THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY
=Literature.=--_Parsons_, Prussian Schools through American Eyes;
_Klemm_, European Schools; _Prince_, Methods in the German Schools;
_Seeley_, The German Common School System; _Russell_, German Higher
Schools; _Bolton_, Secondary Education in Germany.
We have traced the historical development of education to the present
time. It now remains for us to examine briefly the educational systems
of a few leading countries, in order that comparisons may be made,
lessons drawn, and the present condition of education clearly set
forth.[171]
The plan of discussion to be followed in each of the four systems
considered will embrace, 1, _Administration_; 2, _School Attendance_; 3,
_the Schools_; 4, _Support of Schools_; 5, _the Teachers_.
=Administration.=--Each German state is independent in its school
system, though there are many features in common, and there is a mutual
understanding on most educational questions between the various states,
which makes their systems practically uniform. The system here described
is that of Prussia, which, being the largest, most populous, and most
influential of the states comprised within the German Empire, as well as
the foremost in educational development, may well be taken as a type.
There is a minister of education whose jurisdiction extends over the
whole kingdom. He represents the school interests in the Prussian diet
or _Landtag_, listens to appeals, distributes school moneys, and is the
general educational executive officer. Each of the thirteen royal
provinces has a school board whose presiding officer is _ex officio_ the
royal president of the province. With him are associated other royal
counselors, and pedagogically trained men,--school superintendents and
principals. This board consists of men of highest integrity and
intelligence. Their duties extend to the higher institutions of
learning, and to institutions for the unfortunate; they have charge of
the school finances of their provinces, adopt the school books that are
used in the higher schools, and appoint teachers in the normal schools.
They report annually to the minister, and as much more frequently as he
may require.
The thirteen royal provinces are subdivided into the so-called
_governments_ (_Regierungen_), of which Prussia contains thirty-six.
These _governments_ have an administrative school board similar to that
of the province, with duties within their territory corresponding to
those of the provincial board. They come into close touch with the
schools, have a voice in the appointment of teachers and in the
selection of text-books for the elementary schools. Their work is
especially with the common schools, while that of the provincial boards
is with the higher schools.
The _governments_ are subdivided into districts. There is a district
school board similar to that of the larger territories mentioned, but
the chief and most important school officer of the district is the
school inspector. The district inspector is always a man of pedagogical
training and experience. He is appointed for life and devotes his whole
time to the schools in his district. His efficient and wise inspection
of the schools insures their success. The district school board erects
school buildings, determines the amount of the teachers' salaries,
oversees their pensions, enforces compulsory attendance laws, decides
upon taxable property, fixes boundary lines, and provides for the
finances.
Finally, there is the local school board for each separate school. These
men have charge of the external matters of the school such as the direct
enforcement of attendance, the repairs, supplies, etc.; but they may not
interfere with the teacher in his work. In the country villages they
have a voice in the choice of the teacher. The teacher may appeal to
them in matters that need immediate attention.
In the administration of the schools men of the highest character are
chosen without reference to their political leanings. There are usually
teachers among the number, on the principle that those who have made the
most careful study of education are the most competent to administer it.
=School Attendance.=--Every child in normal health is required to attend
school between the ages of six and fourteen for every day that the
school is in session. Parents are held responsible for the attendance of
their children, and may be fined or imprisoned for non-fulfillment of
the requirements of the law. In case parents are unable to secure the
attendance of their children, the latter are placed in reform schools.
The law is carried out with great strictness and wonderful efficiency.
For example, in 1893, out of 5,299,310 children of school age in
Prussia, there were only 945 unexcused absentees,--that is, 2 in
10,000. All parents expect their children to be in school every day, and
the children grow up fully impressed with the idea that they are to
attend school regularly. The chief reason for the efficiency of
compulsory attendance in Germany lies in the fact that it covers every
school day, and therefore does not allow the formation of habits of
truancy.
=The Schools.=--The common school (Volksschule) of Germany reaches every
child, as we have seen. In villages the sexes are taught together; but
in cities they are generally separated. The school hours are from eight
to eleven in the forenoon, for six days in the week, and from two to
four for four days in the week, Wednesday and Saturday afternoons being
holidays. These hours may be varied to suit local conditions. The school
is in session for about forty-two weeks each year. Each teacher is
required to give about twenty-eight hours of service per week, while the
pupils must attend from sixteen hours (for beginners) to twenty-eight.
The common schools of Prussia are now practically free. The common
school is intended for the common people, and it is not followed by a
high or secondary school. This is the greatest weakness of the German
school system. It perpetuates the class system, and effectually prevents
the child from rising above his station.
The sole opportunity for the child of the lower classes to receive a
higher education is through the normal school, and even this privilege
is limited to a small number of the pupils who show special ability. We
may mention also the _Continuation_ schools, which are held evenings and
Sundays. These schools are rapidly multiplying and becoming more
efficient, as many of them are held in the daytime. They furnish an
opportunity for the child who has completed the common school to review
his work, and also to add some subjects that will be of utility in his
lifework.
In general, there are three classes of secondary schools,--the
_Gymnasium_, the _Realgymnasium_, and _Oberrealschule_. Each prepares
for the university, and each has nine classes; namely, _Sexta_,
_Quinta_, _Quarta_, _Untertertia_, _Obertertia_, _Untersecunda_,
_Obersecunda_, _Unterprima_, and _Oberprima_. These schools differ
chiefly in the amount of classics they offer, the _Gymnasium_ laying
stress upon the classics and the _Realschule_ upon the realities.[172]
Neither of these schools succeeds the common school, and the boy who is
to pursue one of these courses of study must begin at not later than
nine or ten years of age.[173] Thus, if a professional life is chosen
for a boy, he cannot attend the common school,--at least not for more
than the first three or four years,--but must be sent to one of the
schools above mentioned, for they alone prepare for the university, and
without a university course he cannot enter a profession. The university
is the crowning institution of the German school system.
=Support of Schools.=--About one half of the expense of the schools is
paid from the general state fund, one third from local taxation, and the
balance comes from income from endowments, church funds, tuition, etc.
The general tendency is to make the schools free, according to the
recommendation of the minister of education, but some communities still
continue to charge tuition. In these cases, there are poor schools for
those who cannot pay tuition, thus affording school privileges to all.
=The Teachers.=--All teachers of the Prussian common schools are normal
graduates, or have had an equal pedagogic preparation.[174] Graduates of
the university seldom enter the common school work; they teach in the
secondary schools, in private schools, and as tutors. The common school
teachers generally come from the common schools. If a child shows
special aptness for teaching, the attention of the school inspector is
called to him, and, with consent of his parents, he is sent to a
preparatory school for three years. His work there is entirely academic
in character. At seventeen he enters the normal school and has another
year of academic work, after which he begins his technical work. His
normal course is three years, the last year being given almost entirely
to professional work. Each class in the normal school contains from
thirty to thirty-six students, thus making the total number of students
in a German normal school about one hundred. As only about thirty can
enter from the whole district, it will appear that the opportunities for
children to extend the common school course are very limited.
After completing the normal course, the graduate is provisionally
appointed to a position for three years. He is now under the oversight
of his former principal, as well as of the district inspector. If he
proves successful in teaching, he is required to pass a final
examination, chiefly on pedagogical questions, and then has a life
tenure, and can be removed only on the ground of inefficiency or
immorality. The average tenure of office with teachers is twenty-five
years. The salary is often very low, but with free rent, fuel, and
light, the schoolmaster's income is by no means inadequate. His salary
increases with the years of service, and his prospective pension also
increases year by year.[175]
The German schoolmaster is a state officer. He commands, by virtue of
his position, the respect which his character, his self-sacrifice, his
efficiency, and the great work that he is doing deserve. "It is the
schoolmaster that has won our battles," said Von Moltke; and it is he
that is preparing Germany for the arts of peace as well as those of war.
The Prussian school system is the most efficient in the world, at least
so far as the education of the masses is concerned. It has practically
obliterated illiteracy in the kingdom, more than 991/2 per cent of the
recruits received into the army in 1893 being able to read and write.
Many countries have materially improved their school systems by adopting
some of the lessons taught by Prussia.
The three most important features of the German school system are:--
1. _Only professionally trained teachers can be employed._
2. _Such teachers are appointed to permanent positions._
3. _The attendance of every child during the entire school year is
compulsory._
FOOTNOTES:
[171] It will, of course, be impossible within the limitations of this
work to give more than a mere outline of these systems. The reader will
find full discussions in the works referred to in the Literature.
Particular attention is called to the Reports of the United States
Commissioner of Education from the year 1895 to the present time.
[172] In addition to these schools, there are also the Progymnasium, the
Realprogymnasium, and the Realschule, which, as their names indicate,
are modified forms of the principal types. These schools do not offer
the full nine years' course. See footnote on p. 236 for explanation of
the work of these schools.
[173] Russell's "German Higher Schools" fully describes these
institutions.
[174] In 1893 there were only 241 teachers out of 71,731 in Prussia, who
were outside of the above requirement. These 241 were old teachers who
began before the law was so strict, and who, because of their
efficiency, are retained. In a few years this band will entirely
disappear, and all will be normal graduates.
[175] For full statement of salaries and pensions, see "German Common
School System," pp. 172, 195. Though the German teacher's salary is much
smaller than that of the average American teacher, taking into account
the greater purchasing power of money in Germany, the simple habits, and
fewer demands upon the purse, the German teacher is fully as well off as
the American.