COURSES OF INSTRUCTION.
Studies in Each of the Subjects on Which Examinations Are Based.
The following lessons are based on previous examinations. The
subjects are somewhat broad in scope in order to carry the student
over every possible contingency. Careful study will enable the
competitor to meet all the requirements.
Spelling.
Confederacy,
Deity,
Chirography,
Worthy,
Paltry,
Electioneer,
Anvil,
Rumor,
Gravity,
Ancient,
Chiropody,
Vogue,
Squirrel, a small animal.
Pippin,
Yoke, a connecting frame for draft cattle.
Aspirant, one who seeks earnestly; a candidate.
Terminus,
Brutal,
Cholera,
Glimmer,
Chirp,
Ere,
Intuition,
Niche,
Granary,
Copartner,
Autocrat,
Inconstancy,
Officiate,
Delicacy,
Ninetieth,
Credulous,
Fiftieth,
Tincture,
Wigwam,
Eyelet,
Tyranny,
Undulate,
Committee,
Conservatory,
Literary,
Legislature,
Anomalous,
Desirous,
Radiant,
Jamb,
Chilblain,
Delightful,
Inaugurate,
Freight,
Earnest,
Quadrille,
Lullaby,
Usury,
Audacious,
Though,
Equitable,
Bivouac,
Integrity,
Asthma,
Maniac,
Dissolve,
Admittance,
Occupy,
Constituency,
Irritable,
Advertisement,
Halibut,
Strength,
Melodious,
Wheelbarrow,
Curtain,
Senate,
Superscribe,
Convertible,
Adversary,
Illuminate,
Circuit,
Remnant,
Stencil,
Degradation,
Claret,
Ludicrous,
Idea,
Saucy,
Recollect,
Cupola,
Familiar,
Mammoth,
Drawee,
Motor,
Presumption,
Monosyllable,
Apprentice,
Alcohol,
Charity,
Plantain,
Stampede,
Demonstrate,
Longitude.
ARITHMETIC.
Lessons in Decimals.
The paper on arithmetic in second grade examinations usually
contains one, sometimes two, problems in common or decimal
fractions. These are no more difficult to solve when one
understands the rules governing them, than any simple test in
addition, division, etc. In whole numbers, as 57, 563, 4278, the
various units increase on a scale of ten to the left (or decrease
on the same scale of ten to the right). Thus in the last number we
say 8 units, 7 tens, 2 hundreds, and 4 thousands or four thousand
two hundred seventy-eight.
Decimals also decrease on a scale of ten to the right (or increase
on the same scale of ten to the left). In writing decimals, we
first write the decimal point, which is the same mark we use at
the close of a sentence and is called a period. Then the first
figure to the right is called “tenths” and is written thus .6,
meaning six tenths. The second figure stands for hundredths as
.06, six hundredths; .006 for six thousandths; .0006 for six
ten-thousandths; .00006 for six hundred-thousandths; .000006 for
six millionths, etc. When a whole number, previously mentioned,
and decimals are written together as 47.328, it is called a mixed
number.
The only distinction between reading whole numbers and decimals is
made by adding this to the ending of decimals, and the denomination
of the right-hand figure must be expressed to give the proper
value to decimal parts. For instance, .12, is twelve hundredths;
.007, is seven thousandths; .062, is sixty-two thousandths;
.201, is two hundred one thousandths; .5562, is five thousand
five hundred sixty-two ten-thousandths; .24371, is twenty-four
thousand three hundred seventy-one hundred-thousandths; .893254,
is eight hundred ninety-three thousand two hundred fifty-four
millionths, etc. Remember that in decimals the first figure stands
for, tenths; the second, hundredths; the third, thousandths; the
fourth, ten-thousandths; the fifth, hundred-thousandths; the sixth,
millionths, and that in reading decimals we add the denomination of
the right-hand figure. When reading a mixed number the word “=and=”
is used, and then only, to indicate the decimal point. Thus 45.304
should be read forty-five AND three hundred four thousandths.
Addition and subtraction of decimals differ from similar operations
of whole numbers only in the placing of the figures. In whole
numbers units come under units, tens under tens, etc. To illustrate:
What is the sum of 260, 4398, 305, 2, 29?
The figures are placed thus:
260
4,398
305
2
29
-----
4,994
Now let us take the same figures expressed decimally: .260, .4398,
.305, .2, .29.
.260
.4398
.305
.2
.29
------
1.4948
In subtraction of whole numbers or decimals the figures are placed
as in addition.
Examples--Subtract .204 from .4723.
.4723
.204
-----
.2683
Subtract 5.346 from .937.
5.346
.937
-----
4.409
Subtract .753 from 18. (Note that the point or period is placed to
the left of “753” indicating decimals, but in connection with the
number “18,” a dot is placed to the right as a mark of punctuation
merely, thus showing that “18” is a whole number.)
Now from the whole number “18,” which is the minuend because it is
the number to be subtracted from, we are to subtract .753, and it
is done in this way:
Minuend 18.000
Subtrahend .753
------
17.247
The three ciphers are added to the minuend to correspond to the
decimal places in the subtrahend. It is not necessary to put the
ciphers down, but beginners are apt to get confused if there is
nothing there to correspond to the decimals below. Annex as many
ciphers to the minuend as there are decimals in the subtrahend, and
place in the remainder a decimal point under those of the numbers
subtracted.
Multiplication of decimals differs somewhat from the previous
operations mentioned for the reason that we do not necessarily
place the decimal points directly under each other. The right-hand
figure of the multiplier usually goes under the right-hand
figure of the multiplicand and the problem is then worked out as
in multiplying whole numbers. When the product is obtained we
point off as many decimal places in it as there are in both the
multiplier and the multiplicand.
Let us take as an example: Multiply 2.648 by 2.35
Multiplicand 2.648
Multiplier 2.35
-----
13240
7944
5296
-------
Product 6.22280
It will be seen that there are three decimals in the multiplicand
and 2 decimals in the multiplier, hence we point off five decimals
in the product.
In the operation of division of decimals the decimal point is not
considered until the result is obtained. If the number of decimal
places in the dividend is less than the number of decimal places
in the divisor ciphers must be annexed or added to make up the
deficiency, and the decimal point is then suppressed, thus reducing
the operation to the division of two whole numbers. If there is no
remainder, the quotient is a whole number, if there is a remainder,
add a cipher to the right of it and place a decimal point to the
right of the quotient obtained, then continue the division as far
as desirable by adding ciphers to the right of the successive
remainders, for each of which a new decimal will be obtained in the
quotient.
Divide 460 by .5.
.5)460(92
45
--
10
10
--
0
Fractions are reduced to decimals by annexing ciphers to the
numerator and then dividing by the denominator.
For instance--5/8 equals what decimal?
8)5.000(.625 = 5/8
48
--
.20
16
--
.40
40
Lessons by Prof. Jean P. Genthon, C.E., Member Society of Municipal
Engineers and Author of “The Assistant Engineer,” “The Chief’s”
Text Book on Civil Engineering.
In solving problems the process should be not merely indicated, but
all the figures necessary in solving each problem should be given
in full. The answers to each problem should be indicated by writing
“Ans.” after it.
=Arithmetic= is the science of numbers.
=A Number= is the result of the comparison (also called
measurement) of a magnitude or quantity with another magnitude or
quantity of the same kind supposed to be known.
=A Concrete Number= is one the nature of the unit of which is known.
=Denominate Number.=--A concrete number the standard of which is
fixed by law or established by long usage.
=An Abstract Number= is one of which the nature of the unit is
unknown.
=How to Read Numbers.=--The right way to read 101,274, etc., is one
hundred one, two hundred seventy-four, etc.
=The Decimal Point.=--A period, called decimal point, is placed in
a mixed number between the integral part and the decimal portion
which follows. It should never be omitted.
=Roman Numbers.=--I stands for 1, V for 5, X for 10, L for 50, C
for 100, D for 500 and M for 1,000.
=Abbreviations.=--A smaller unit, written to the left of a greater
one, is subtracted from the latter, as: IV = 4 (IV is marked
IIII on clock and watch dials); IX = 9; XC = 90; CD = 400, etc.
Sometimes a Roman number is surmounted by a dash or vinculum; it
then expresses thousands, as IX = 9,000.
Addition.
=Addition.=--Operation which consists in taking in any order all
the units and portions of units of several numbers and forming with
them a single number called their Sum or Total.
=Addition of Long Columns of Numbers.=--When long columns of
numbers are to be added, the student should endeavor to add more
than one figure at a time. He may pick those which aggregate 10,
15, 20, etc., and add the intermediate figures when convenient.
=Sign of Addition.=--The sign of addition is the
horizontal-vertical or Roman cross + placed between all the numbers
to be added; it is read Plus.
=To Prove an Addition.=--The shortest way to prove an addition is
to do it over again from bottom to top.
=Sign of Equality.=--The sign of equality is two short equal
horizontal parallels =; it reads Equal.
Subtraction.
=Subtraction.=--An operation which consists in taking from a number
called =minuend= (m) all the units and parts of units contained in
another number called =subtrahend= (s). The result is called the
=difference= (d) of the two numbers or the =remainder= of their
subtraction.
=Sign of Subtraction.=--The sign of subtraction is a horizontal
dash - placed between the minuend, written first, and the
subtrahend. Thus: 84 - 38 = d; 84 - 38 = 46. Generally m - s = d.
=To Prove a Subtraction.=--Add from bottom to top the difference
and the subtrahend; the sum must equal the minuend.
Multiplication.
=Multiplication.=--An operation which consists in repeating a
number called =multiplicand= (M) as many times as there are units
in another column called =multiplier= (m); the result is called the
=product= (p) of the numbers, and the numbers themselves are called
=factors= of the product. This definition may be extended to the
case where the factors are not whole numbers.
=Sign of Multiplication.=--The sign of multiplication is the
oblique or St. Andrew’s cross ×, called multiplied by, and placed
between the factors written one after the other.
Thus: 35 × 7 = p; 35 × 7 = 245. Generally M × m = p.
=To Prove a Multiplication.=--Multiplication may be proved by a
second multiplication in which the factors are inverted.
This is the surest but the longest method.
=Another Proof of the Multiplication.=--Find the residue of the
multiplicand and multiplier. Multiply them and find the residue of
their product; this is equal to the residue of the product of the
multiplication.
64327 4 Residue of the multiplicand.
781 7 Residue of the multiplier.
-------- --
28 1 Residue of the product of the residues
64327
514616
450289
--------
50239387 1 Residue of the product of multiplication.
=Proof Not Absolute.=--Practically a proof is not absolute, because
an error may be committed in its use, and also it may not work well
in all cases.
=Power of a Number.=--When the factors of a product are equal, the
product is called a power of the factor.
=Square of a Number.=--A power is a square when it is the product
of two (2) equal factors, as 7 × 7 = 49, in which 49 is the square
of 7. The term square is derived from the fact that the area of a
square is obtained by multiplying the length of its side by itself,
or taking it twice as a factor.
=Cube of a Number.=--A power is a cube when it is the product of
three (3) equal factors, as 5 × 5 × 5 = 125, in which 125 is the
cube of 5.
The term cube is derived from the fact that the volume of a cube is
obtained by multiplying the length of its side by itself and again
by itself, or by taking it three times as a factor.
A product, for instance, of 4, 9, etc., equal factors would be
called the 4th or the 9th, etc., power of that number.
Division.
=Division.=--An operation by means of which we find one of two
factors of a product when that product and the other factor are
given. The given product is called =Dividend= (D) of the division;
the known factor is called the =Divisor= (d), and the unknown
factor which is sought is called =Quotient= (q). We know that a
quotient is seldom exact and that there is generally a =Remainder=
(r) or =Residue=.
=Sign of Division.=--The sign of division is a small dash with a
point above and one below ÷; it is read divided by, is placed after
the dividend, and is followed by the divisor. For instance, to
indicate the division of 72 by 8, which we know gives the quotient
9, we write 72 ÷ 8 = 9; generally D ÷ d = q.
=Other Sign of Division.=--In the study of fractions it is shown
that a fraction expresses the quotient of its numerator by its
denominator, so that the preceding identity may be written 72/8 =
9, or more generally D/d = q, and another sign of division is a
horizontal line separating the dividend written above it from the
divisor written below it.
=Proof of the Division.=--We prove a division by multiplying the
divisor by the quotient and adding the remainder, if there is any;
the result thus obtained must equal the dividend. When there is a
remainder, the formula of division is D = dq + r.
By 2.--A number is divisible by 2 when it is an even number, that
is to say when it ends with 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8, as 70,836.
By 3.--A number is divisible by 3 when its residue is zero or is
divisible by 3.
By 4.--A number is divisible by 4 when the number formed by the
last two figures to the right is divisible by 4; 7528 is divisible
by 4 because 28 is divisible by 4.
By 5.--A number is divisible by 5 when it ends with 0 or 5, as
75,270.
By 6.--A number is divisible by 6 when it is divisible by 2 and 3,
as 474, because when a number is divisible by several others it is
divisible by their product.
By 8.--A number is divisible by 8 when the number formed by the
last three figures to the right is divisible by 8; 37104 is
divisible by 8 because 104 is divisible by 8.
By 9.--A number is divisible by 9 when its residue is 9 or 0.
By 10.--A number is divisible by 10 when the last figure to the
right is 0.
By 100.--A number is divisible by 100 when the last two figures to
the right are 00.
By 11.--A number is divisible by 11 when the sum of the figures of
even rank subtracted from the sum of the figures of uneven rank
(increased by 11 if necessary) is 0 or divisible by 11, as 95832,
3304081.
By 12.--A number is divisible by 12 when it is divisible by 3 and
4, as 756.
By 15.--A number is divisible by 15 when it is divisible by 3 and
5, as 255.
Suggestions for the Study of Arithmetic
By ERNEST L. CRANDALL
Former Civil Service Examiner
There are certain “standard errors,” so to speak, that the
unsuccessful candidate makes nine times out of ten, and if these
are eliminated every one, with a little practice, may put himself
in line for 100 per cent.
While the examples may take the form of “problems,” the only
processes involved will be simple addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division--no fractions or decimals.
In addition there is but one thing to be observed. If your numbers
are not all of equal length arrange them so that the last figures
are all in the same column. Suppose you have to add 357,856, 7,596,
452 and 29,360. Following are the right and wrong ways to arrange
them:
Right way. Wrong way.
357,856 357856
7,596 7596
452 452
29,360 29360
------- ------
This arrangement is necessary because of the inherent properties
of numbers as expressed in figures, under what we call our decimal
system, which means simply the practice we have adopted of
expressing our numbers in multiples of ten. This arose from the
fact that we happen to be born with ten fingers, and our ancestors,
like our children, learned to count by means of those very useful
“markers.”
In the system of counting every place, or column, counting from the
right, has a value ten times greater than the one in the place or
column nearest on the right. Thus in the number 36,542 the first
figure on the right represents “ones,” the next ten times as much
or “tens,” the next ten times as much again or “hundreds,” and
so on. We really read this number backward when we name it, for
in handling it in any way we have to start with the last figure,
representing the “ones.” The number really means two ones, four
tens, five hundreds, six thousands and three ten thousands. It is
built up this way, really by addition:
2
40
500
6000
30000
------
36,542
Now, this principle underlies the processes called “carrying” and
“borrowing.” You wish to add 26 and 37. Adding the 6 ones to the 7
you get 13 ones, or 3 ones and 1 ten. So you “carry” that 1 ten to
the column where it belongs, leaving the 3 ones in =their= proper
column. Thus, in your tens column you have 2 tens plus 3 tens plus
the 1 ten “carried,” which makes 6 tens; and your result is 63, or
6 tens and 3 ones.
Again, you want to subtract 19 from 38. As you cannot take 9 from
8, you “borrow” one of the 3 tens, making your 8 into 18 and
subtract 9 from that, leaving 9. By so doing you have left but 2
tens in your tens column, and so there your subtraction is now from
2, leaving 1. Hence your result is 9 ones and 1 ten, or 19.
Here is an example in subtraction which was once used, and which is
as likely to trip one up as any that could be set. Subtract 199,999
from 320,012. The result is as follows:
320,012
199,999
-------
120,013
Now, you cannot take 9 from 2, so you “borrow” one from the left
and make your two 12. Then 9 from 12 leaves 3. In borrowing from
the left you reduce the 1 in the tens column to 0. As you cannot
take 9 from 0, you must again borrow from the left. But what are
you to borrow from? In the third, or hundreds column there is only
a 0. Hence, before you can borrow from this column you must make
this 0 a 10 by borrowing from the fourth, or thousands column
(counting your columns always from the right).
But again here you find only a 0, and so before you can make even
this “borrow” you must borrow one from the 2 in the ten thousands
column. Now see what happens. With the one which you have finally
borrowed you have made the 0 left in the second or tens column into
a 10, and you take 9 from 10, which leaves 1.
Now, here is where you forget something. When you started out to
“borrow” you had to go away over to the 2 in the fifth column; that
made your 0 in the fourth column a 10, but you immediately passed
this one on to the third column, which left only 9; again you
passed it on from the third to the second column, which left only a
9 in the third column. Hence you have now a 9 in the third and in
the fourth columns, and your results there will be in each case 9
from 9 leaves 0.
Coming to the fifth you have a 1 instead of a 2, having borrowed 1;
and you have to borrow again from the 3 to make your 1 into an 11,
obtaining 9 from 11 leaves 2; and your sixth and last figure, being
reduced from 3 to 2, your last result is 1 from 2 leaves 1.
This last part is easy, but one out of practice is almost certain
to forget that his 0’s in the third and fourth columns became
9’s. If you have any difficulty with subtraction, study out the
processes in this example until you understand them and you will
never make a mistake again.
Now, as to the shape in which the examples will be given: The plain
problems in addition will be unmistakable. You will be told that a
concern sold 27,356 barrels of flour in one month, 38,452 the next,
etc., and you cannot well run off the track. But you may find both
processes involved in one “problem,” and you must then be careful
to understand just what is meant by the question, so that you will
know what you are expected to do with the figures.
Take this, for example: “A had $3,465 and B $4,895. A gained $1,146
and B lost $602. Which then had the more, and how much?”
Here you must add A’s gain to his principal--that is, the sum he
had to start with--and subtract B’s loss from his principal; then
subtract the smaller result from the larger, stating which is the
“winner.” Thus:
$3,465 $4,895 $4,611
1,146 602 4,293
------ ------ ------
$4,611 $4,293 $318
Answer.--A has $318 more.
When it comes to multiplication and division, there is just one
“catch,” so it might appear to the untrained mind of some poor
candidate, which is made to play a part in nearly every problem.
It is safe to say that 90 per cent. of the failures on these two
processes turn on this one point. It is a very simple one and
really the same in both processes. It arises in the handling of the
“naught” or “cipher,” as we used to call it, the “zero”--call it
what you like, it is nothing, anyhow. And that’s the point to be
remembered.
Here is an example: Multiply 3,125 by 208. Now it seems almost
incredible, but I have seen literally hundreds of papers, it seems
to me, where this very simple problem was worked out this way:
The Wrong Way.
3,125
208
------
25000
3125
6250
------
681250
Or else this:
Another Wrong Way.
3125
208
-----
25000
6250
-----
87500
The trouble is that when the poor fellow came to multiply by the
“naught” he forgot in the first instance that it was nothing, and
that the biggest number in the world multiplied by nothing will
produce nothing. He knew that something ought to go down there, and
so in sheer desperation he wrote down the number he was multiplying.
In the second instance, while he recognized that nothing is
nothing, he forgot that all our figuring is done by columns, as we
saw in our last lesson; so that when we are multiplying by tens we
must put our first figure down in the hundreds column, and so on.
By forgetting this he multiplied his number by two hundreds, but
put his first figure down in the tens columns, and thus he really
multiplied by only 28 instead of 208.
Now, the very simplest way to avoid this sort of mistake is to “go
through the motions” of multiplying by the “naught” or “zero.” Thus:
The Right Way. 3,125
208
------
25000
0000
6250
-------
650,000
This looks a little clumsy, perhaps, but it is the logical way--to
go through the process of saying naught times 5 is naught, naught
times 2 is naught, etc., putting down the results in the proper
columns. It is the safest way, if you are the least bit weak on the
principles of numbers, to do even the process of multiplying by
whole hundreds. Thus:
3,125
200
------
0000
0000
6250
-------
625,000
By writing his example in the “short cut” style I have seen many a
man make this mistake:
Wrong. 3,125
200
-----
62500
That is, after setting down his two surplus ciphers, when he
obtained another in multiplying 5 by 2, he forgot that it was a
new one and went right on to the next process. If you are in that
position that you must really learn your arithmetic all over again,
stick to the logical method of showing every process and learn the
“short cuts” afterward.
Now, when the reverse situation arises in division, a similar error
is of frequent occurrence. Suppose we are to divide 650,000 by
3,125. This sometimes results:
The Wrong Way. 3,125)650,000(28
625 0
-----
25,000
25,000
That is, the figurer, when he came to try to divide 2,500 by 3,125,
realizing that it would not “go,” simply “brought down” another
figure. He forgot that the real mental process was 3,125 goes
into 2,500 no times, or produces “naught,” and that “naught,” or
“cipher,” must be set down in the proper tens column. The only safe
way, again, is to indicate every process; to “bring down” but one
figure at a time and to set down every result, even the “nothings,”
in its proper place. That will make our example look like this:
The Right Way. 3,125)650,000(208
625 0
25 00
00 00
------
25 000
25 000
Very simple, but let me “whisper,” if you really master and
understand the mysteries of “long division,” you have crossed the
Rubicon of education. There is no door in all human learning that
need remain forever sealed to a persistent mind that has truly
found its way clearly and understandingly through this first great
stumbling block. Ask any old-fashioned school teacher to dispute
that proposition. And, “whisper” again, there are men counting
coupons who can do long division, to be sure, but who could not
tell you why it is done as it is, if the price of stocks depended
on it.
Punctuation.
Punctuation is a system of marks the purpose of which is to
indicate to the eye the relation of words to one another in
meaning, and so the relative importance of the component parts of
a written composition.
The marks of Punctuation, corresponding, for the most part, to
pauses in spoken language, are the comma (,), the period (.), the
note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation (!), the colon
(:), the semi-colon (;), the dash (--), parentheses ( ), brackets
[ ], quotation marks (“ ”), and the hyphen (-).
=Purpose of Punctuation.=--To make a written composition clear and
intelligent, and to facilitate the task of reading.
=Avoid All Unnecessary Remarks.=--In modern writings punctuation
marks are less frequently used than they were among writers in the
early part of the last century. A sentence consisting of a simple
subject, a simple predicate, and a simple object, or the relation
of whose parts is clearly intelligible without marks, should not
be encumbered with any. Take, for instance, the following two
sentences:
“The attack was prepared with impenetrable secrecy.”
“On the very morning of the massacre they were in the houses and at
the tables of those whose deaths they were plotting.”
=Comma.=--Three or more words of the same part of speech not
connected by conjunctions should be separated from one another by
commas.
“He was strong, alert, active.”
“New York City is grand, immense, beautiful.”
Two words contrasted with one another are separated by a comma.
“He is slow, but sure.”
Words in a series of pairs should be separated by a comma. “Young
and old, strong and weak, fair and dark, good and bad.”
Explanatory and parenthetical words or phrases (such as
“therefore,” “moreover,” “indeed,” “however,” “in fact,” “to some
extent,” etc.), inserted into the body of a sentence are usually
marked off by commas.
A comma is inserted after the name of a person or thing addressed.
“John, you were mistaken.”
“My country, I am proud of thee.”
=Period.=--The period (.) is put at the end of every complete
sentence that is not exclamatory or interrogative. It is also used
as a part of every abbreviation, and after every initial letter
standing in place of the full word in a name. “A. M.” (for Master
of Arts), “Mr.” (for Mister), “Esq.” (for Esquire), “R. W. Emerson”
(for Ralph Waldo Emerson), “Dr.” (for doctor).
=Note of Interrogation.=--The note of interrogation (?) should
follow every direct question: “Are you coming?” “Shall I buy it?”
An interrogation point does not, however, follow an indirect
question, such as “Let me know what he says.”
=Note of Exclamation.=--The note of exclamation (!) follows an
exclamation, or any series of words denoting an outburst of
feeling. “Alas!” “Three cheers!” “Hurrah!”
=Colon.=--The colon (:) is used to divide from one another the
several co-ordinate members of a compound sentence, when they might
each of them form an independent sentence, but are ranged side by
side in a compound sentence for the sake of better showing how they
illustrate one another.
“New York is a wonderful city: The wealthiest in America.”
A quotation or enumeration of details is often preceded by a colon.
“He spoke as follows:” “His last words were:” “Among those present
were:”
=Semi-Colon.=--The semi-colon (;) separates co-ordinate sentences
more dependent on one another than are those parted by the colon.
“Where it is prescribed that an act is to be done; or that the
adverse party has a specified time to do an act; if service
required is doubly the time allowed; except that,” etc.
In sentences containing two sets of subjects and predicates where
either clause is very long or contains a subordinate clause, it is
well to use a semi-colon.
=Parentheses.=--Parentheses () are used to enclose words or phrases
in a sentence, inserted by way of explanation or comment, but lying
outside of the construction of the sentence:
“You see (as I predicted would be the case) I have had a long
journey for nothing.”
=Dash.=--The dash (--) denotes, in most cases, a sudden digression
from the general run of the sentence: “I want to tell you--but
first let us go into the house.”
Sometimes the dash takes the place of the parentheses, when the
clause, though digressive, bears some relation to the context.
=Brackets.=--Brackets [] are used to isolate interpolated words
from the passage in which they are used:
“The examiner said that if they [the candidates] were discovered
talking with each other he [the examiner] would have them [the
candidates] expelled from the room.”
=Hyphen.=--A hyphen (-) is used, first to connect the part of a
word at the end of a line with the remaining letters or syllables
of the word beginning the next line; second, to conjoin two or more
words into a compound word; as, “a never-to-be-forgotten day;”
“long-winded,” etc.
The part of a word to which the hyphen is attached should be an
integral part; that is, an entire syllable, and not merely certain
letters composing only a part of a syllable.
=Quotation Marks.=--Quotation marks (“”) are used to distinguish
a word, phrase, clause, sentence, or passage taken word for word,
from any source outside that of the writing into which it is
inserted.
A quotation within a quotation is marked off only by a single
inverted comma before and after it. But a quotation within the
second quotation requires double marks.
A passage quoted, not word for word, but only in substance, is
often distinguished by but one quotation mark before and after it.
=Capital Letters.=--In examinations containing papers the rating of
which is determined in part by correctness in the use of capital
letters the average candidate is usually at a disadvantage. The
following rules, if committed to memory, will enable the candidate
to avoid errors which, if made, might cause him to fail in the
examination.
The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays.
The names of places and countries; as, England, Yonkers, Belmont
Park, etc.
The names of States, Mountains, Rivers and Lakes.
All words used to signify the Deity; as, He, Him, His, Thou, Thee,
Thine, etc.
The names of persons, the titles of persons, and the titles of
books; as, John Brown, Lord Salisbury, Senator Mitchell, “The
Marble Faun.”
The first word in every line of poetry.
The pronoun I, and the exclamation O, or Oh.
The first word of a direct quotation should also begin with a
capital; as, “To thine own self be true.”