mine; and so will I do thee and all thy kin." Shakespeare
refers to this incident in _King Henry VI._, and also represents
Clifford as taking part in the murder of York. It is, however,
practically certain that York was slain during the battle, and not
afterwards like his son. Clifford was killed at Ferrybridge on the 28th
of March 1461, and was afterwards attainted. His young son Henry, the
10th baron (c. 1454-1523), lived disguised as a shepherd for some years,
hence he is sometimes called the "shepherd lord." On the accession of
Henry VII. the attainder was reversed and he received his father's
estates. He spent a large part of his time at Barden in Lancashire,
being interested in astronomy and astrology. Occasionally, however, he
visited London, and he fought at the battle of Flodden in 1513. This
lord, who died on the 23rd of April 1523, is celebrated by Wordsworth in
the poems "The white doe of Rylstone" and "Song at the feast of Brougham
Castle." Henry, the 11th baron, was created earl of Cumberland in 1525,
and from this time until the extinction of the title in 1643 the main
line of the Cliffords was associated with the earldom of Cumberland
(q.v.).
Richard Clifford, bishop of Worcester and London under Henry IV. and
Henry V., was probably a member of this family. This prelate, who was
very active at the council of Constance, died on the 20th of August
1421.
On the death of George, 3rd earl of Cumberland, in 1605, the barony of
Clifford, separated from the earldom, was claimed by his daughter Anne,
countess of Dorset, Pembroke and Montgomery; and in 1628 a new barony of
Clifford was created in favour of Henry, afterwards 5th and last earl of
Cumberland. After Anne's death in 1676 the claim to the older barony
passed to her daughter Margaret (d. 1676), wife of John Tufton, 2nd earl
of Thanet, and her descendants, whose title was definitely recognized in
1691. After the Tuftons the barony was held with intervening abeyances
by the Southwells and the Russells, and to this latter family the
present Lord De Clifford belongs.[1]
When the last earl of Cumberland died in 1643 the newer barony of
Clifford passed to his daughter Elizabeth, wife of Richard Boyle, 2nd
earl of Cork, and from the Boyles it passed to the Cavendishes, falling
into abeyance on the death of William Cavendish, 6th duke of Devonshire,
in 1858.
The barony of Clifford of Lanesborough was held by the Boyles from 1644
to 1753, and the Devonshire branch of the family still holds the barony
of Clifford of Chudleigh, which was created in 1672.
See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); and T. D.
Whitaker, _History of Craven_ (1877).