MODERN EDUCATORS (_Continued_)
PESTALOZZI (1746-1827)
=Literature.=--_De Guimps_, Pestalozzi, his Life and Works; _Kruesi_,
Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi; _Quick_, Educational Reformers;
_Von Raumer_, Life and System of Pestalozzi; _Durrell_, New Life in
Education; _Gill_, Systems of Education; _Skinner_, The Schoolmaster in
Literature; _Barnard_, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism; _Vogel_,
Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens; _Rein_, Encyklopaedisches
Handbuch der Paedagogik.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich, Switzerland, January 12,
1746. His father was a physician of great intelligence, and his death
before the boy reached his sixth year deprived the latter of a wise
counselor. The character of the mother is shown by the dying appeal of
Pestalozzi's father to his servant Baebeli: "For God's sake and in the
name of mercy do not forsake my wife. When I am dead she will be
helpless, and my children will fall into the hands of strangers."
Baebeli replied, "I will never leave your wife, if it should please God
to take you hence. I will remain with her till death, if she wishes me
to do so," a promise which she faithfully kept. Kruesi thinks that, "The
sacrifices of a mother for her children do not show more nobility of
soul than was displayed by this poor, uneducated girl, who gave up all
her worldly interest for a family not her own." Who can say that
Pestalozzi himself was not inspired to his long life of devotion to the
interests of the lowly by the unselfish consecration of this lowly woman
to his family?
Pestalozzi did not care for companions of his own age. He was peculiarly
a mother's boy, content to grow up dreamy and impractical at her quiet
hearthstone. Consequently he was awkward and reserved, easily imposed
upon, and lacking in self-reliance. These qualities remained with him as
long as he lived, and caused him many painful failures. On the other
hand, the pious example of his mother and the tranquil life he led with
her made the boy reflective and imaginative, while his soul became
filled with great thoughts for the well-being of mankind. His
grandfather, a country pastor, whom he often visited, by his simple,
godly life exerted a great influence in shaping Pestalozzi's religious
character.
=Schooling.=--At school he was the butt of ridicule among the scholars
because of his awkwardness, his simplicity, and his ingenuousness. His
comrades dubbed him "Harry Oddity of Follyville," a nickname that
carried no reproach with it, but was intended to express good-natured
appreciation of his characteristics. Mr. Quick tells us that "his good
nature and obliging disposition gained him many friends. No doubt his
friends profited from his willingness to do anything for them. We find
that when, on the shock of an earthquake, teachers and scholars alike
rushed out of the schoolhouse, Harry Oddity was the boy sent back to
fetch out caps and books." While not brilliant as a scholar, he was by
no means dull. He was more ready in grasping the _content_ than the
_form_ of the subject. Consequently all through life he never overcame
his weakness in some of the commonest requirements of education.[133]
=Life Purpose.=--After completing the work of the elementary schools, he
entered the university of Zurich, where he sustained himself with
credit. Even while yet a boy he joined a league of students which was
intended to resist injustice. Of himself and his fellow-students, he
says, "We decided to live for nothing but independence, well-doing, and
sacrifice for love of country."
Speaking of society as he saw it, he says, "I saw the unfortunate
condition of all mankind, especially of my own countrymen, in all its
hollowness. I saw indulgence despoiling the highest moral, spiritual,
and civil interests, and sapping the lifeblood of our race as never
before in the history of Europe. I saw finally the people of our nation
steeped in poverty, misery, and universal want. From youth up the
purpose of my life has been to secure to the poor of my country a
happier fate by improving and simplifying their educational privileges.
But the only sure foundation upon which we may hope to secure national
culture and elevate the poor is that of the home where the love of
father and mother is the ruling principle. Through the unselfishness,
truth, strength, and purity of their love, parents kindle faith in their
children. This leads to that implicit obedience which is based on
confidence and love."
Love for humanity, desire to ameliorate suffering, and thorough
unselfishness furnished the key to Pestalozzi's purpose and lifework.
=The Christian Ministry.=--It was this lofty purpose that led him first
to attempt the work of the Christian ministry, a work which his aged
grandfather encouraged. But he failed in his first sermon, and at once
decided that he had mistaken his calling. Kruesi[134] says that "he
stopped short in his sermon and made mistakes in the Lord's Prayer. This
may have been due to embarrassment, which made the young minister forget
the sermon which he had been obliged to commit to memory. More likely,
however, it was an exalted idea of the proper qualifications of a
clergyman, compared with his own humble merits, which induced him to
exchange the study of theology for that of law."
=The Law.=--His motive in devoting himself to law was the same that had
led him to the ministry,--his desire to be a blessing to his
fellow-beings. He saw the peasantry cheated and imposed upon because of
their ignorance, and determined to become their champion. Kruesi thinks
that his study of the law must "have produced negative results by
showing him the insufficiency of human legislation to do away with
abuses, unless supported by principles of charity and justice." He
therefore gave up this enterprise also.
=Farming.=--The advice of a dying friend, Bluntschli, "Never embark in
any operation which might become dangerous to your peace of mind,
because of the simplicity and tenderness of your disposition," may have
had its effect upon Pestalozzi. He now entered upon his third venture.
Having induced a wealthy firm in Zurich to advance him money, he bought
about one hundred acres of unimproved land in the canton of Aargau,
where he proposed to raise madder as a means of profit. Once more his
real purpose was philanthropic, as he intended to show the poor peasants
improved methods of farming whereby they could obtain better results for
their labor and thereby be enabled to live more comfortably. He named
the place Neuhof.
=Marriage.=--At this time he had just passed his twenty-first year. We
pause to mention an event that had much to do with his happiness and
with his later life. He had made the acquaintance of Anna Schulthess, a
young lady of considerable means, and sought her hand in marriage. His
letter to her, proposing marriage, is remarkable for its frankness, for
the ingenuous confession of his own weaknesses, and for its correct
estimate of himself. A few quotations from this letter must
suffice.[135] "My failings, which appear to me the most important in
relation to the future, are improvidence, want of caution, and want of
that presence of mind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes in
my future prospects. I hope, by continued exertions, to overcome them;
but know that I still possess them to a degree that does not allow me to
conceal them from the maiden I love.... I am further bound to confess
that I shall place the duties toward my fatherland in advance of those
to my wife, and that, although I mean to be a tender husband, I shall be
inexorable even to the tears of my wife, if they should ever try to
detain me from performing my duties as a citizen, to their fullest
extent. My wife shall be the confidant of my heart, the partner of all
my most secret counsel. A great and holy simplicity shall reign in my
house.... My dear friend, I love you so tenderly and fervently that this
confession has cost me much, since it may even take from me the hope of
winning you."
Anna was not discouraged by the picture which the man she loved drew of
himself, and she consented to become his wife. They were married in his
twenty-fourth year, and thus began a long period of happy wedded life
that extended over fifty years. Quick tells us that "the forebodings of
the letter were amply realized, ... and yet we may well believe that
Madame Pestalozzi never repented of her choice."
=Neuhof.=--But to return to Pestalozzi's experiment in farming, matters
had not progressed well. The Zurich capitalists became suspicious, and
after an investigation decided to withdraw their support, thus
precipitating failure. Of this Pestalozzi himself says, "The cause of
the failure of my undertaking lay essentially and exclusively in myself,
and in my pronounced incapacity for every kind of undertaking which
requires practical ability." One cannot fail to admire the energy and
courage of the man, who, conscious of his own weakness, still persevered
in great enterprises until he achieved success.
It was not for himself, but for humanity, that Pestalozzi labored, and
no discouragement could daunt, no failure defeat, no lack of
appreciation or misunderstanding check, the ardor of his zeal for the
great work that absorbed his life. Around him were men and women in
poverty and misery, whose children were growing up in vice and
ignorance, to perpetuate the evils under which their parents suffered.
With the spirit of his divine Master, Pestalozzi sought to elevate and
bless those around him.
Accordingly, after the failure caused by the withdrawal of the financial
support heretofore mentioned, he started again at Neuhof, using his
wife's money. He opened an "industrial school for the poor," which Kruesi
calls "the first school of its kind ever conceived, and the mother of
hundreds now existing on both sides of the Atlantic." This was in 1775.
He gathered fifty children together, and fed, clothed, housed, and
taught them without compensation; in return for this they were to work
in the fields in summer and at spinning in the winter. But this
experiment also was doomed to bring disappointment. The children were
lazy, shiftless, and dishonest; their work was of little use to
Pestalozzi, because of their lack of skill and their bad habits. They
would often run away as soon as they were well fed and had a new suit of
clothes. Parents were unappreciative and dissatisfied, demanding pay for
the labor of their children. Was there ever a more discouraging
situation than this which Pestalozzi had to confront, when people
demanded pay for accepting the philanthropic and unselfish measures
taken for the good of their children and for their own elevation?
This could not continue long, and in 1780 Pestalozzi was obliged to
close his school. He found himself badly in debt, with his wife's
property gone. But even under these overwhelming misfortunes he says,
"My failure showed me the truth of my plans," and this has long since
been verified, both in his ideas of farming and in the industrial
school.
=Authorship.=--The next eighteen years, though passed by Pestalozzi in
extreme poverty, were not unfruitful. He began to write pamphlets and
books, the first book being, "The Evening Hours of a Hermit," which
appeared in 1780. His second book, "Leonard and Gertrude,"[136] was
published the year following. It created great interest and brought
Pestalozzi immediate fame. The government of Berne presented him a gold
medal, which, however, he was obliged to sell to procure the necessities
of life for his family. In "Leonard and Gertrude" Pestalozzi gives a
homely and touching picture of life among the lowly, and shows how a
good woman uses her opportunities for uplifting and educating, first her
own family, and then her neighbors. In this work she is aided by the
village schoolmaster and the magistrate, who are inspired by her example
and leadership. Pestalozzi wrote several other books during this period,
but none to equal "Leonard and Gertrude."
=Stanz.=--In the meantime, the French Revolution broke out, and
Pestalozzi, influenced by the writings of Rousseau, became an ardent
champion of the new order of things. He seems to have acquired
considerable political influence, as the Directors of the Government of
Switzerland thought it necessary to win him to their cause by giving him
a political office. They therefore asked him what office he wanted, and
he replied, "I want to be a schoolmaster." Accordingly, when the French
had pillaged the inhabitants and burned their homes, Pestalozzi was sent
to Stanz,--the only village left in the canton of Nidwalden,--to
establish a school.[137] Now for the first time he found himself in the
calling for which his whole nature had yearned, for which he was
peculiarly suited, and in which he was destined to become famous.
At the age of fifty-three Pestalozzi began his work at Stanz. The
government gave him an empty convent in which to hold his school, and,
before it was ready for occupancy, children flocked to it for admission.
The devastation of the land by the French and the consequent lack of the
necessities of life among the people increased the difficulties of
Pestalozzi's task. His own description of the beginning of his work is
full of eloquence. Speaking of the school, he says, "I was among them
from morning till evening. Everything tending to benefit body and soul I
administered with my own hand. Every assistance, every lesson they
received, came from me. My hand was joined to theirs, and my smile
accompanied theirs. They seemed out of the world and away from Stanz;
they were with me and I with them. We shared food and drink. I had no
household, no friends, no servants around me; I had only them. Was their
health good, I enjoyed it with them; were they sick, I stood at their
side. I slept in their midst. I was the last to go to bed and the first
to rise. I prayed with them, and taught them in bed till they fell
asleep." How true is the saying that, "He lived with beggars in order
that beggars might learn to live like men."
Thus living with them, teaching them, inspiring them to be good,
devoting his whole thought to their welfare, Pestalozzi, who was
described as "either a good-natured fool, or a poor devil, who was
compelled, by indigence, to perform the menial office of schoolmaster,"
began a work that has revolutionized educational method.
But the same discouragements that had met him at Neuhof attended him at
Stanz. Parents brought their children to the asylum only to be clothed,
and then removed them upon the slightest pretexts. Nevertheless, the
work of Pestalozzi at Stanz was not a failure, though the school was
rendered houseless by the French soldiers in 1799, and had to be
abandoned after less than five months' existence. Kruesi comments upon
this period of Pestalozzi's life as follows: "Let those who now witness
the mighty changes that have taken place in education pay grateful
tribute to the man who first took up arms against the hollow systems of
the old school routine, and who showed the path to those delightful
regions of thought, in whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will ever be
reaped by the patient laborer.
"To the philanthropist and friend of education, Stanz will always be a
hallowed spot, exhibiting, as it does, the picture of this venerable
teacher sitting among the outcast children, animated by the very spirit
of Christ, and by a great idea which not only filled his own soul, but
also inspired those who witnessed his labors."[138]
=Burgdorf.=--But Stanz proved the turning point in Pestalozzi's career.
He was soon chosen assistant teacher at Burgdorf. His experience at
Stanz, without books and without appliances, had compelled him to invent
methods of interesting the children. He was thus brought to the use of
objects, and here we have the beginning of practical object teaching. It
was not long, however, before the head master of the school became
jealous of him because he secured the attention and affection of the
pupils, and Pestalozzi's dismissal was obtained on the ground that he
did not know how to read and spell correctly, a charge which, as we have
seen, was without doubt true. As to his method of teaching, Ramsauer,
one of his pupils, tells us that "there was no regular plan, not any
time-table.... As Pestalozzi, in his zeal, did not tie himself to any
particular time, we generally went on until eleven o'clock with whatever
we commenced at eight, and by ten o'clock he was always tired and
hoarse. We knew when it was eleven by the noise of the other school
children in the street, and then we usually all ran out without bidding
good-by." Certainly no one will commend such schoolroom practice, and at
first glance Pestalozzi would seem to merit only censure; but his
enthusiasm, his zeal for the good of his fellow-beings, and his
consciousness of possessing the truth triumphed over his lack of system
as well as over other obstacles. The school committee of Burgdorf
appreciated this, as is shown by their report. "He (Pestalozzi) has
shown what powers are hidden in the feeble child, and in what manner
they can be developed. The pupils have made astonishing progress in some
branches, thereby proving that every child is capable of doing something
if the teacher is able to draw out his talent, and awaken the powers of
his mind in the order of their natural development."
Upon his dismissal from this position he united with Hermann Kruesi in
founding a private school. Pupils increased in numbers, and at last
Pestalozzi was on the road to success as well as fame. He gathered a
strong corps of teachers about him, who not only contributed to the
success of the institution, but sat at the feet of their recognized
master, and loyally supported his measures. During his life at Burgdorf,
he issued his work entitled "How Gertrude teaches her Children" (1801),
in which he attempts to give his system of education. "A work," says
Professor Hunziker,[139] "whose contents in no way meet the demands of
the subtitle." (The full title is, "How Gertrude teaches her Children;
an Attempt to direct Mothers how to teach their own Children.")
=Yverdon.=--In 1804 Pestalozzi was obliged to vacate his quarters at
Burgdorf, and after some hesitation he moved his school to Yverdon, into
an old fortress, "which," says Kruesi, "having stood many a siege of
invading armies, was now captured by a schoolmaster; and it was
henceforth to become more formidable in its attack upon ignorance, than
it had before been in its defense of liberty." At Yverdon Pestalozzi was
enabled to carry out the principles of education which he had so long
held, and this place must be recognized as the Mecca of
Pestalozzianism. His success at Burgdorf had drawn to him the attention
of the world, and now educators, philosophers, and princes began to
study his theories, while many visited the institution to witness its
peculiar workings. Without doubt the many visitors seriously disturbed
the work, as Pestalozzi took great pains to show what his pupils could
do, especially when men of influence came. During the first five years
there was great prosperity, the number of students reaching one hundred
and fifty. Pestalozzi usually arose at two in the morning, and commenced
literary work; and his example was followed by his teachers, one of whom
testifies, "There were years in which not one of us was found in bed
after three o'clock, and summer and winter we worked from three to six
in the morning."[140]
At first the teachers were thoroughly united, cordially carrying out the
teachings of "Father Pestalozzi." But after a time private ambitions and
personal jealousies crept in and destroyed harmony. Many of the best
teachers left and the school was closed.[141] In 1825, after an
existence of twenty years, the institute at Yverdon was abandoned, and
once more Pestalozzi saw the apparent failure of his hopes. He died two
years later, at the age of eighty-one.
Mr. Quick comments upon this event as follows: "Thus the sun went down
in clouds, and the old man, when he died at the age of eighty,[142] in
1829,[143] had seen the apparent failure of all his toils. He had not,
however, failed in reality. It has been said of him that his true
function was to educate ideas, not children, and when twenty years later
the centenary of his birth was celebrated by schoolmasters, not only in
his native country, but throughout Germany, it was found that
Pestalozzian ideas had been sown, and were bearing fruit, over the
greater part of central Europe."[144]
Professor Hunziker says of Pestalozzi's influence, "Eighty years have
passed since Pestalozzi was laid in the grave. The social thinker, who
pointed out the way of reform for humanity in his 'Leonard and
Gertrude,' who attempted to solve the enigmas and inequalities of social
life in his 'Inquiries concerning the Course of Nature in the
Development of Mankind,' is almost forgotten. But the name of Pestalozzi
shines brighter than ever in the field of pedagogics. In every branch of
education we hear the warning cry, return to Pestalozzi! Let the
watchword for the future be: _Pestalozzi forever_!"[145]
=Summary of Pestalozzi's Work.=--No one can study the history of
Pestalozzi without discovering the secret of his educational purpose. It
is revealed in every enterprise he undertook, in every book he wrote, in
his whole lifework.[146] Let us briefly sum up the work he
accomplished:--
1. He showed how the theories of Comenius and Rousseau could be applied.
By this a decided impulse was given to educational reform, and the way
was prepared for the wonderful educational revival of the present
century.
2. His greatest pedagogical principle is that education consists in the
harmonious development of all the human powers.
3. Development should follow the order of nature. While he doubtless
borrowed this thought from Rousseau, unlike Rousseau he held that the
order of nature requires the child to be taught with other children.
4. All knowledge is obtained through the senses by the self-activity of
the child.
5. Instruction should be based on observation, especially with young
children. Hence objects must be freely used. There are three classes of
object lessons,--those applying to _form_, to _number_, and to _speech_.
Mr. Quick says, "By his object lessons Pestalozzi aimed at,--(1)
enlarging gradually the sphere of the child's intuition, that is,
increasing the number of objects falling under his immediate perception;
(2) impressing upon him those perceptions of which he had become
conscious, with certainty, clearness, and precision; (3) imparting to
him a comprehensive knowledge of language for the expression of whatever
had become or was becoming an object of his consciousness, in
consequence either of the spontaneous impulse of his own nature, or of
the assistance of tuition."
6. The mother is the natural educator of the child in its early years.
"Maternal love is the first agent in education; ... through it the child
is led to love and trust his Creator and his Redeemer." It follows,
therefore, that mothers should be educated.
7. He illustrated his principles in his methods of instruction. He
employed the phonic method in spelling;[147] made use of objects in
teaching number; graded the work according to the capacity of the
children; taught drawing, language, composition, etc., by use, thus
illustrating one of the aphorisms of Comenius,--"_We learn to do by
doing_."
8. But the greatest lesson that Pestalozzi taught is embodied in the
word _love_. He loved little children, he loved the distressed and
lowly, he loved all his fellow-men. By the spirit which actuated him, by
the methods of instruction employed, by a life of disappointment and
apparent failure, by the appreciation of his service after he had gone
to his rest, by the accelerated growth of his teachings throughout the
world, he more closely resembles the Great Teacher than any other man
that has ever lived. Dr. Harris says, "He is the first teacher to
announce convincingly the doctrine that all people should be
educated,--that, in fact, education is the one good gift to give to all,
whether rich or poor."[148] Hence there is no character in educational
history more worthy of study and more inspiring to the teacher than
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.
FOOTNOTES:
[133] In regard to the criticisms made against him at Burgdorf,
Pestalozzi says: "It was whispered that I myself could not write, nor
work accounts, nor even read properly. Popular reports are not always
entirely wrong. It is true I could not write, nor read, nor work
accounts well."
[134] "Life, Work, and Influence of Pestalozzi," p. 17.
[135] Both Quick and Kruesi give this letter in full.
[136] "Schoolmaster in Literature," pp. 83-110.
[137] See Kruesi, p. 28, for an account of his appointment.
[138] "Pestalozzi," p. 36.
[139] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch der Paedagogik," Vol. V, p. 315.
[140] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. V, p. 319.
[141] Kruesi, whose father was associated with Pestalozzi, gives a full
account of these dissensions. He also tells many interesting incidents
connected with Pestalozzi and his school at Yverdon, p. 45.
[142] Should be eighty-one.
[143] 1827.
[144] "Educational Reformers," p. 183.
[145] "Encyklopaedisches Handbuch," Vol. V, p. 320.
[146] "In him the most interesting thing is _his life_."--QUICK.
[147] Not original with Pestalozzi,--see Port Royalists.
[148] For statement of his principles, see Compayre, p. 438; Williams,
p. 312; Kruesi, p. 169.