horses in good health, fed exclusively on hard food. The most suitable
store is the floor of a dry shed, or under some protection which will
prevent the loss of vital forces. Ammonia, for example, is readily
dissipated in the atmosphere or washed away by rain. The manure should
neither be allowed to become dust dry, nor to waste its power in
premature fermentation. Operations may be commenced with three or four
loads. A smaller quantity increases the difficulty of maintaining the
requisite temperature when fermentation begins to flag. The first
procedure is to make the manure into a high oblong heap well trodden
down. If the stuff be somewhat dry, a sprinkling of water over every
layer will be necessary. In a few days fermentation will make the heap
hot all through, and then it must be taken to pieces and remade,
putting all the outside portions into the interior, with the object of
insuring equal fermentation of the entire bulk. This process will have
to be repeated several times at intervals of three or four days until
the manure has not only been fermented but sweetened. When ready it
will be of a dark colour, soft, damp enough to be cohesive under
pressure, but not sufficiently damp to part with any of its moisture,
and almost odourless; at all events the odour will not be
objectionable, but may be suggestive of Mushrooms. Make a long bed,
having a base about four feet wide, and sides sloping to a ridge like
the roof of a house, with this difference—the narrow part of the ridge
is useless, and the top should, therefore, be rounded off when about a
foot across. Some growers prefer a circular bed of six or eight feet
diameter at the bottom and tapering towards a point, after the shape of
a military tent; but here again the point will be worthless, and the
bed may terminate abruptly. Either the long bed or the round heap
answers admirably. Tread the manure down compactly, and for the sake of
appearances endeavour to finish it off in a workmanlike manner. During
the first few days there will be a considerable rise in the
temperature, which will gradually subside, and when the plunging
thermometer shows that it has settled down to a comfortable condition
of about 80° the bed must be spawned. Experienced men can determine by
the sense of touch when the temperature is right, but the inexperienced
should rely entirely on the thermometer. The question will arise as to
the period of the year when operations should be commenced. Well, the
experts who grow Mushrooms in the open ground for market gather crops
almost the year round; but a beginner will do wisely to start under the
most favourable natural conditions, and these will be found about
midsummer, because the bed will commence bearing before winter creates
difficulty as to temperature.
Spawning and After-management.—Break each cake of spawn into eight or
ten pieces, and force every piece gently a little way into the manure
at regular intervals of six to nine inches all over the bed, closing
the manure over and round each piece of spawn. The practice of
inserting spawn by means of the dibber is to be strongly condemned, for
it leaves smooth, hollow spaces which arrest the mycelium; and very
small pieces of spawn should be avoided because they generally result
in small Mushrooms. Immediately the spawning is completed, a thick and
even covering of clean straw or litter of some kind should be laid over
the bed, secured from wind by canvas, mats, hurdles, or in some other
way. From good spawn the films of mycelium will begin to extend within
a week. In the contrary case an examination of the pieces will show
that they have become darker than when put into the bed, which means
that they have perished. Then the question will arise as to whether the
bed or the spawn is at fault, and the former must either be spawned
again or broken up. Supposing the spawn to show signs of vitality, the
time has come for covering the bed with a layer of rather moist soil,
pressed lightly but firmly on to the manure with the spade or fork, so
that the earth will not slip down. At once restore the covering of
litter, &c., and wait patiently for about seven or eight weeks for the
crop. Meanwhile the plunging thermometer ought to be consulted daily.
Until the Mushrooms appear the instrument should not indicate less than
60°, and while in bearing not less than 55°. Experience proves that the
most violent alternations of temperature may be combated by regulating
the thickness of the covering. Although it may possibly be necessary to
resort to eighteen inches of litter or more during hard frost or the
prevalence of a cutting east wind, a much thinner covering will suffice
in milder weather.
Should the temperature of the bed, through inexperience in the
management of it, sink below the point at which Mushrooms can grow, we
advise the exercise of a little patience. We have known several
instances of beds made in autumn producing no crop at the expected
time, but which have borne fairly in the following spring or summer.
But in the event of the first effort failing outright there is no great
loss. The manure, which is the most costly item, will still be
available for the garden, and an observant man will pretty well
understand in what respect he must amend his course of procedure.
Water.—Moisture is of great consequence, for a dry Mushroom bed will
soon be barren also; but whenever water is given it must be applied
tepid and from a fine rose. To slop cold water over a Mushroom bed is
about as reasonable a procedure as putting ice into hot soup. Water is
best administered in the afternoon of a genial day, and should be
sufficient to saturate the bed. Immediately it is done the covering of
litter and canvas must be promptly restored to prevent the temperature
from being seriously lowered by rapid evaporation. A couple of stakes
driven from the crown to the bottom of the bed at the time of making up
the heap are useful as indicators of moisture, and may occasionally be
drawn out and examined.
In gathering the crop, only a small portion of the bed should be
uncovered at a time. This should be the rule at all seasons, and the
strict observance of it will prevent a mistake in cold weather, for
then, if the bed is carelessly uncovered and much chilled, the crop
will come to an end, when perhaps it would, if properly handled, be at
high tide and full of profit. Another rule should be enforced, to this
effect, that every Mushroom must be taken out complete, and if the root
does not come with the stem, it must be dug out with a knife. Any
trifling with this rule will prove a costly mistake. The stem of a
Mushroom, if left in the ground, will produce nothing at all. But it
may attract flies, and it certainly will interfere with the movements
of the mycelium at that particular spot, and actually prevent the
production of any more Mushrooms. The old practitioners were accustomed
to leave the stem in the ground, and they were content with about
one-third of the crop now produced on beds that are, perhaps, not
better made than were theirs. But they had a notion about the powers of
the root which increased knowledge of the subject has shown to be
fallacious.
In Pastures.—As already indicated, Mushrooms are often to be found in
abundance in well-stocked pastures during the late summer months, and
where favourable conditions exist it is an excellent plan to insert
pieces of spawn two inches deep in the turf in June and July.
Turf Pits.—The facility with which Mushrooms may be raised under simple
methods is illustrated by the practice of growing them inside the turf
walls of cool pits. In the country turf walls are common, and they
offer the advantage of growing Mushrooms in addition to the purpose
they usually serve. After determining the size of the pit, and
accurately marking it on the ground, cut the turf into narrow strips,
say three or four inches wide, and of exactly eighteen inches length.
The strips should be closely laid, grass side downwards, across the
width of the walls—not longitudinally—except at the corners, where the
layers should cross each other. The front and back walls to be rather
above the required height, because the turf always scales down a
little, and the two ends must gradually rise from front to back. The
top layer may be right side up, when it will keep green for a long
time. As the work proceeds insert lumps of spawn at intervals in every
layer, about three or four inches from the inside edge. A wooden frame
will be requisite on the top to carry the glass lights. This structure
makes a useful cool pit and a Mushroom bed from which supplies may
sometimes be gathered for years. In the summer it will be necessary to
keep the walls moist by means of the syringe, or they will cease
bearing.
Indoor Beds.—Mushrooms may be grown almost anywhere, evenly in a
cellar, or on the wall of a warm stable, provided only that the mode of
procedure is in a reasonable degree adapted to the requirements of the
fungus. Ordinary pits and frames are also serviceable, and many
gardeners obtain good crops in autumn by the simple process of
inserting a few lumps of spawn in a Cucumber or Melon bed while the
plants are still in bearing. Between spawning and cropping a period of
six or eight weeks usually elapses, so that if the plan just mentioned
be adopted, the spawn should be introduced in the height of summer,
both to insure it a warm bed and to allow time for the crop to mature
before the season runs out. Sheds and outhouses not only afford shelter
and space for beds on the floor, but the walls can be fitted with
shelves on which Mushrooms may be plentifully grown. In all cases the
shelves should be two feet apart vertically, and each shelf should have
a ledge nine inches deep. The walls of a house may be quickly and
cheaply fitted with woodwork for the purpose, but brick is so much
better than wood that whenever it is possible to employ brick it should
have the preference. As regards the ledges, they should be of stout
planking in any case, and should not be fixed, because of the necessity
for clearing the shelves and renewing the soil periodically. The
details of cultivation are the same within doors as without, but the
roof gives valuable protection, and helps to maintain the beds at a
suitable temperature.
A proper Mushroom-house for production during winter should be heated
with hot water, and have an opaque roof. There is nothing so good for
the crop as a roof of thatch, but there are many objections to it, and
usually slate is employed. A double roof will pay for its extra cost by
promoting an equable temperature. A few side lights fitted with
shutters are necessary, as there should be a good light for working
purposes; but the crop does not need light, and a more steady
temperature can be maintained in a dark house than in one which has
several windows. The most convenient dimensions for a Mushroom-house
are: length, twenty-five feet; width, twelve feet; height at sides, six
feet, to allow of a bed on the floor, and a shelf four feet above it;
the ridge rising sufficiently for head room, and to shoot off water.
There will be room for a central path of four feet, and a bed of four
feet on each side. An earth or tile floor and a slate or stone shelf
will, with one four-inch flow and return pipe, complete the
arrangements. The less wood and the less concrete the better; there is
nothing like porous red tiles for the floor and stone for the shelves,
with loose planks on edge to keep up the soil, a few uprights being
sufficient to hold them in their places.
Temperatures at every point are of great importance. The bed should be
near 80° when the spawn is inserted. The air temperature requisite to
the rising crop is 60° to 65°, which is the usual temperature of the
season when Mushrooms appear in pastures. While the bed is bearing a
temperature of 55° will suffice, but at any point below this minimum
production will be slow and may come to a stop. When giving water, take
care that it is at a temperature rather above than below that of the
bed.
MUSTARD
Sinapis alba, and S. nigra
Mustard is much valued as a pungent salad, and for mixing in the bowl
it may take the place of Water Cress when the latter is not at command.
Mustard is often sown with Cress, but it is bad practice, for the two
plants do not grow at the same pace, and there is nothing gained by
mixing them. The proper sort for salading is the common White Mustard,
but Brown Mustard may be used for the purpose. Rape is employed for
market work, but should be shunned in the garden. As the crop is cut in
the seed leaf, it is necessary to sow often, but the frequency must be
regulated by the demand. Supplies may be kept up through the winter by
sowing in shallow boxes, which can be put into vineries, forcing pits,
and other odd places. Boxes answer admirably, as they can be placed on
the pipes if needful; they favour the complete cutting of a crop
without remainders, and this is of importance in the case of a salad
that runs out of use quickly and is so easily produced. From Lady Day
to Michaelmas Mustard may be sown on the open border with other
saladings, but as the summer advances a shady place must be found for
it.
ONION
Allium Cepa
The onion has the good fortune to be generally appreciated and well
grown almost everywhere. It enhances the flavour and digestibility of
many important articles of food that would fail to nourish us without
its aid, while to others it adds a zest that contributes alike to
enjoyment and health. Although there are but few difficulties to be
encountered in the cultivation of the Onion, there is a marked
difference between a well-grown crop and one under poor management.
There is, moreover, what may be termed a fine art department in Onion
culture, one result being special exhibitions, in which handsome bulbs
of great weight are brought forward in competition for the amusement
and edification of the sight-seeing public. Thus, when the first
principles have been mastered, there may be, for the earnest cultivator
of this useful root, many more things to be learned, and that may be
worth learning, alike for their interest and utility.
Treatment of Soil.—The Onion can be grown on any kind of soil, but poor
land must be assisted by liberal manuring. A soil that will not produce
large Onions may produce small ones, and the smallest are acceptable
when no others are to be had. But for handsome bulbs and a heavy crop a
deep rich loam of a somewhat light texture is required, although an
adhesive loam, or even a clay, may be improved for the purpose; while
on a sandy soil excellent results may be obtained by good management,
especially in a wet season. In any case the soil must be well prepared
by deep digging, breaking the lumps, and laying up in ridges to be
disintegrated by the weather, and if needful its texture should be
amended, as far as possible, at the same time. A coat of clay may be
spread over a piece of sand, to be thoroughly incorporated with it; on
the other hand, where the staple is clay, the addition of sand will be
advantageous. All such corrective measures yield an adequate return if
prudently carried out, because it is possible to grow Onions from year
to year on the same ground; and thus in places where the soil is
decidedly unsuitable a plot may be specially prepared for Onions, and
if the first crop does not fully pay the cost, those that follow will
do so. But the plant is not fastidious, and it is easy work almost
anywhere to grow useful Onions. The first step in preparing land is to
make it loose and fine throughout, and as far as possible to do this
some time before the seed is sown. For sowing in spring, the beds
should be prepared in the rough before winter, and when the time comes
for levelling down and finishing, the top crust will be found well
pulverised, and in a kindly state to receive the seed. Stagnant
moisture is deadly to Onions, therefore swampy ground is most unfit;
but a sufficient degree of dryness for a summer crop may often be
secured by trenching, and leaving rather deep alleys between the beds
to carry off surface water during heavy rains.
Manures.—As almost any soil will suit the Onion, so also will almost
any kind of manure, provided that it be not rank or offensive. This
strongly flavoured plant likes good but sweet living, and it is sheer
folly to load the ground for it with coarse and stimulating manures.
Yet it is often done, and the result is a stiff-necked generation of
bulbs that refuse to ripen, or there may be complete failure of the
crop through disease or plethora. But any fertiliser that is at hand,
whether from the pigstye, or the sweepings of poultry yards or pigeon
lofts, may be turned to account by the simple process of first making
it into a compost with fresh soil, and then digging it in some time in
advance of the season for sowing, and in reasonable but not excessive
quantity. All such aids to plant growth as guano, charcoal, and
well-rotted farmyard manure, may be used advantageously for the Onion
crop; but there are two materials of especial value, and costing least
of any, that are universally employed by large growers, both to help
the growth and prevent maggot and canker. These are lime and soot,
which are sown together when the ground is finally prepared for the
seed, and in quantity only sufficient to colour the ground. They
exercise a magical influence, and those who make money by growing
Onions take care to employ them as a necessary part of their business
routine.
Spring-sown Onions require to be put on rich, mellow ground, the top
spit of which is of a somewhat fine texture, and at the time of sowing
almost dry. Having been well dug and manured in good time, the top spit
only should be dug over when it is finally made ready for the seed. The
work must be done with care, and the beds should be marked off in
breadths of four feet, with one-foot alleys between. Break all lumps
with the spade, and work the surface to a regular and finely crumbled
texture. Light soil should be trodden over to consolidate it, and then
the surface may be carefully touched with the rake to prepare it for
the seed. March and April are the usual months for spring sowing,
although in mild districts seed is sometimes put in as early as
January. Space the rows from nine to twelve inches apart, according to
the character of the sort and the size of bulbs required. The drills
must be drawn across the bed, at right angles to the alleys, for when
drawn the other way it is difficult to keep the ground properly weeded.
For a crop of Onions intended for storing, the seed should be only just
covered with fine earth taken from the alleys and thrown over, after
which the drills must be lightly trodden, the surface again touched
over with the rake, and if the soil is dry and works nicely, the
business may be finished by gently patting the bed all over with the
back of the spade. If the ground is damp or heavy, this final touch may
be omitted, as the Onion makes a weak grass that cannot easily push
through earth that is caked over it. But speaking generally, an Onion
bed newly sown should be quite smooth as if finished with a roller. To
the beginner this will appear a protracted and complicated story, but
the expert will attest that Onions require and will abundantly pay for
special management.
As soon as possible after the crop is visible the ground between should
be delicately chopped over with the hoe to check the weeds that will
then be rising. Immediately the rows are defined a first thinning
should be made with a small hoe, care being taken to leave a good plant
on the ground. The next thinning will produce young Onions for
saladings, and this kind of thinning may be continued by removing
plants equally all over the bed to insure an even crop, the final
distance for bulbing being about six inches. Keep the hoe at work, for
if weeds are allowed to make way, the crop will be seriously injured.
When Onions are doing well they lift themselves up and _sit_ on the
earth, needing light and air upon their bulbs to the very axis whence
the roots diverge. If weeds spread amongst them the bulbs are robbed of
air and light, and their keeping properties are impaired. But in the
use of the hoe it is important not to loosen the ground or to draw any
earth towards the bulbs. When all the thinning has been done, and the
weeds are kept down, it will perhaps be observed that in places there
are clusters of bulbs fighting for a place and rising out of the ground
together as though enjoying the conflict. With almost any other kind of
plant this crowding would bode mischief, but with Onions it is not so.
Bulbs that grow in crowds and rise out of the ground will never be so
large as those that have plenty of room, but they will be of excellent
quality, and will keep better than any that have had ample space for
high development. It is almost a pity to touch these accidental
clusters, for the removal of a portion will perhaps loosen the ground,
and so spoil the character of those that are left. Really fine Onions
are rarely produced in loose ground, hence the necessity for care in
the use of the hoe. Watering is not often needed, and we may go so far
as to say that, in a general way, it is objectionable. But a long
drought on light land may put the crop in jeopardy, unless watering is
resorted to, in which case weak manure water will be beneficial. Still,
watering must be discontinued in good time, or it will prevent the
ripening of the bulbs, and if a sign is wanted the growth will afford
it, for from the time the bulbs have attained to a reasonable size the
water will do more harm than good.
The harvesting of the crop requires as much care as the growing of it.
If all goes well, the bulbs will ripen naturally, and being drawn and
dried on the ground for a few days with their roots looking southward,
may be gathered up and topped and tailed or bunched as may be most
convenient. But there may be a little hesitation of the plant in
finishing growth, the result, perhaps, of cool moist weather, when dry
hot weather would be better. In this case the growth may be checked by
passing a rod (as the handle of a rake for example) over the bed to
bend down the tops. After this the tops will turn yellow, and the necks
will shrink, and advantage must be taken of fine weather to draw the
Onions and lay them out to dry. A gravel path or a dry shed fully open
to the sun will ripen them more completely than the bed on which they
have been grown; but large breadths of Onions must be ripened where
they grew, and experience teaches when they may be drawn with safety.
As to keeping Onions, any dry, cool, airy place will answer. But if a
difficulty arises there is an easy way out of it, for Onions may be
hung in bunches on an open wall under the shelter of the eaves of any
building, and thus the outsides of barns and stables and cottages may
be converted into Onion stores, leaving the inside free for things that
are less able to take care of themselves. During severe frost they must
be taken down and piled up anywhere in a safe place, but may be put on
their hooks again when the weather softens, for a slight frost will not
harm them in the least, and the wall will keep them comparatively warm
and dry. When the best part of the crop has been bunched or roped, the
remainder may be thrown into a heap in a cool dry shed, and a few mats
put over them will prevent sprouting for at least three months. But
damp will start them into growth, and the only way to save them then is
to top and tail them again, and store as dry as possible in shallow
baskets or boxes.
To grow large Onions the principles already explained must be carried
into practice in a more intense degree. It will be necessary to devote
extreme care to the preparation of the ground, and to give the plants
more time to mature; much greater space must also be allowed than is
usual for an ordinary crop. A good open position is imperative, and
where the soil is sufficiently deep, trenching is desirable. Shallow
soil ought to be thoroughly dug down to the last inch, and it will be
an advantage to break up the subsoil by pickaxe and fork. Cover the
subsoil with a thick layer of rotten manure before restoring the top
soil. For light land farmyard manure is excellent, but stable manure is
preferable for stiff cold soil. The usual time for trenching is October
or November, leaving the surface rough for disintegration during
winter. Nothing more need be done until the following March. Early in
that month break the soil down to a fine tilth and make it quite firm
by treading, or by rolling. Then broadcast over the plot a liberal
dressing of ground lime and soot, using about three pounds of each per
pole. Rake both in and leave the bed until the time arrives for
planting out: this will depend on the weather.